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The Gradual Acceptance of the Copernican Theory of the Universe

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The Gradual Acceptance of the Copernican Theory of the Universe IRLF SB 35 fllS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF The Gradual Acceptance OF THE Copernican Theory of the Universe BY DOROTHY STIMSON, A.M. Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Political Science of Columbia University HANOVFR, NEW HAMPSHIRE 1917 REPLACING COPYRIGHT 1917 BY DOROTHY STIMSON 57 TO MY FATHER AND MOTHER ',d THE SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD ix 1651 ACCORDING TO FATHER RICCIOLI (Reduced facsimile of the frontispiece in Riccioli : Almagcstum Novum, Bologna, 1651.) EXPLANATION "Astrea, goddess of the heaven, wearing angel's wings and gleaming everywhere with stars, stands at the right; on the left is Argus of the hundred eyes, not tense, but indicating by the position of the telescope at his knee rather than at the eyes in his head, that while observing the work of God's hand, he appears at the same time to be worshipping as in genuflexion." (Riccioli: Aim. Nov., Pr&fatio, xvii). He points to the cherubs in the heavens who hold the planets, each with its zodiacal sign : above him at the top is Mars, then Mercury in its crescent form, the Sun, and Venus also in the crescent phase; on the opposite side are Saturn in its "tripartite" form (the ring explanation was yet to be given), the sphere of Jupiter encircled by its four satellites, the crescent Moon, its imperfections clearly shown, and a comet. Thus Father Riccioli summarized the astronomical knowledge of his day. The scrolls quote Psalms 19:2, "Day unto day uttereth speech and night unto night showeth knowledge." Astrea holds in her right hand a balance in which Riccioli's theory of the universe (an adaptation of the Tychonic, see p. 68) far outweighs the Copernican or heliocentric one. At her feet is the Ptolemaic sphere, while Ptolemy himself half lies, half sits, between her and Argus, with the comment issuing from his mouth: "I will arise if only I am cor- rected." His left hand rests upon the coat of arms of the Prince of Monaco to whom the Almagestum Novum is dedicated. At the top is the Hebrew Yah-Veh, and the hand of God is stretched forth in reference to the verse in the Book of Wisdom (10:20) : "But thou hast ordered all things in measure, and number and weight." CONTENTS ILLUSTRATIONS 7 PREFACE 8 PART I. AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE HELIOCENTRIC THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE Chapter I. The Development of Astronomical Thought to 1400: Preliminary Review 9 Chapter II. Copernicus and his Times 20 Chapter III. Later Development and Scientific De- fense of the Copernican Theory 33 PART II. THE RECEPTION OF THE COPERNICAN THEORY. Chapter I. Opinions and Arguments in the Six- teenth Century 39 Chapter II. Bruno and Galileo 49 Chapter III. The Opposition and their Arguments.. 71 Chapter IV. The Gradual Acceptance of the Coper- nican Theory 85 Chapter V. The Church and the New Astronomy : Conclusion 95 APPENDICES: TRANSLATIONS BY THE WRITER. A. Ptolemy : Almagest. Bk. I, chap. 7 : That the earth has no movement of rotation 107 B. Copernicus : De Revolutionibus, Dedication to the Pope 109 C. Bodin : Universes Natures Theatrum, Bk. V, sec- tions 1 and 2 in part, and section 10 entire 115 D. Fienus: Epistolica Qucestio: Is it true that the heavens are moved and the earth is at rest? 124 BIBLIOGRAPHY 130 INDEX 145 ILLUSTRATIONS Facsimile of the frontispiece "The Systems of the World" in Riccioli : Almagestum Novum, 1651 Frontispiece Photographic facsimile (reduced) of a page from a copy of Copernicus : De Revolutionibus, as "corrected" in the 17th century according to the directions of the Congregations of the Index in 1620 p. 61 Photographic facsimile (reduced) of another "cor- rected" page from the same copy p. 113 PREFACE study does not belong in the field of astronomy, but in THISthat of the history of thought; for it is an endeavor to trace the changes in people's beliefs and conceptions in regard to the universe as these were wrought by the dissolution of su- perstition resulting from the scientific and rationalist move- ments. The opening chapter is intended to do no more than to review briefly the astronomical theories up to the age of Coper- nicus, in order to provide a background for the better compre- hension of the work of Copernicus and its effects. Such a study has been rendered possible only by the generous loan of rare books by Professor Herbert D. Foster of Dart- mouth College, Professor Edwin E. Slosson of Columbia Uni- versity, Doctor George A. Plimpton and Major George Haven Putnam, both of New York, and especially by the kindly gener- osity of Professor David Eugene Smith of Teachers College who placed his unique collection of rare mathematical books at the writer's disposal and gave her many valuable suggestions as to available material. Professors James T. Shotwell and Harold Jacoby of Columbia University have read parts of this study in manuscript. The writer gratefully acknowledges her indebtedness not only to these gentlemen, but to the many others, librarians and their assistants, fellow-students and friends, too numerous to mention individually, whose ready interest and whose suggestions have been of real service, and above all to Professor James Harvey Robinson at whose suggestion and under whose guidance the work was undertaken, and to the Reverend Doctor Henry A. Stimson whose advice and criticism have been an unfailing source of help and encouragement. PART ONE AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE HELIOCENTRIC THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE. CHAPTER I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASTRONOMICAL THOUGHT TO 1400 A. D. A Preliminary Sketch of Early Theories as a Background. appearances in the heavens have from earliest historic THEages filled men with wonder and awe; then they gradually became a source of questioning, and thinkers sought for expla- nations of the daily and nightly phenomena of sun, moon and stars. Scientific astronomy, however, was an impossibility until 1 an exact system of chronology was devised. Meanwhile men puzzled over the shape of the earth, its position in the universe, what the stars were and why the positions of some shifted, and what those fiery comets were that now and again appeared and struck terror to their hearts. In answer to such questions, the Chaldean thinkers, slightly before the rise of the Greek schools of philosophy, developed the idea of the seven heavens in their crystalline spheres encir- 2 cling the earth as their center. This conception seems to lie back of both the later Egyptian and Hebraic cosmologies, as well as of the Ptolemaic. Through the visits of Greek philosophers to Egyptian shores this conception helped to shape Greek thought and so indirectly affected western civilization. lr rhe earliest observation Ptolemy uses is an Egyptian one of an eclipse occurring March 21, 721 B. C. (Cumont: 7). [In these refer- ences, the Roman numerals refer to the volume, the Arabic to the page, except as stated otherwise. The full title is given in the bibliograohy at the back under the author's name.] 2 : 40. Warren See "Calendar" in Hastings : Ency. of Religion and Ethics. Thus our heritage in astronomical thought, as in many other lines, comes from the Greeks and the Romans reaching Europe (in part through Arabia and Spain), where it was shaped by the influence of the schools down to the close of the Middle Ages when men began anew to withstand authority in behalf of observation and were not afraid to follow whither their reason led them. 1 But not all Greek philosophers, it seems, either knew or accepted the Babylonian cosmology.- According to Plutarch, though Thales (640P-546? B. C.) and later the Stoics believed the earth to be spherical in form, Anaximander (610546? B. C.) thought it to be like a "smooth stony pillar," Anaximenes (6th cent.) like a "table." Beginning with the followers of Thales or perhaps Parmenides ( P-500 B. C.), as Diogenes Laertius 3 claims, a long line of Greek thinkers including Plato (428P-347? B. C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) placed the earth in the cen- ter of the universe. Whether Plato held that the earth "encircled" 4 or around* the axis is a but Aristotle "clung" disputed point ; claimed it was the fixed and immovable center around which swung the spherical universe with its heaven of fixed stars and its seven concentric circles of the planets kept in their places 5 by their transparent crystalline spheres. The stars were an even greater problem. Anaximenes thought they were "fastened like nails" in a crystalline firma- ment, and others thought them to be "fiery plates of gold 6 resembling pictures." But if the heavens were solid, how could the brief presence of a comet be explained? Among the philosophers were some noted as mathematicians whose leader was Pythagoras (c. 550 B. C.). He and at least one ^or a summary of recent researches, see the preface of Heath : Aristarchus of Samos. For further details, see Heath : Op. cit., and the writings of Kugler and Schiaparelli. 2 See Plutarch: Moralia: De placitas Philosophorum, Lib. I et II, (V, 264-277, 296-316). 'Diogenes Laertius: De Vitis, Lib. IX, c. 3 (252). *Plato: Timceus, sec. 39 (III, 459 in Jowett's translation). 5 Aristotle: De Mundo, c. 2 et 6, (III, 628 and 636). 'Plutarch :'<9/>. cit., Lib. Ill, c. 2 (V, 303-4). 10 of the members of his school, Eudoxus (409P-356? B. C), had 1 visited Egypt, according to Diogenes Laertius, and had in all probability been much interested in and influenced by the astro- nomical observations made by the Egyptian priests.
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