Remotesensing and Associated Payloads In

Journal of Seybold Report ISSN NO: 1533-9211

RemoteSensing and Associated Payloads in Moon and Mars Space Missions: A Review Adhya Rao, Harshita V M, Hamsavahini R⁎, Rashmi N BMS Institute of Technology & Management, Bengaluru, India [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract:

RemoteSensing refers to any non-contact technique to observe the object from space.

RemoteSensing more commonly refers the use of satellite or aircraft-based sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth. Now a days, there is a tremendous effort from major powers on the Earth to explore not only Earth but other celestial bodies such as Moon and Mars. Satellite

RemoteSensing is useful in acquiring high-resolution data by integrating high-resolution satellite imagery with ground-based sensor data for various applications. Advancement in the

RemoteSensing techniques resulted in the use of various sensors for the mapping of natural resources, environment and data acquisition. There is also an absolute need to understand the origin and evolution of various planets, surface characteristics, atmospheric conditions and the presence of water on planets. Present day orbiters, landers & rovers along with relevant payloads plays an important role in determining the conditions of the planet leading to the human settlement on various planets in the future. This paper deals with a review on exploration of various objects of interest on Moon and Mars by RemoteSensing Satellites, Lander & Rovers and by in-situ techniques using relevant Payloads.

Keywords:RemoteSensing, Sensors, Payloads, Moon, Mars, Orbiter, Lander and Rover

⁎ Corresponding Author

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Introduction Interplanetary missions are carried out by various space agencies to enrich our knowledge

about the neighbouring planets, comets, asteroids and other celestial bodies. Deep space missions

foster the advancement of technology, increase our understanding about the planets’ atmospheric

conditions, surface features of various celestial objects and also increases the scientific

temperament of the mankind.

Many challenges will be faced while configuring the spacecraft subsystems for deep space

missions. The Remote Sensing instruments developed for earth biosphere cannot be used for the

other planetary bodies. The Thermal Environment, chemical composition of the atmosphere,

eclipse periods of the spacecraft, availability of sun irradiance and many other variations will be

present. Accordingly, the configuration of sensors used for Remote monitoring also varies.

Estimation of physical properties of the far-off objects is done by RemoteSensing using reflected or emitted energy. RemoteSensingis the science of recognition of surface features of

Earth and assessingits“geo-biophysical properties” using “electromagnetic radiation” as a medium

of interaction (Roy et al. 2017). RemoteSensing is presentlyexperiencing a substantial

transformationas far as its technical monitoring capabilities are concerned. Amelioration in spatial

and spectral resolutions, new platforms and sensors and regularlyrefining digital analysis and

communications techniques are augmenting the types of detail that could be extricated from raw

imagery( Terrenceand Brnger 2002).Exploration of other planets are carried out by both

RemoteSensing and in-situ techniques (Jentsch 2009; Steffeand Karpowicz 2008). Bhandari

(Bhandari 2008) in his article elaborated on the two majorobjectives of planetary exploration.

Firstly,insight into the origin of the planetary system from the solar nebula, geological and

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chemical evolutionand timescales of the planetary systemin different stages, and

secondly,evaluation and utilisation of planetary resources for human habitation. This paper deals

with, gathering details about the planetary environment, mineralogical, geological and chemical

processes on surfaces of some planets by RemoteSensing techniques and in particular using sensor

technology.Attributes of platforms bearing the remote sensors plays a vital role in knowing the

efficacy of the object space. Consistently a desired level of accuracy can be achieved with the

constant range of observation which in turn is difficult. Cooperative Sensing is a more conceptual

way to improve observability. The most obvious solution would be to install many sensors in

different alignments on the same platform. This contributes in the development of single sensor

based RemoteSensingand headway to the current multisensory framework ( Pages et al. 2006).

Thus, RemoteSensing widely refers to the use of aircraft-based sensor technologies or

satellite to recognise and categorize objects on Earth or Deep space. RemoteSensing provides a means of acquiring spatial data. The sensors are the electronic components on board the satellite that help in accomplishing the same. Satellites are instrumented with sensors to monitor the health parameters of onboard subsystems, measure and analyse the radiations emitted or reflected from various celestial bodies (Chen et al. 2006). The evolution of satellite sensor system has provided unprecedented observations in wide range of applications including studying the surface of Earth, its atmosphere, land and ocean coverage etc. Also, studying the surface of various celestial bodies in the solar system including Mars, Moon etc.

Sensors for Monitoring Health Parameters of a RemoteSensing Satellite RemoteSensing satellites under automatic control demand a great extent to work properly.

Thus, all RemoteSensing satellites require a health monitoring system forobserving and

distinguishing a shortcoming as it occurs and recognizing the defective part(Chen et al. 2006).

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Telemetry or health sensors are used for monitoring health parameters of a satellite, which

includesa horizon sensor/earth detector,star sensor, sun sensor, gyroscopes, magnetometers, earth

gravity sensors etc. These sensors help in determining the orientation of the satellite and estimating

its attitude and hence are referred to as attitude sensors (Ortega et al. 2010).

A horizon sensor is used to measure the angle between the satellite and the two

horizonsequidistant to the centre of Earth by scanning the Earth with the scanner’s line of sight

sweeping from one horizon to the next and computing the product of the time taken for

scanningwith the angular rate of the scanner rotation. Star sensor provides information about the

attitude of the satellite by measuring the azimuthal and elevation angle of a star in the star sensor

reference frame.Sun sensor also contributes to the attitude information of the satellite by

determining the azimuthal and elevation angle of the sun(Chen et al. 2006). Recent advancements

in star sensor technology permit a significant increase in both the sensitivity and bandwidth of the

stellar information available for on-orbit attitude rate determination.Magnetometer measures the

Earth’s magnetic field vector local to the satellite. It should be sensitive enough to pick up the eddy

current from other subsystem of satellite (Gai et al. 1985).Gyroscopes are used to measure the

angular velocity of the satellite and not directly the attitude of the satellite (Sumathi et al. 2013).

RemoteSensing of Moon The Moon is the nearest planetary body to Earth with the Earth-Moon distance roughly being

400000 km. Being closest to Earth, enables it almost immediate communication with Earth. While the adversaryMars is essentially as hostile to human life as the Moon but is at a distance of 128.5

million kmaway from Earth with a significant delay in communication(Benaroya 2018). Beyond

Earth, the only body in the outer space that has been methodically sampled is the Moon. Meteorites have indicated samples of solar system debris from the asteroids, and could possibly include

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rubbles of Mars, but the Moon is the only other planet from which samples have been fragmented,

lifted, scraped, shoveled, and collected in cores. These samples were placed togetherby the three

U.S.S.R. Luna missions and the six U.S. Apollo missions from identifiedsites on the Moon surface. Examines of soils and rocks from these locations have permitted their use as

“ground-truth” points for Remotely-sensedgeochemical and physical maps of the Moon(Heiken et al. 1991).

RemoteSensing is one of the most powerful tools available to modern scientists as it provides the means to place the data such as the Apollo/Luna samples and Lunar meteorites into a global context enabling the comparison of different areas across the lunar surface. Early photographic missions demonstrated the power of RemoteSensing in lunar science and revolutionized our understanding of the Moon, they also demonstrated the Moon to be an excellent testbed for the use and refinement of RemoteSensing techniques( Dunkin and Hither 2004).

The surface of the Moonis overlaid by multi-layer regolith, which covers the primordial lunar bedrock. Regolith comprises of pebbles, rocks and dust. Maximum of the regolith consists of minute particles formed by everlasting bombardment of meteoroids. Impact craters were identified on rocks with size varying from millimetre to sub-micro- meter range( Grun et al. 2011).

Outer layers of Moonalso safeguard a record of nature in the inward Solar System (e.g. interplanetary dust density, meteorite flux, galactic cosmic ray flux, solar wind flux and composition) all through Solar System history, quite a bit of which helps in knowing the past tenability of Earth(Crawforda et al. 2012).

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Lunar Origin and Evolution

The commencement to the understanding of lunar origin and evolution and significant

advances in lunar science was provided by the SMART-1 mission, Europe’s first mission to

Moon(Foing et al. 2003). The instruments onboard the satellite in ESA SMART-1 mission

included the D-CIXS (Demonstration of a Compact Imaging X-ray (Spectrometer). The sole purpose of this spectrometer is to deliveran excellent quality spectroscopic mapping of the Moon by imaging fluorescence X- rays emanated from the surface of the Moon. D-CIXS instrument makes use of the “Swept Charge Device X-ray detector technologies” and “advanced dual microstructure collimator”. The instrument was designed to detect the presence of Fe, Mg, A1 and

Si in abundance on the lunar surface under normal solar conditionsand other elements such as Ca,

Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Co, K, P and Na during the solar flare events. The “X-ray detection instruments” carried during the Apollo 15 and 16 missions obtained samples that signified only a small subset of the entire lunar terrain (Grande et al. 2002).

Composition of Lunar Surface

India’sfirst planetary exploration mission, Chandrayaan-1assisted our comprehension about the origin and evolution of Moon by carrying out high resolution RemoteSensing studies of the Lunar surface. Goswamiand Annadurai in their article on Chandrayaan-1( Goswami and

Annadurai2009) brought in how mineralogical, chemical and photo-geological composition of lunar surface would be obtained. A Hyper-Spectral Imager (HySI), Terrain Mapping Camera

(TMC), a High Energy X Ray Spectrometer (HEX), a Low energy x-ray spectrometer, and a Lunar

Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI) were the sensors used. A terrain mapping camera was used to provide high-resolution three-dimensional images of the lunar surface. To provide information

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regarding the mineralogical and chemical composition of the lunar surface, hyper-spectral imaging in the UV-VIS-NIR region using three imaging spectrometers, along with a low energy X-ray

spectrometer was used.

Generation and Formation of Lunar Dust Continuous micrometeorite impacts led to the formation of Lunar regolith including a fine

fraction of lunar dust. Such massive impacts cause “shock melting” and induce localized

vaporization of lunar regolith, followed by quick re-condensation leading toclingsintricate shapes, and shrillpointy edges. Thechemical composition of lunar dust constitutes around5% TiO2, 10%

CaO,10% MgO, 5-15% iron, 15% Al2O3 and 50%SiO2 with small amounts of Na, K, Cr, Zr. The

iron part comprises of both iron oxide and nanoscale stores of completely diminished metallic iron

(named "nano stage iron"). The nano stage iron is not present in Earthbound minerals (Wentworth

et al. 1999).

A Chang’e-4 mission was carried out by Peoples Republic of China. Wang and Liu ( Wang

and Liu 2016) in their article on Chang’e-4 mission mentioned about the distribution of lunar

dust with respect to“time, altitude and position”.They also mentioned about the estimation of

the“physical characteristics” and movement of lunar dust andits charging/discharging techniques.

The lander payloads included a Descent Camera (DeCam), a Land form Camera(LaCam), a Lunar

Dust Analyser (LDA), an Electric Field Analyser(EFA), ,a Plasma and Magnetic Field

Observation Package(PMFOP),a VLFR radio Interferometer( VRI) and a Lunar Seismometer

(LS).DeCamwas used for terrain analysis and observation of lunar dust, LaCam for investigations

of lunar land, LDAfor measurements of physical characteristics of lunar dust, EFAto determinethe

strength of electric field at various elevations, LS for investigationsof internal structure of Moon

and VRIfor radio astronomical observation. The rover payloads included a pair ofPanoramic

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Cameras (PanCams), a visible to near- infrared imaging spectrometer and shortwave infrared

spectrometer (VNIS), a Lunar Penetrating Radar (LPR), an Active Source Hammer (ASH) and a

VLF Radio Receiver (VRR).PanCamswas used for the analysis of topography of the roving area,

VNIS fordeterminingthe distribution and composition of minerals, LPR for studyingand surveying

the lunar shallow structure, ASH for active source seismic experiments, and a second VRR for

inter- ferometric measurements.

Composition of Lunar Soil and Atmosphere The primary objective of the Chandrayaan-2 mission was to demonstrate the ability to

soft-land a lander and operate a rover at the South Polar Region of the Moon. Whereas, the

scientific goals of the mission included detailed study of topography, seismography,identification

of minerals, chemical composition of surface, thermo-physical attributes of top soil and

composition of the unsubstantiated lunar atmosphere (Kosambe 2019).

India’s second strategic mission to Moon, Chandrayaan-2, with a mass of 3.8 tonnes and

dimensions of 3.1 m, 3.1 m, 5.8 m comprises three modules including an Orbiter, Lander (Vikram)

and Rover (Pragyan), all equipped with scientific instruments to study the only natural satellite of

the Earth.

The Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter consists of eight scientific payloads to study the Moon which

includes a Terrain Mapping Camera 2 (TMC 2), Chandrayaan-2 Large Area Soft X-ray

Spectrometer (CLASS), Orbiter High Resolution Camera (OHRC), Solar X-ray Monitor, Dual

Frequency Synthetic Aperture Radar (DFSAR), Imaging IR Spectrometer (IIRS). TMC 2 is used

to map the surface of Moonin the panchromatic spectral band (0.5-0.8 microns) with an excellent spatial resolution of 5 m and a broad strip of 20 km from 100 km lunar polar orbit , CLASS measures the existence of key rock-forming elements such as Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Ti, Fe and Na on the

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lunar surface, OHRC ensures the existence of craters or boulders before the separation from the lander via high-resolution images of the Moon, DFSAR will conduct circular and full polarimetry of the Moon surface.

Exploration of Lunar South Pole Clementine, a mission sponsored jointly by NASA and Department of Defence (DOD) was launched in the year 1994. Clementine carried six imaging sensors. In addition, Laser Imaging

Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) and HiRes imaging and laser ranging system are other important payloads. The mission mapped the Moonfor more than two months, delivering the ﬁrst multispectral worldwide computerized guide of the Moon. It made scientiﬁc disclosures including the existence of ice at the Lunar South Pole ( Sorensen and Spudis 2005).

The Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) mission, classified as a

Class D Nasa mission, primarily aimed at confirmation of the existence or nonexistence of water ice in a forever shadowed region (PSR) at the lunar south pole.The LCROSS mission payload comprises of “a visible light spectrometer, two near-infrared spectrometers, two near-infrared cameras, two mid-infrared cameras, a visible camera and a radiometer”( Ennico et al. 2012).

Mitrofenov etal.( Mitrofenov et al. 2010) have made a significant study on Lunar South

Pole to know the distribution of hydrogen. LCROSS mission was likewise intended to detect the hydrogen bearing volatiles. Optimal impact site on the Lunar South Pole region was selected by

Neutron Flux measurements from the “Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND) on the Lunar

Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft”. LEND instrument on board the NASA Lunar

Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) provided data on the dissemination of hydrogen in the lunar south pole area.

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Future Exploration of Moon Soviet Union launched Luna 2, a space probe for the physical exploration of Moon on 14th

September 1959. Only available means before the launch of Luna 2 for the exploration of Moon was by observing it from Earth. Apollo programme by NASA lead to successful landing of humans on the Moon. Two astronauts landed on the Moon for the first time in the year 1969 on

Apollo 11 Mission and succeeded in placing scientific instruments on the Moon and returning the samples to Earth.In this section, future exploration of the Moon by Russian Federal Space Agency

(Roscosmos), European Space Agency (ESA) and The National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) are dealt in detail.

LUNA- 27 by Roscosmos& ESA Russian Federal Space Agency with joint effort by the European Space Agency has planned a Luna 27 lander mission to send a lander toward the South Pole–Aitken basin, a region on the most distant side of the Moon. The principle objective of the Luna-27 lander is to examine the structure of the soil close to the lunar South Pole and to know the existence of water beneath the

Lunar surface. The Russian Luna-27 mission, set for launch in 2025, will carry with it a European lunar prospecting instrument. The aim of the latter is to drill into the dusty lunar surface to uncover what resources future astronauts will have at their disposal when more permanent settlements can be established.European Space Agency is also in the process of developing a payload known as

Package for Resource Observation and in-Situ Prospecting for Exploration, Commercial exploitation and Transportation (PROSPECT) to explore Lunar surface in the south polar region of the Moon. PROSPECT contains various sensors for measuring temperature, pressure, and permittivity and instruments such as magnetic sector mass spectrometers and imagers (Nash et al.

2020).

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Artemis program by NASA The Artemis program by NASA is a progressing government-subsidized spaceflight

program that has the objective of landing "the first woman and the next man" on the Moon,

precisely at the lunar south pole region ( Eric 2019). Major goals of the mission are “robust human

exploration of deep space”, “scientific research”, and an effort to “tap water resources at the

Moon”.This program is hoping to land on the Moon in the year 2024 and form a Artemis Base

Camp in the Lunar South pole region. In the next decade, scientific and economic activities of this

Base Camp on the Moon will pave the way for the first human mission to Mars in the year 2030 (

NASA 2017).

RemoteSensing of Mars In 1964, first successful Mars flyby was carried out by NASA’s Mariner 4 mission. Since

then, the red planet exploration began and many flybys, orbiters and rovers have been sent to the

orbits of Mars, Mars surface and also to its Moons (i.e. Phobos and Deimos). Mars exploration

missions via RemoteSensing detected liquid water traces on its surface, thin-wet non-acidic atmosphere of Mars with traces of methane, polar ice-caps and climate change in Martian atmosphere (Sundararajan 2013). Mars being the neighbouring planet of our earth, has many similarities with earth. Mars has atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and cryosphere similar to earth (Mathew et al. 2015). The scientific instruments used by the RemoteSensing satellites play a critical role in acquiring the huge amount of raw data and converting it into useful information

(Buenestado 2015).

Atmospheric Structure Study

The Martian atmosphere contains 95%CO2 and is about 100 times thinner than Earth. As

per NASA fact sheet, Mars contains 95.32% CO2and 2.7%Nitrogen.“Mars Climate Sounder

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(MCS) and Mars Colour Imager (MARCI) payloads” were designed for MRO mission to carry out

detailed atmospheric study of Mars (Lyons 2002). The MCS includes two telescopes having

aperturesof 4cm each and uses filter radiometry. The Martian atmospheric dust, ice, temperature

and vapor content as a function of altitude will be studied by MCS. The MARCI will produce the

image of metrological and surface events of Mars in visible (at 5 wavelengths) and ultraviolet (at 2

wavelengths) regions of spectrum (Fogel et al. 2015).Lyman Alpha Photometer (LAP) and

Methane Sensor for Mars (MSM) are the payloads used for Mars atmospheric constituents’ study

in MOM. LAP gives relative measure of deuterium and hydrogen (D/H ratio). MSM is used to

measure the column density of methane in Martian atmosphere at parts per billion level and uses a

Fabry-Perot Etalon sensor. It is a differential radiometer (Sundararajan 2013; Mathew et al. 2015).

MAVEN uses Imaging Ultraviolet Spectrometer to obtain the composition and structure of

Martian atmosphere, ionosphere and corona and provides stable-isotope ratios (Jakosky et al.

2015).

Particle Environment Studies

Particle environment studies are used to know the atmosphere dynamics causes for loss of water on the surface and escape of gases (Mitchell 2010).Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition

Analyzer (MENCA)was the sensor used for particle environment study in MOM. Its main objective is to explore the Martian Neutral Exosphere( Bhardwaj et al. 2010).

Solar Wind Electron Analyzer (SWEA), Solar Energetic Particle instrument (SEP), Supra thermal and Thermal Ion Composition instrument (STATIC), Langmuir Probe and Waves (LPW),

Magnetometer (MAG), Neutral Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer (NGIMS) and Solar Wind Ion

Analyzer (SWIA) are the payloads used in MAVEN for particle environment and field

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study(Jakosky et al. 2015). The data obtained from MAVEN scientific instruments will aid in

determining the rate of escape of gases from upper atmosphere and understand the factors (solar

storms, UV light and solar wind) responsible for escaping of gases (Mitchell 2010).. These

instruments will help in understanding the relationship between the charged particle input to the

atmosphere and atmospheric gases loss and quantifies the escape rate. SEP uses two detector

telescopes to measure electron fluxes in the range 20-1000KeV and ions in the range 20-6000KeV

(Larson et al. 2010). SWEA is an electrostatic analyser used to measure the electronic and angular

distributions of 3 to 4600eV electrons in Martian environment (Mitchell et a. 2015).STATIC determines the velocity distributions (ranging from 1-25 Km), mass composition and flux

(energies up to 30KeV) of suprathermal and thermal ions. The LPW is used to measure electron density, temperature of Mars’ ionosphere and one direction of electric field which causes heating of ions over a broad range of latitude and magnetic field conditions( Andersson et al.

2010).NGIMS is used to study the thermal structure of the upper atmosphere of the Mars by

sampling the same (Stone et al. 2018).

Martian Surface studies

Massive dunes, volcanoes, river valley and rift channels cover the surface of the

Mars.Stone et.al. (Stone et al. 2018) in their article summarised the potential applications of sensors with different operating ranges to study the Martian surface. Visible and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum was used for RemoteSensing of Mars by obtaining coarse resolution images. “Infra-Red Thermal Mapper (IRTM)” was the ﬁrst sensor to thermally sense the surface of the Mars. Several successful Mars Missions were carried out till date to know the surface characteristics of Mars(Stone et al. 2018). Thermal Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (TIS) and MarsColour Camera (MCC)are the scientific payloads used to carry out the Martian surface

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study in the currently active Mars Orbiter Mission. TES spectrometer uses 120x160 bolometer

array as detector, fore optics, collimating optics, grating and reimaging optics to obtain the

mineralogy and composition of Martian surface.MCC is a Sony camera of frame size approximately 50x50 Km, used to obtain optical images of Mars topography.

MRO Mission is currently operational and uses the “Context Imager (CTX), Radar

Sounder (SHARAD), High Resolution Imager (HiRISE) and the Compact Reconnaissance

Imaging Spectrometer (CRISM)” as payloads. SHARAD is used to explore the regional stratigraphy of the Martian surface, with the operating frequency of 15-25MHz (Fogel et al. 2015).

CTX is a monochromatic camera with a field of view of 5.8°, at 300 km, this translates into a resolution of 6 m/pixel, whose data will be used for regional stratigraphy and morphology study[41]. HiRISE is a High-Resolution Camera with an aperture of 0.5 m and provides 1m/pixel resolution at the distance less than 300Km. CRISM is a high-resolution imaging spectrometer which provides 20 m/pixel resolution at a distance of 300Km from Mars (Johnston 2003).

Future Exploration of Mars

Mars Exploration Program by NASA has planned for a rover mission scheduled to be launched between July 17 - Aug 5, 2020, for the robotic exploration of Red Planet. The major objective of this mission is to address vital questions like the presence of life on Mars by questing signs of a habitable conditions on Mars in ancient history and search for the existence of microbial life in the past (MARS 2020).

The payloads intended to be used as a part of the Mars 2020 mission include“Mastcam-Z,

SuperCam, Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry (PIXL) and Scanning Habitable

Environments with Raman & Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC)

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spectrometer”. Mastcam-Z is a stereoscopic and panoramic camera used to determine the

composition of minerals on the surface of Mars and aid in rover operations, while a SuperCam is

used to estimate the existence of organic compounds in regolith and rocks, perform imaging and

chemical composition analysis from Remote places. PIXL determines the elemental composition of surface materials of the Red Planet via high resolution imager and SHERLOC spectrometer makes use of ultraviolet (UV) laser to detect organic compounds and fine scale mineralogy.Other instruments include the Mars Oxygen ISRU Experiment (MOXIE), an exploration technology investigation to produce oxygen from Martian atmospheric carbon dioxide and a Mars

Environmental Dynamics Analyzer (MEDA), a set of sensors for temperature, pressure, wind speed and direction relative humidity measurement and dust size and shape determination.

Conclusions

RemoteSensing technologies help in exploring various celestial bodies near Earth leading to environmentally sustainable human settlements. In this review article, RemoteSensing of Moon and Mars is discussed to know the origin and evolution as well as the possible future human settlements. The study includes Mineralogical, Chemical and Photo-Geological Composition, topography, seismography, surface chemical composition, thermo-physical characteristics of top soil etc. of Moon as well as atmosphere structure study, particle environment studies and Martian surface study of Mars. Number of countries have taken part in the exploration of Moon and Mars from 1959 to till date with various missions. Leading countries who contributed to the space exploration are United states of America, Russia, Germany, United Kingdom, France, Japan,

China and India. Various Missions include Apollo, Luna, Chang’e, SMART1, Chandrayaan,

Mariner 4, MRO etc. Detailed study on various payloads as regard to orbiter, lander and rover is

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also carried out. Future exploration of Moon and Mars is also discussed as regard to various

Missions, Payloads and establishment of a permanent human community.

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