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Atropine and Atropine-Like Substances Usable in Warfare

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Atropine and Atropine-Like Substances Usable in Warfare Mil. Med. Sci. Lett. (Voj. Zdrav. Listy) 2017, vol. 86(2), p. 58-69 ISSN 0372-7025 DOI: 10.31482/mmsl.2017.010 REVIEW ARTICLE ATROPINE AND ATROPINE-LIKE SUBSTANCES USABLE IN WARFARE Jiri Patocka 1,2 , Romana Jelinkova 3 1 Institute of Radiology, Toxicology and Civil Protection, Faculty of Health and Social Studies, University of South Bohemia České Budějovice, České Budějovice, Czech Republic 2 Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic 3 NBC Defence Institute, University of Defence, Vyškov, Czech Republic Received 29 th March 2017. Revised 2 nd May 2017. Published 9 th June 2017. Summary Plant tropane alkaloids atropine and scopolamine are very strong anticholinergic drugs used in medicine and also found their place in military medicine, in particular atropine as an antidote in case of poisonings by nerve gases. Atropine and scopolamine both easily penetrate the blood-brain barrier and may cause central nervous system toxicity. Its symptoms are delirium, restlessness, confusion, and impairment of mental capacities. Scopolamine is much more likely to produce sedation and amnesia than atropine. Synthetic atropine-like compounds are also strong anticholinergics, and found use as a modern type of chemical weapons that incapacitate enemy for some time, but do not kill him. They are so-called non-lethal weapons, which are able to temporarily disable personnel from combat action and to protect the environment without limiting desired negative consequences to the enemy's national economy. Such non-lethal weapons is Agent BZ. Key words: Tropane alkaloids; atropine; scopolamine; Agent BZ; non-lethal weapons INTRODUCTION Atropine (hyoscyamine) is plant alkaloide and together with scopolamine they are the predominant anticholinergic tropane alkaloids in the Datura genus, occurring in all plant organs. Atropine and related tropane alkaloids are wide - spread in the plant kingdom and their medicinal and recreational properties have been well known to many cultures for many centuries (Brighetti, 1966). Plants in the genus Datura (family Solanaceae ), which produce the tropane al - kaloids, have well deserved sinister reputations for being poisonous (Le Strange, 1977). Among the most important plants which produce tropane alkaloids, these are especially Atropa belladonna (Deadly nightshade), Datura stramo - nium (Jimson weed or thom apple), Hyoscyamus niger (henbane), and Mandragora officinarum (common mandrake). BOTANICS AND ETHNOBOTANCS OF THE TROPANE ALKALOIDS PRODUCING PLANTS OF THE FAMILY SOLANACEAE Plants which produce tropane alkaloids are native to Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. Its distribution extends from Great Britain in the west to western Ukraine and Iran in the east. It is also naturalised and/or University of South Bohemia České Budějovice, Faculty of Health and Social Studies, Institute of Radiology, Toxicology and Civil Protection, Jírovcova 24/1347, 370 04 České Budějovice, Czech Republic [email protected] Patocka et al.: Atropine and Atropine-like Substances Usable in Warfare introduced in some parts of Canada and the United States. These have a long history of use as medicine, cosmetic, and poison (Buess, 1952). All grow like weeds in nature and are easily accessible. Atropa belladonna (Deadly Nightshade) Atropa belladonna , commonly known as deadly nightshade, is a perennial plant in the Solanaceae family whose leaves and berries are extremely toxic. The name Atropa comes from one of the three Fates of Greek mytho- logy: Lachesis measured the thread of destiny at birth, Clotho spun it, controlling destiny and Atropos cut the thread of life, bringing death. This plant containing toxic tropane alkaloids such as atropine and scopolamine. These toxins cause hallucinations and delerium, which is why it has long been used as poison, however belladonna has been used medicinally since ancient times as a muscle relaxant and is also used to regulate the heart and pain (Ramoutsaki et al., 2002). Deadly nightshade is an herbaceous perennial. It grows to a height of 1.5 m and has branched stem with oval shaped, pointed leaves on alternate sides. In the early summer it produces brownish, tubular flowers, which, over ensuing months, turn into hard green fruit that then ripes to dark purple and shiny black (Fig. 1). All parts of the plant are poisonous and are a potent source of atropine (Ylinen et al., 1986). Figure 1. Flowering shrub of deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna ). Photo © Romana Jelinkova. The plant was well known to the Ancient Greeks and it is a strong candidate for the potion that the sorceress Circe administered to the sailors on Odysseus’ ship. This subsequently drove them mad and ‘turned them into swine’. Odysseus resisted the poison by taking the antidote ‘moli’ which was probably either the snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis ) or the snowflake ( Leucojum vernum ) (Lee, 1999). The deadly nightshade was also an important plant in the witches’ pharmacopoeia and it was regarded as one of the Devil’s favourite plants. Nightshade was a constituent of their flying ointments (sorcerors pomade). This was rubbed into the skin and genitals and the witch 59 Patocka et al.: Atropine and Atropine-like Substances Usable in Warfare would then experience delusions, hallucinations and sometimes sensations of levitation or flying. Sexual arousal could also ensue together with orgasm (Lee, 2007). Datura stramonium (Jimson Weed, Devil’s snare, Thorn Apple) Datura stramonium is an extremely poisonous plant of the nightshade family (Urich et al., 1982). Currently growing everywhere from the tropics to the temperate zone. This plant is native to Central America but is found as a naturalised weed in entire Europe. In the Czech Republic it grows scattered from the lowlands to the foothills. It is a foul-smelling, erect, freely branching herb that forms a bush up to 60 to 150 cm tall.The leaves are pointed at the edges and yellowish at the base. The flowers are white trumpets, 10-cm long, and the fruits are green, spiny ovals, hence the name ‘thorn apple’. These split to reveal numerous black seeds. Tropane alkaloids are concentrated in the seeds although all parts of the plant are poisonous (Friedman and Levin, 1989; Gaie et al., 2013). The name Jimson weed commemorates the event when settlers arrived to Jamestown Island, Virginia in 1607 and found the island overrun by this weed. Many of them ate the plant and died after experiencing delusions, convulsions and respiratory silure (Fowler, 2015). Datura stramonium is attributed with both poisonous and medicinal values. It contains varieties of toxic tropane alkaloids such as atropine, hyoscamine, and scopolamine (Abdelouahab et al., 2011). In Ayurveda, it has been used for curing various ailments including wounds, inflammation, rheumatism, sciatica, swellings, fever, and asthma. A wide range of medicinal values has been attributed to this plant. Different studies reported safety and toxicity aspects while other studies reported analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, anti-diarrheal, etc. activities of different extracts of the plant (Parveen et al., 2016). Hyoscyamus Niger (Henbane) Hyoscyamus niger is an annual or biennial that grows to 75 cm and has a thick stem and toothed leaves. The plant is hairy and sticky and has an unpleasant smell. It produces flowers near the top of stems that are yellow with purple veins. The fruit hardens into spines and remains on the plant throughout winter. The whole plant is highly poisonous, containing a mixture of tropane alkaloids (Aparna et al., 2015). Hyoscyamus niger is one of the drugs of Ayurvedic materia medica known as Parasika Yavani, which is mainly used for respiratory disorders. It is used in Ayurvedic system of medicine for treating insomnia, psychiatric disorders, epilepsy, swelling, pain, and breathlessness. Some of the chief constituents found in the drug are hyoscyamine, apoatropine, hyoscine, skimmianine, scopolamine, and belladonines. Various experiments proved antihistaminic, antipyretic, antimicrobial, antispasmodic, analgesic, antiinflammatory, antiallergic and sedative property of the drug (Begum et al., 2010; Aparna et al., 2015). Mandragora officinarum (Mandrake, Common Mandrake, Devil's Apples, Love Apple) Mandragora officinarum is indigenous to Northern Italy, Western Balkans, Greece and Western Turkey, but can be cultivated in sheltered conditions in the United Kingdom. It is a perennial that produces a rosette of dark green leaves emerging from ground in spring, which are initially upright and then lie flat. It produces tubular bell shaped flowers in spring that are followed by spherical yellow fruit (Hawkes, 1972). Mandrake has a long history of medicinal use, although superstition has played a large part in the uses to which it has been applied. The root is hallucinogenic and narcotic. In sufficient quantities, it induces a state of unconscious- ness and was used as an anaesthetic for surgery in ancient times (Berry and Jackson, 1976). The special chemical properties of its root may have enhanced its reputation as highly desirable for its magical powers. The roots we so desirable that the rumours were spread abroad saying that when the root was pulled from the ground, a scream would be emitted that would kill any human who heard it. Thus it was that ingenious schemes were designed for a dog to be tied to the root and when called from a safe distance, pulled it up for its owner (Conway, 2016). 60 Patocka et al.: Atropine and Atropine-like Substances Usable in Warfare
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