Abies amabilis Dougl. ex Forbes Pacific Silver Fir Pinaceae Pine family Peggy D. Crawford and Chadwick Dearing Oliver Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), also known as silver fir and Cascades fir, has a gray trunk, a rigid, symmetrical crown, and lateral branches perpen- dicular to the stem. It contrasts strikingly with the more limber crowns, acute branch angles, and generally darker trunks of its common associates- Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hem- lock (Tsuga heterophylla), and mountain hemlock (T mertensiana). The species name, amabilis, means lovely. Habitat Native Range Pacific silver fir (fig. 1) is found in southeastern Alaska, in coastal British Columbia and Vancouver Island, and along the western and upper eastern slopes of the Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon. It also grows throughout the Olympic Moun- tains and sporadically in the Coast Ranges of Washington and northern Oregon. Near Crater Lake, OR, Pacific silver fir disappears from the Cascade Range and then reappears at a few locations in the Klamath Mountains of northwestern California. The major portion of its range lies between latitudes 43” and 55” N. (35). Climate Climate throughout the range of Pacific silver fir is distinctly maritime. Summers are cool, with mean daily temperatures of 13” to 16” C (55” to 61” F), and winter temperatures are seldom lower than -9” C Figure l-The native range of Pacific silver fir. (16” F) (35). Mean number of frost-free days ranges from 40 near tree line to more than 250 at low eleva- tions (26). Length of growing season also differs from soil moisture during the growing season. It is most year to year at a given location. Mean annual abundant on sites where summer drought is mini- precipitation varies greatly, ranging from 6650 mm mal, such as areas of heavy rainfall, seepage, or (262 in) on the west coast of Vancouver Island to an prolonged snowmelt. extreme low of 965 mm (38 in) on the eastern side of Vancouver Island. Average annual precipitation in Soils and Topography the Cascade Range is more than 1500 mm (59 in); winter snowpacks are as much as 7.6 m (25 ft) deep Pacific silver fir grows on soils developed from (9). A summer dry season is characteristic of this nearly every type of parent material found in the region, but Pacific silver fir is dependent on adequate Northwest. Layering in soil profiles caused by suc- cessive deposits of volcanic ejecta, colluvium, or gla- The authors are former Research Assistant and Professor of Sil- cial till is especially common (1,43). The greatest viculture and Forest Ecology, University of Washington, College known growth rates for Pacific silver fir occur at low of Forest Resources, Seattle. elevations on fine-textured residual soils from 17 Abies amabilis sedimentary and basaltic rocks (16). Growth is Associated Forest Cover reduced on poorly drained or shallow rocky soils. In northern Washington and British Columbia, Western hemlock is a common associate podzolization is the dominant process in well-drained throughout most of the range of Pacific silver fir, in soils under Pacific silver fir. A typical podzol is char- the Abies amabilis zone and portions of the Tsuga acterized by strong acidity of organic (pH 3.3 to 4.0) heterophylla zone (9). Noble fir (Abies procera) is an and mineral horizons, moderate to thick (3 to 45 cm; important associate in southern Washington and 1 to 18 in) surface accumulations of organic matter, northern Oregon. Other associates west of the Cas- and moderate to extremely low base saturation. In Oregon, podzolization is less strongly expressed and cade Range are Douglas-fir, western redcedar (Thuja soils are more shallow and rocky, Pacific silver fir plicata), and grand fir (Abies grandis), with Sitka has been found on many soil suborders throughout spruce (Picea sitchensis) and lodgepole pine (Pinus its range: Folists in the order Histosols; Aquents, contorta) important near the coast. At subalpine Fluvents, Orthents in the order Entisols; Andepts, elevations in the Tsuga mertensiana zone (9), Pacific Aquepts, Ochrepts, Umbrepts in the order Incep- silver fir is associated with mountain hemlock, Alas- tisols; and Aquods, Humods, and Orthods in the ka-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), and subal- order Spodosols (35). pine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). Toward the eastern limits At upper elevations in Washington, soils beneath of its range, it grows with a mixture of coastal and Pacific silver fir stands are generally low in available interior species: western larch (Larix occidentalis), nitrogen, with availability decreasing with age (44). western white pine (Pinus monticola), lodgepole pine, External nutrient cycling is slow; a mean nitrogen subalpine fir, grand fir, and Engelmann spruce (Picea residence time as long as 120 years has been found engelmannii). Shasta red fir (Abies magnifica var. in old-growth forest floors (24). Nitrification has not shastensis) is an associate in the extreme southern been found to occur. Availability of phosphorus tends portion of its range. Extensive pure stands of Pacific to be low but availability of base elements does not silver fir have been reported in the Mount Baker and appear to limit plant growth (42). Internal cycling Mount Rainier regions and elsewhere in the southern meets much of the annual nutrient requirements. Washington Cascade Range (40). Foliar nitrogen concentrations between 0.7 and 1.2 Pacific silver fir is a major species in the forest percent and foliar phosphorus concentrations of 0.11 cover type Coastal True Fir-Hemlock (Society of to 0.20 percent have been reported (3,42,52). Pacific American Foresters Type 226) (5). It is also found in silver fir differs significantly from western hemlock the following types: in its ability to accumulate specific elements (46). Pacific silver fir grows at sea level along the coast 205 Mountain Hemlock from Alaska to the Olympic Peninsula; farther in- 206 Engelmann Spruce-Subalpine Fir land, it is absent at lower elevations. Its range in 223 Sitka Spruce 224 Western Hemlock elevation is narrowest in Alaska, 0 to 300 m (0 to 225 Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce 1,000 ft), and greatest in the western Cascade Range 227 Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock of Washington, where Pacific silver fir may be found 228 Western Redcedar from 240 to 1830 m (800 to 6,000 ft). In British 229 Pacific Douglas-Fir Columbia it is found from 0 to 1525 m (0 to 5,000 R) 230 Douglas-Fir-Western Hemlock in elevation on western Vancouver Island and from 180 to more than 1680 m (600 to more than 5,500 ft) Shrubs associated with Pacific silver fir are on the lower mainland. Pacific silver fir grows on the primarily ericaceous. Blueleaf huckleberry Nat- highest ridges and peaks in the Coast Ranges of cinium deliciosum), Cascades azalea (Rhododendron Washington, from 365 to 850 m (1,200 to 2,800 ft). albiflorum), and rustyleaf menziesia (Menziesia fer- In the Olympic Mountains, it is the predominant ruginea) are common understory species at higher montane species up to 1400 m (4,600 ft), with lower elevations; copper bush (Cladothamnus pyro- limits at sea level on the west side and at 360 m ZaefZorus) is important in subalpine British Columbia (1,200 ft) in the central mountains. It is found be- (2). Alaska huckleberry Naccinium alaskaense), big tween 610 and 1830 m (2,000 and 6,000 ft) in the huckleberry (v; membranaceum), ovalleaf huckleber- Cascade Range in Oregon as far south as the divide ry (I? ovalifolium), and devilsclub (Oplopanax hor- between the Rogue and Umpqua Rivers. On the east ridum) are widespread associates. At its lower limits side of the Cascade Range, it is confined to high of elevation, Pacific silver fir is found with salal elevations, down to 1160 m (3,800 ft) in Oregon and (Gaultheria shallon) and Oregongrape (Berberis ner- 1000 m (3,300 ft) in Washington (30,35). vosa). 18 Abies amabilis Common herbaceous associates are common tion of dispersal is apparently independent of al- beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax), bunchberry (Cornus titude or latitude (7); most seeds are shed by the end canadensis), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), queens- of October but may be shed until the following April cup (Clintonia un$ora), dwarf blackberry (Rubus (21,331. lasiococcus), strawberryleaf blackberry (R. pedatus), rosy twistedstalk (Streptopus roseus), coolwort Seed Production and Dissemination-Cone foamflower (Tiarella unifoliata), and deer-fern (Blech- production begins at years 20 to 30 (33,37). Good num spicant). Rhytidiopis robusta is a constant seed years vary from region to region; a good seed bryophyte associate. crop generally occurs every 3 years (8). Pacific silver Major habitat types include Abies amabilis-Tsuga fir is not considered a good seed producer; this con- mertensiana I Vaccinium membranaceum-Rhododen- dition is attributed to frequent years of low pollen, dron albiflorum on cold, wet sites at high elevations the extended period between pollination and fer- and Abies amabilislXerophyllum tenax on shallow tilization, and archegonial abortion producing empty coarse-textured soils at various elevations. Abies seeds (33). Percentage of sound seed varies, with amabilis I Vaccinium alaskaense is a widespread type reports of 6.7 to 35 percent and 51 percent in one on modal sites. Abies amabilislRubus lasiococcus, location (4). Germinative capacity varies widely- Abies amabilis IStreptopus roseus, Abies amabi- from 3 to 70 percent- but averages 20 to 30 percent. lis I Tiarella unifoliata, and Tsuga heterophylla-Abies Cleaned seeds range from 17,200 to 45,860kg (7,800 amabilis I Blechnum spicant are herb-dominated to 20,80O/lb) (37). types found in moist habitats. The Abies The seeds are heavier than seeds of most Pacific amabilis I Oplopanax horridum type occupies wet, al- Northwest conifers except noble fir. Seeds each con- luvial habitats (2,9).