Brian Hobley F.S.A.
The Circle of God
An Archaeological and Historical Search for the Nature of the Sacred
A Study of Continuity
Line Drawings: N. A. Griffiths F.S.A.
IT/Digital Imaging: Lee Taylor BSc (Hons)
Latin & Greek Editor: Giulia Baronti M.A. Firenze (Florence)
Over 400,000 words (excluding appendices) 800+ pages 1,050 illustrations (80 in colour) Bibliography 1,500 words Indexes 7,500 words The Circle of God: Table of Contents 1
Part One: The Circle as a Symbol Chapter One: The Nature of Symbolism ...... 1.1 – 1.7 The definition of a symbol ...... 1.1 Methodology, meaning and verification ...... 1.2 Cognitive archaeology: a new approach to symbolism ...... 1.4 The symbolism of myth, religion and the otherworld ...... 1.5 Chapter Two: Symbolism in the Greco - Roman World...... 2.1 - 2.8 Greek and Latin terms for the symbol ...... 2.1 Greek and Roman pagan and early Christian views on symbolism ...... 2.1 Invoking the gods: sympatheia and talismans ...... 2.6 The use of iconography to explore the talismanic function of buildings ...... 2.9 Prophecy and divination ...... 2.10 Astrology ...... 2.12 Illustrations ...... 2.18 Chapter Three: Imaging the Gods ...... 3.1 - 3.5 Greco - Roman myth and religion ...... 3.1 Cosmic piety ...... 3.3
Part Two: The Sun as a Universal Symbol Chapter Four: Solar Symbols in the Middle East ...... 4.1 - 4.9 The power of the Sun ...... 4.1 The Sun in Babylon and Assyria ...... 4.3 The Sun in Egypt ...... 4.4 Illustrations: Images ...... 4.8 Subject ...... 4.9 Sources ...... See 49.3
Chapter Five: Solar Symbols in Megalithic Europe ...... 5.1 - 5.6 The circle ...... 5.1 Spirals ...... 5.4 Circles ...... 5.5 Sun - discs and solar crosses. Pyramidal and wedge - shaped sun triangles ...... 5.5 Rhomboid or lozenge and zig - zag motifs ...... 5.6 Swastikas, solar whorls, meander patterns and gold cones ...... 5.6 - 5.7 Illustrations: Images ...... 5.8 - 5.15 Subject ...... 5.15 - 5.16 Sources ...... See 49.3 - 49.4
Chapter Six: The Sun and the Celts ...... 6.1 - 6 11 Wheels and swastikas ...... 6.1 Stags ...... 6.2 Water - birds ...... 6.3 Bulls ...... 6.3 Lions...... 6.4 Horses ...... 6.5 Gold ...... 6.6 Amber and Faience ...... 6.6 Illustrations: Images ...... 6.7 - 6.11 Subject ...... 6.11 Sources ...... See 49.4
Chapter Seven: Sun - symbols in Mycenae and Crete ...... 7.1 - 7.9 Mycenaean circle and cross symbolism ...... 7.1 Minoan crosses and swastikas at Knossos ...... 7.1 The solar labyrinth, the Cretan labyrinth and the Minotaur ...... 7.2 The Mycenean megaron (royal palace) and circular hearths ...... 7.3 The royal cemetery of Mycenae: grave and tomb circles ...... 7.4 Illustrations: Images ...... 7.5- 7.9
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Chapter Seven: Sun - symbols in Mycenae and Crete (continued)
Subject ...... 7.9 Sources ...... See 49.4
Chapter Eight: The Greco - Roman Sun ...... 8.1 - 8.7 Helios, the Greek Sun ...... 8.1 Sol, the Roman Sun ...... 8.2 Illustrations: Images ...... 8.6-7 Subject ...... 8.7 Sources ...... See 49.4
Chapter Nine: The Celestial Sphere...... 9.1 - 10 The celestial globe on a pillar ...... 9.2 The Roman terrestrial sphere as a symbol of power ...... 9.4 Illustrations: Images ...... 9.5- 9.9 Subject ...... 9.9- 9.10 Sources ...... See 49.4 - 49.5
Chapter Ten: The Advent of Apollo ...... 10.1 - 10.17 The attributes of Apollo ...... 10.1 Apollo and the solar wheel ...... 10.4 Apollo and the omphalos ...... 10.6 Paterae or omphalos bowls ...... 10.7 Apollo’s tripod and cauldron ...... 10.8 Orpheus and the solar circle ...... 10.9 Illustrations: Images ...... 10.11 - 10.17 Subject ...... 10.17 – 10.18 Sources ...... See 49.5
Chapter Eleven: Circularity and Centrality in Greek Thought ...... 11.1 - 11.15 The circle and the philosophers ...... 11.1 Centrality ...... 11.3 The soul: circulation and circularity ...... 11.6 Circumambulation and dance ...... 11.8 Illustrations: Images ...... 11.12 - 11.15 Subject ...... 11.15 Sources ...... See 49.5
Chapter Twelve: The Celestial Axis ...... 12.1 - 12.9 Sacred trees ...... 12.1 Common Date Palm, Phoenix dactylifera ...... 12.2 Aygeius pillars and the celestial pathway ...... 12.2 Free - standing cosmic pillars columns, cones and Jupiter Columns...... 12.4 Illustrations: Images ...... 12.6 - 12.9 Subject ...... 12.9 Sources ...... See 49.5
Part Three: Neolithic and Bronze Age Circular Structures Chapter Thirteen: The Neolithic/Bronze Age Circular World-View ...... 13.1 - 13.11 The “sky prop” in the Bronze Age ...... 13.1 Circularity and centrality at Yeavering ...... 13.2 The solar cone of Silbury Hill, Neolithic Circular Cosmic Structures and Landscapes ...... 13.4 Illustrations: Images ...... 13.7 - 13.11 Subject ...... 13.11 Sources ...... See 49.5-6
Chapter Fourteen: Stonehenge, Henges and Round Barrows ...... 14.1 - 14.23 Circles in the ritual landscape ...... 14.1 Stonehenge, Phase I: the Aubrey Holes ...... 14.2
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Chapter Fourteen: Stonehenge, Henges and Round Barrows (continued)
Stonehenge, Phase III: bluestones and sarsen stones...... 14.3 Station Stones ...... 14.3 The Cursus ...... 14.4 Axeheads ...... 14.5 Bones ...... 14.5 The mythic Stonehenge ...... 14.6 The circle of Avebury ...... 14.8 Timber circles and the great tree henges ...... 14.8 Bronze Age round houses and the central hearth ...... 14.11 British concentric burials in the Bronze and Iron Age ...... 14.14 Illustrations: Images ...... 14.15 - 14.22 Subject ...... 14.23 Sources ...... See 49.6
Part Four: An Introduction to Greco - Roman Circular Structures Chapter Fifteen: Round Altars, Mundus /Offering Pits and Heröons ...... 15.1 - 15.11 Greek round altars ...... 15.1 Circular altars at the Apollonian centres of Didyma and Miletus ...... 15.2 Roman round altars ...... 15.3 Circular offering pits: the bothros, mundus and sacrarium ...... 15.4 The bothros ...... 15.4 The mundus ...... 15.5 Hero cults and heroons ...... 15.6 Illustrations: Images ...... 15.9 - 15.11 Subject ...... 15.11 Sources ...... See 49.6
Chapter Sixteen: Ancient Circular Town Planning ...... 16.1 - 16.19 Auguring the templum ...... 16.2 The pomerium ...... 16.3 The quadrata...... 16.5 Sacred alignments in Rome, a hypothesis: (1) cardo maximus ...... 16.6 (2) The decumanus ...... 16.7 Alignments to the Circus Maximus ...... 16.7 Celtic centrality and circular town planning ...... 16.8 Illustrations: Images ...... 16.12- 16.18 Subject ...... 16.19 Sources ...... See 49.6
Chapter Seventeen: The Tholus ...... 17.1 - 17.33 The classification of tholi ...... 17.1 Archaeological survival and locations ...... 17.3 The archaic antecedents of tholi ...... 17.5 The Athenian tholus rotunda ...... 17.6 The Epidauros tholus: so called Labyrinth? ...... 17.8 The Epidauros tholus floor ...... 17.10 The Arsinoeion tholus rotunda at Samothrace: sanctuary of the Great Gods ...... 17.10 Tholi and tholus complexes at Pella, Thebes, Stymphalus and Kepoi ...... 17.12 Tholi in the marketplace ...... 17.12 Tholi in sacro - idyllic landscapes ...... 17.14 Tholus - like towers and sacred high places ...... 17.16 Tholus acanthus decoration and the Corinthian capital ...... 17.18 Illustrations: Images ...... 17.21 - 17.32 Subject ...... 17.32 - 17.33 Sources ...... See 49.6-7
Chapter Eighteen: The Symbolic Meaning of Tholi ...... 18.1 - 18.9 Apollo and tholi ...... 18.2
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Chapter Eighteen: The Symbolic Meaning of Tholi (continued)
Circular structures at Gallo Roman and Romano British water - shrines ...... 18.5 Illustrations: Images ...... 18.7 - 18.9 Subject ...... 18.9 Sources ...... See 49.7
Part Five: Circularity at Rome Chapter Nineteen: The Roman Circus ...... 19.1 - 19.20 Sol at the Circus ...... 19.3 Apollo Caelispex at the Circus ...... 19.4 The Hippodrome or Circus Gardens ...... 19.4 Cybele at the Circus ...... 19.5 The spina and the euripus: a symbolic water course and centre for the Sun ...... 19.6 Consus at the Circus ...... 19.7 The Circus obelisk: a solar spire ...... 19.7 Tholi at the Circus ...... 19.8 The symbolism of the Circus ...... 19.9 Appendix to Chapter Nineteen (a) Solar deities at the Circus Maximus ...... 19.10 Altars and statues on the spina ...... 19.11 (b) Temples, shrines and altars at the Circus Flaminius ...... 19.12 Illustrations: Images ...... 19.14 - 19.19 Subject ...... 19.20 Sources ...... See 49.7
Chapter Twenty: The Roman Theatre ...... 20.1 - 20.7 Origins in Greece ...... 20.1 Late Republican and early Imperial temple sanctuaries with theatres ...... 20.1 Imperial theatres with temples ...... 20.3 The cosmic architecture of Vitruvius ...... 20.3 Illustrations: Images ...... 20.4 - 20.7 Subject ...... 20.7 Sources ...... See 49.7
Chapter Twenty - One: Circularity in the Forum Romanum ...... 21.1 - 21.10 The mundus ...... 21.1 The Bidental (puteal Libononis or Scribonianum) ...... 21.1 The Lapis Niger (Black Stone) ...... 21.1 The Lacus Curtius (Pool of Curtius) ...... 21.2 The Carcer ...... 21.2 The Umbilicus Romae ...... 21.2 The hemicyclium of the Rostra (Orator’s Platform) ...... 21.2 The Comitium ...... 21.3 The Maenia column ...... 21.3 The shrine of Cloacina ...... 21.4 The Regia (“Royal Palace”) ...... 21.4 Aedes Julius Divus (temple of the Deified Julius Caesar - Julius the God) ...... 21.4 Temple of Aedes Vesta ...... 21.4 The temple of Divus Romulus ...... 21.5 Illustrations: Images ...... 21.6 - 21.9 Subject ...... 21.10 Sources ...... See 49.7
Part Six: Rome and the New Architecture Chapter Twenty - Two: The Dome in Roman Monumental Architecture ...... 22.1 - 22.17 The “indispensable curve” ...... 22.1 The baldachin as a “dome of heaven” ...... 22.2 Hadrian’s melon/umbrella domes ...... 22.4 The symbolism of the dome ...... 22.4
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Chapter Twenty - Two: The Dome in Roman Monumental Architecture (continued)
Floor mosaics as mirrors of dome ceiling imagery ...... 22.7 Thermae: Roman Imperial Public Baths...... 22.8 Varro’s “aviary” ...... 22.9 Illustrations: Images ...... 22.10 - 22.17 Subject ...... 22.17 Sources ...... See 49.7 - 49.8
Chapter Twenty - Three: Arches, Vaults and Sacred Gateways ...... 23.1 - 23.8 The “supreme arch of the heavens”: Greek and Etruscan origins ...... 23.1 Sacred Town Gates/Walls and the Triumphal arch: gateways between two worlds ...... 23.2 The triumphal arch gateway of Perge ...... 23.4 Illustrations: Images ...... 23.5 - 23.8 Subject ...... 23.8 Sources ...... See 49.8
Chapter Twenty - Four: Apses and Hemicycles ...... 24.1 - 24.15 The Greek origins of the apse ...... 24.1 Roman apses, exedrae and semi - circular benches ...... 24.3 Apses at the Domus Flavia ...... 24.5 Hemicycles ...... 24.6 The Septizonium: a planetary façade ...... 24.7 Illustrations: Images ...... 24.8 - 24.14 Subject ...... 24.15 Sources ...... See 49.8
Chapter Twenty - Five: Circularity in Sacred Palaces ...... 25.1 - 25.11 The Domus Aurea: Nero’s Royal Sacred Palace of the Sun ...... 25.1 Diocletian’s palace at Spalato (Split) ...... 25.3 The palace of Maximianus ...... 25.3 The Herodium of Herod the Great ...... 25.4 Nimrud Dagh ...... 25.6 Illustrations: Images ...... 25.6 - 25.11 Subject ...... 25.11 Sources ...... See 49.8
Chapter Twenty - Six: Circularity at Roman Military Sites ...... 26.1 - 26.10 Tropaea (victory monuments) ...... 26.1 The great circular Rhine monument at Augst ...... 26.1 Arthur’s O’on: a tropaeum on Hadrian’s wall ...... 26.2 Circular structures inside Roman forts: “The Lunt” at Baginton...... 26.2 The elliptical building at Deva Legionary Fortress...... 26.4 Illustrations: Images ...... 26.5 - 26.10 Subject ...... 26.10 Sources ...... See 49.8
Part Seven: Roman Celestial Iconography Chapter Twenty - Seven: The Apollonian Solar Family at Rome ...... 27.1 - 27.38 Venus ...... 27.1 Diana (Luna) ...... 27.3 Asclepius and Hygiena ...... 27.4 Cybele ...... 27.6 Dionysus ...... 27.7 Fortuna ...... 27.8 - 27.11 Hercules ...... 27.11 Mercury (Hermes) ...... 27.15 Mithras...... 27.16 Neptune ...... 27.19 Orpheus ...... 27.20
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Chapter Twenty - Seven: The Apollonian Solar Family at Rome (continued)
Illustrations: Images ...... 27.23 - 27.37 Subject ...... 27.37 - 27.38 Sources ...... See 49.8-9
Chapter Twenty - Eight: The Circle of the Zodiac ...... 28.1 - 28.19 The origins of the Greco - Roman zodiac ...... 28.2 The decans ...... 28.4 The zodiacal calendar ...... 28.5 The zodiacal ring as a symbol of divinity ...... 28.6 The “altar” of Gabii ...... 28.11 Illustrations: Images ...... 28.13 - 28.18 Subject ...... 28.19 Sources ...... See 49. - 49.9
Part Eight: The Cosmic Master - Builders Chapter Twenty - Nine: Augustus and the Sun - god ...... 29.1 - 29.14 The Apollonian propagandist ...... 29.1 The Capricorn and its meaning ...... 29.4 Astrological symbolism in Augustan temples: the temple of Mars Ultor ...... 29.6 The temple of Concordia ...... 29.8 Augustus and the Circus Maximus ...... 29.9 Augustus, Jupiter and Apollo...... 29.10 Illustrations: Images ...... 29.11 Subject ...... 29.14 Sources ...... See 49.12
Chapter Thirty: Augustus’ Circular Mausoleum ...... 30.1 - 30.6 The Augustan tradition of rotunda tombs ...... 30.3 Illustrations: Images ...... 30.4- 30.6 Subject ...... 30.6 Sources ...... See 49.9
Chapter Thirty - One: Apollo Palatinus and other Augustan Structures ...... 31.1 - 31.17 The Palatine temple of Apollo and Augustus’ residence ...... 31.1 Augustus’ temple of Vesta on the Palatine ...... 31.2 The temple of Apollo Medicus (Apollo in Circo) ...... 31.3 The Diaeta Apollonis of Gaius Maecenas ...... 31.3 Circle and square symbolism at Pompeii in the Augustan Age ...... 31.4 The “Meta Sudans” and the Augustan Regions of Rome ...... 31.5 The Horologium and the Ara Pacis ...... 31.7 Colonia Augusta Raurica ...... 31.8 Illustrations: Images ...... 31.9 - 31.16 Subject ...... 31.17 Sources ...... See 49.9 - 49.10
Chapter Thirty - Two: Agrippa’s Pantheon ...... 32.1 - 32.5 The circular sacred court ...... 32.1 Illustrations: Images ...... 32.4 - 32.5 Subject ...... 32.5 Sources ...... See 49.10
Chapter Thirty - Three: Hadrian’s Celestial Pantheon ...... 33.1 - 33.11 The dome ...... 33.2 Circles and squares on the Pantheon floor and walls ...... 33.3 Pantheon simulations in antiquity ...... 33.4 Hadrian’s philosophical inclinations ...... 33.5 – 33.6 Illustrations: Images ...... 33.7 - 33.11 Subject ...... 33.11
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Chapter Thirty - Three: Hadrian’s Celestial Pantheon (continued)
Sources ...... See 49.10
Chapter Thirty - Four: Hadrian’s Circles and Squares ...... 34.1 - 34.27 Hadrian’s mausoleum ...... 34.2 The structures at Hadrian’s Palace/villa at Tivoli ...... 34.3 “Piazza d’Oro” ...... 34.4 “Accademia” (Reversed - curve Pavilion) ...... 34.5 “Maritime Theatre” (Circular Island Enclosure) ...... 34.6 “Roccabruna” ...... 34.7 Ceilings at Tivoli ...... 34.7 Tivoli pavements ...... 34.10 Basilica Ulpia Rome ...... 34.11 The temple of Venus and Rome ...... 34.12 The insula of Jason Magnus at Cyrene ...... 34.13 Further examples of circle and square mosaic floors ...... 34.15 Hadrian’s hunting tondi and the death of Antinöus ...... 34.15 Illustrations: Images ...... 34.16 – 34.27 Subject ...... 34.27 Sources ...... See 49.10
Part Nine: Circular Symbolism in Roman Life Chapter Thirty - Five: Circles of Death and the Afterlife ...... 35.1 - 35.14 The Etruscan antecedents ...... 35.1 Circular iconography in Roman and early Christian monuments ...... 35.1 Early Christian catacombs ...... 35.3 The circulus lacteus and the road of the dead ...... 35.5 Illustrations: Images ...... 35.5 - 35.14 Subject ...... 35.15 Sources ...... See 49.10 - 49.11
Chapter Thirty - Six: Solar Discs and Sacred Sun - cakes ...... 36.1 - 36.11 Military solar discs ...... 36.3 The discus and the Panhellenic Olympic Games ...... 36.4 Solar discs and temple pediments ...... 36.4 Oscilla Sacred discs ...... 36.5 Unexplained discs ...... 36.5 Illustrations: Images ...... 36.6 - 36.11 Subject ...... 36.11 Sources ...... See 49.11
Chapter Thirty - Seven: The Rosette ...... 37.1 - 37.13 The rosette in Mesopotamia and Assyria ...... 37.1 Minoan and Mycenean rosettes...... 37.1 Greek rosettes ...... 37.1 Etruscan rosettes ...... 37.3 Roman rosettes ...... 37.3 Rosettes, catasterism and the road to the stars ...... 37.4 Christian rosettes ...... 37.5 The meaning of the rosette ...... 37.5 Illustrations: Images ...... 37.6 - 37.12 Subject ...... 37.13 Sources ...... See 49.11
Chapter Thirty - Eight: Solar Headwear, star, zodiac & rosette garments ...... 38.1 - 38.19 The radiate crown ...... 38.1 The nimbus ...... 38.1 Leafed coronae (crowns or chaplets) and circular wreaths ...... 38.3 Acquiring the Sun’s protection ...... 38.4
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Chapter Thirty - Eight: Solar Headwear, star, zodiac & rosette garments (continued)
Protective Sun - symbols on brooches ...... 38.6 Circular headdresses and solar protection ...... 38.7 Star, zodiac, rosette, covered garments and solar headwear ...... 38.8 Parasols and umbrellas ...... 38.10 The tonsure ...... 38.10 Illustrations: Images ...... 38.11 - 38.18 Subject ...... 38.19 Sources ...... See 49.11
Chapter Thirty - Nine: Cosmic and Celestial Shields ...... 39.1 - 39.6 The clipeus ...... 39.1 Raising the solar shield ...... 39.2 Illustrations: Images ...... 39.4- 39.6 Subject ...... 39.6 Sources ...... See 49.11
Part Ten: The Solar World of Christianity Chapter Forty: Pagan Monotheism and Early Christianity ...... 40.1 - 40.13 The One God ...... 40.1 The solarisation of Jesus ...... 40.5 The Mithraic contribution ...... 40.7 Christianisation of Orpheus ...... 40.9 Christians and the cosmos ...... 40.11 Illustrations: Images ...... 40.14 - 40.17 Subject ...... 40.17 Sources ...... See 49.11-12
Chapter Forty - One: Constantine the Great and the Triumph of Apollo ...... 41.1 - 41.8 The chi rho and the solar cross ...... 41.1 Constantinople and Rome ...... 41.5 Converting the Empire ...... 41.6 Illustrations: Images ...... 41.9 - 41.11 Subject ...... 41.11 Sources ...... See 49.12
Chapter Forty - Two: The Solar Cycle and the Christian Year ...... 42.1 - 42.10 The solstices and the equinoxes ...... 42.1 The vernal equinox ...... 42.2 The winter solstice ...... 42.3 The autumnal equinox and St. Michael the Archangel ...... 42.5 The summer solstice ...... 42.6 Celtic mid - quarter fire - festivals and the Christian calendar ...... 42.7 Illustrations: Images ...... 42.10 - 42.14 Subject ...... 42.14 Sources ...... See 49.12
Chapter Forty - Three: Circular Symbolism in Early Christian Structures ...... 43.1 - 43.41 Early circular churches ...... 43.1 Baptisteries ...... 43.3 Martyria ...... 43.4 Mausolea ...... 43.4 Polygonal chapter - houses ...... 43.5 Churches built on ancient British and Irish circular sites ...... 43.6 Circular church iconography: Paradise Gardens, centralised buildings ...... 43.10 The Sun in the church ...... 43.12 The rose window and the Wheel of Fortune ...... 43.14 Medieval figurative roundels with cosmic/astrological designs ...... 43.16 Labyrinths ...... 43.17
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Chapter Forty - Three: Circular Symbolism in Early Christian Structures (continued)
Illustrations: Images ...... 43.31 - 43.51 Subject ...... 43.41 - 43.43 Sources ...... See 49.12 - 49.13
Chapter Forty - Four: The Cross ...... 44.1 - 44.18 Early crosses in Dark Age Britain and Ireland ...... 44.1 Late Christian solar crosses ...... 44.2 Types of crosses (1) Equal armed cross ...... 44.3 (2) Assyrian or so called Maltese cross...... 44.6 (3) Diagonal or so called St.Andrew’s cross ...... 44.6 (4) Tau cross or ‘T’ cross ...... 44.7 (5) Elongated or Latincross ...... 44.8 Christian Solar Inculturation ...... 44.10 - 11 Illustrations: Images ...... 44.11 - 44.23 Subject ...... 44.23-- 44.24 Sources ...... See 49.13
Chapter Forty - Five: The Unconquered Sun ...... 45.1 - 45.10 Solar heresy within Christianity: the Irish Celtic Church ...... 45.1 Irish round towers ...... 45.3 The sacred yew tree ...... 45.6 The Albigensians ...... 45.7 Greco - Roman circularity, early Islamic symbols and the Mandala: a note ...... 45.9 Illustrations: Images ...... 45.10-11 Subject ...... 45.11 Sources ...... See 49.13
46. Conclusion ...... 46.1 - 46.3 47. Index (with authors) ...... 47.1 - 47.59 48. Index Illustration Subject (Caption) ...... 48.1 - 48.12 49. Illustration: Sources ...... 49.1 - 49.18 50. Bibliography ...... 50.1 - 50.34 51. Glossary of Latin & Greek Terms...... 51.1 - 51.12
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