!

Working Paper Series!!

Marginalized+Coastal+Communities+and+Struggles+for+Social+Innovation+in+India+and+China:+ Towards+a+Micro;Geopolitics+of+Environmental+Sustainability+in+the+Era+of+Climate+Change++

+

+ + + + +++Sanjay+Chaturvedi+

Introduction+

Social' innovations' are' ..and' ought' to' be—“innovations' that' are' social' in' both' their' ends' and' means”1'be'they'in'the'form'of'ideas,'movements'or'outcomes.'Social'innovations'are'expected' able' to' meet' social' needs,' create' new' social' relationships' and' collaborations'both'within'and' across'national'boundaries.'What'are'the'spaces,'sites'and'scales'where'one'should'be'looking' for' social' innovation' for' sustainable' environments' in' a' globalizing' world?' One' of' the' key' assumptions' behinds' this' study' is' that' in' the' era' of' climate' change' and' ‘scarcities’,' social' struggles'demanding'livelihood'security,'environmental'sustainability'and'climate'justice'at'the' grass'roots'levels'in'the'Global'South'do'qualify'as'instances'of'bottom.up'social'innovation.'In' other'words,'the'micro'geopolitics'of'resistance'against'emerging'market'driven'architecture'of' domination'and'homogenizing'climate'change'narrative,'using'innovative'strategies,'demand' and'deserve'the'attention'of'those'interested'in'the'theory'and'practices'of'social'innovation.''

'

It' is' a' truism' that' climate' is' changing' globally' with' far' reaching' adverse' consequences,' especially'for'the'poor'and'the'marginalized.2'But'climate'is'not'the'only'thing'that'is'changing' in' the' world' today.3'The' neoliberal' globalization' and' fossil' fuel' driven' models' of' economic' growth,' at' the' service' of' ‘carboniferous' capitalism’4,' have' caused' multiscalar' socio.economic,' and' ecological' transformations' at' a' pace' hitherto' unanticipated.' We' are' also' a' witness' to' steadily'rising'socio.ecological'protests'in'different'parts'of'the'world,'especially'Global'South,' demanding'livelihood'security'and'social'justice.'It'is'least'surprising'therefore'that'for'a'vast' majority'of'humanity'climate'change'is'neither'a'radical'departure'from,'nor'a'dramatic'rupture' of,'past'practices'associated'with'state.centric'geopolitics'of'domination'and'pursuit'for'primacy'

1" " and'profit'in'international'geopolitical'economy.'The'fear'shared'by'many'that'dominant'post. structural,' post.political' discourses' of' climate' change' are' hand' in' glove' with' the' relentless' pursuit' for' ‘green' profits’' by' neo.liberal' market' in' the' ‘new' carbon' economy’' is' neither' completely'out'of'place'nor'out'rightly'unjustified.5'Nor'is'the'geography'of'hope'generated'and' sustained'by'the'micro.geopolitics'of'resistance'against'the'undermining'of'livelihood'security' of'marginalized'communities'entirely'misplaced.''

'

Both' China' and' India' as' the' two' most' populous,' fast' growing' economies' with' ecological' irrationalities' deeply' entrenched' in' their' models' of' ‘development’' and' formidable' environmental' problems' present' themselves' as' ideal' critical' social' science' laboratories' to' approach' and' address' the' problems' and' prospects' of' realizing' ‘sustainable' environments’'

(some' analysts' would' prefer' the' term' ‘environmental' security’)' through' ‘social' innovations’.'

The' problems' and' prospects' of' social' innovation' for' sustainable' environments' in' these' two' countries'are'closely'tied'to'the'nature,'scope'and'outcome'of'complex'interplay'between'the' subaltern' views' of,' and' social' struggles' for' environmental' sustainability' and' the' top.down' state.centric' national' action' plans' for' mitigating' climate' change.' Whereas' the' former' are' anchored'in'historically'approached'ethnical.normative'notions'such'‘ecological'debt’,'the'latter' draw'upon'the'principle'of'‘common'but'differentiated'responsibility’'and'per.capita'‘ecological' footprint’.'No'less'important'is'the'intervention'by'climate'change'metanarrative'and'associated' discourses'of'‘global'climate'governance’'and'‘carbon'economy’,'which'aim'at'coopting'both'the' local'and'the'national'scales,'though'not'without'inviting'resistance,'especially'at'the'grassroots.''

'

'China' and' India' remain' at' core' of' highly' contentious' interplay' between' the' ethical' and' the' geopolitical'dimensions'of'climate'change'and'thereby'central'to'the'prospects'of'international' climate' diplomacy' aimed' at' putting' in' place' some' kind' of' a' ' ‘global’' governance' of' ‘global’' warming.' Concerned' over' the' prospects' of' Global' North' imposing' legally' binding' limits' on' their' ‘development’' induced' carbon' emissions;' the' two' ‘Asian' giants’' have' so' far' taken' a' common'stand'in'international'climate'negotiations.'Both'continue'to'adhere'to'the'principle'of'

‘common'but'differentiated'responsibility’6:'a'diluted'form'of'‘polluter'pays'principle’'guiding'

2" " various' international' environmental' agreements.' Both' fear' that' their' developmental' imperatives'and'energy'security,'especially'in'the'context'of'the'ongoing'‘revolution'of'rising' social' expectations’,' will' be' seriously' undermined' in' case' the' Kyoto' Protocol' were' to' be' abandoned'and'displaced'by'a'new'legally'binding'climate'regime.'And'both'insist'that'their' per'capita'emissions'are'much'lower'than'those'of'the'United'States'or'EU'member'states.''

'

Aware'at'the'same'time'of'wideranging'domestic'as'well'as'international'implications'of'climate' change' ..' ecological,' ethical' and' socio.political..' both' China' and' India,' as' stated' above,' have' nevertheless' responded' to' climate' change' through' their' respective' national' action' plans' and' nascent'‘climate'bureaucracies’.'Despite'a'pronounced'adherence'to'the'principle'of'‘common' but'differentiated'responsibility’7'(which'according'to'some'critical'perspectives'implies'‘hiding' behind'the'poor’)'both'China'and'India'have'been'participating'in'market.driven'mechanisms' for' climate' mitigation' such' as' the' Clean' Development' Mechanisms' (CDMs)' or' simply' put' carbon' trading;' a' puzzle' worth' exploring.' What' also' demands' scrutiny' is' the' geographical' scope'of'their'national'policies'and'action'plans'since'one'can'sense'a'continental'bias'in'them' and'relative'neglect'of'and'coastal'marine'environments'in'general'and'costal'communities'in' particular.'''

' Nature, Scope and Structure of the Study

As the collaborative research by the ICI Third Cohort fellows progressed under a meticulously worked out plan, ably assisted by travels and several rounds of debate and dialogue, I became aware of the limited and limiting nature of various arguments that emphasize the futility of India- China ‘comparisons’. The two neighboring Asian civilizations are often approached and analyzed by some fellow political scientists for example in terms of a long list of profound differences and sharp contrasts in terms of state-centric notions of political culture and political system and not without some justification of course. But once the analytical focus is liberated from the ‘territorial trap’8 and deployed to address the predominant concerns of market economy (e.g. consumer culture and consumption practices shared by fast bourgeoning middles classes) on

3" " the one hand, and assertions of marginalized communities (e.g. cancer villages, social struggles and mass protests), on the other, a rather different picture emerges with its own set of puzzles.

Shashi Tharoor has recently argued that, “…aside from the fact that both countries occupy a vast landmass called ‘Asia’, they have very little in common. It’s also that the two countries are already at very different stages of development…it’s also that the two countries’ systems are totally dissimilar.”9 Acknowledging serious environmental pollution and growing inequalities in China and citing the examples of dams and displacements Tharoor further remarks that, “when China built the Three Gorges Dam, it created a 660-kilometre-long reservoir that necessitated the displacement of a staggering 2 million people, all accomplished in fifteen years without a fuss in the interest of generating electricity; when India embarked on the Narmada Dam project, aiming to bring irrigation, drinking water and power to millions, it had to spend thirty-nine years (so far) fighting environmental groups, human rights activists, and advocates for the displaced all the way to the Supreme Court, which still being thwarted in the streets by the protesters from non- governmental organizations like the Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save Narmada Movement). That is how it should be: India is a fractious democracy, China is not.”

Whereas Tharoor would describe India as a ‘fractious democracy’, XI Chen10 would call contemporary China ‘contentious authoritarianism’ in the context of ever rising collective social protests or ‘collective petitioning’ since the early 1990s. Chen argues that, “the transition from a planned economy to market economy has brought about two important changes in the political system: first, the linkages between ordinary people and the Party-state have shifted from the unit system model to the government-citizen model; and second divisions and functional differentiations among state agencies have substantially increased.”11 Furthermore, “these two changes have pushed the state to develop a new strategic repertoire, which combines preventive repression, expedient concessions, practical persuasion, and procrastination…such a repertoire of state strategies has actually encouraged popular protests with “opportunistic troublemaking” tactics.”12 What appears to common to both the arguments stated above is the nature of both the Indian and the Chinese states in changing in response to neoliberal globalization. And so is the nature, scope and scale of social struggles, protests and resistance. '

4" " Some'analysts'might'point'out'that'there'is'nothing'remarkable'or'exceptional'in'saying' that' what' India' and' China' share' in' common' today' is' resistance' from' below' in' the' form' of' geographically' scattered,' apparently' disconnected' social' struggles' demanding' ecologically' sustainable,'socially'just'and'culturally'appropriate'‘development’,'guided'by'non.domination' as' the' fundamental' principle' of' a' humane' governance.' After' all' such' struggles' (i.e.' micro' geopolitics'of'resistance)'are'a'work'in'progress'elsewhere'on'the'globe'too.'While'it'is'true'that' resistance' against' domination' and' dependencies' is' a' universal' and' not' entirely' novel,' phenomenon,' what' often' goes' unappreciated' is' the' enormous' scale' and' extraordinarily' brisk' pace' at' which' the' micro.struggles' against' globalization13'are' unfolding' in' China' and' India' despite'obvious'differences'in'terms'of'political'cultures'and'political'systems.'The'idea'of'social' innovation'through'struggles'(many'of'which'might'even'quality'as'innovative'struggles)'at'the' micro'scale'therefore'remains'central'to'this'study.''

'

This'study'is'divided'into'four'parts.'In'part+one'I'reflect'briefly'upon'some'of'the'key'theoretical' insights'that'dictate'and'drive'this'research.'In'my'view,'at'the'core'of'strategic'juxtaposition'of'

‘social'innovation’'and'‘sustainable'environments’'(the'research'theme'assigned'to'Third'Cohort'

ICI'Fellows)'are'the'issues'of'space,'scale'and'power,'which'present'themselves'in'the'form'of' various' puzzles,' especially' when' approached' in' the' dynamic' and' highly' complex' context' of' climate'change.''

'

In'part+two'of'the'paper'I'map'out,'in'a'rather'random'fashion,'the'bottom.up'perspectives'and' priorities' of' water.dependent' coastal' communities,' located' on' the' geographical' and' socio. economic'margins'in'China'and'India,'with'regard'to'environmental'sustainability'and'climate' change'issues.'The'analysis'in'this'section'is'based'on'the'assumption'that'since'communities' are' the' basic' building' blocks' of' ‘social’' they' ought' to' remain' central' to' the' conceptual/theoretical'and'operational/practical'aspects'of'‘social'innovation’.'I'take'up'as'my' key'(but'not'the'only)'examples'of'the'Sundarbans'in'the'Bay'of'Bengal'(enabled'by'a'visit'in'

December'2011' to' the' fast' disappearing' Ghoramara' island' and'my'conversations' with' the' so' called' ‘climate' refugees’)' and' Zhangjiangkou' Mangrove' Forestry' National' Nature' Reserve' in'

5" " Yunxiao'county'of'Fujian'province'(enabled'by'a'visit'in'June'2012'and'conversations'with'local' communities)' of' how' those' who' are' located' on' sites' characterized' by' multiple' marginalities'

(geographical,'socio.economic'and'cultural)'approach'climate'change'in'both'material.physical' and'ideational.representational'terms.'''

'

It'needs'pointing'out'that'my'focus'on'the'coastal'zones'and'coastal'communities'in'this'study'is' deliberate'and'by'choice.'Firstly'I'am'of'the'view'that'geography'(both'physical'and'human. cultural)' is' of' paramount' importance' in' pursuit' of' social' innovation' for' sustainable' environments.'And'as'far'as'climate'change'is'concerned,'it'too'has'a'complex'geography'to'it'in' terms'of'both'causes'and'consequences.'Secondly'the'coastal'zone,'“a'broad'geographical'area' where'the'terrestrial'and'marine'factors'are'mixed'to'produce'dynamic/sensitive'ecosystems”14,' is' a' medium' that' forces' us' to' think' differently' about' sustainability' and' social' innovation.'

Moreover' in' case' of' both' China' and' India' (countries' with' a' long' coastline,' sizeable' coastal' communities,'coastal'zones'and'ecosystems'that'are'highly'vulnerable'to'climate'change)'one' finds'a'bias'in'favour'of'land.continent'priorities'and'perspectives.'In'other'words,'the'plight,' priorities' and' perspectives' of' coastal' communities' appears' to' be' relatively' ignored' and' underplayed'in'both'China'and'India.'''

'

It'is'in'part+three'of'the'paper'that'I'turn'the'critical'social'science'gaze'(within'the'conceptual. analytical'triad'of'space,'scale'and'power)'on'the'national.official'narratives,'policies'and'action' plans' of' China' and' India.' I' do' so' after' a' brief' engagement' with' some' of' the' ‘commonalities’' induced'by'the'market.driven'agenda'of'neo.liberal'globalization'in'these'two'countries'with' different'political'systems.'At'a'more'general'level,'the'key'questions'to'be'addressed'here'are' as'follows:'How'is'climate'change'approached'and'addressed'by'the'national'policies'of'China' and' India' in' terms' of' space,' scale' and' power?' What' are' the' implications' of' market' driven' techno.economic' innovations' for' mitigating' climate' change' achieved' through' the' Kyoto'

Protocol,'namely'Clean'Development'Mechanisms'(CDMs)'or'carbon'trading,'for'(a)'innovative' legal.normative'principle'of'‘common'but'differentiated'responsibility’'and'(b)'people'centric,' equity.based'understandings'of'social'innovation?'In'other'words,'what'are'the'implications'of'

6" " top.down' market.state' driven' innovations' for' the' ongoing' social' struggles' for' sustainable' marine.coastal'environment'in'both'India'and'China?''

'

A'critical'engagement'with'the'politics'of'knowledge,'climate'change'metanarrative,'and'market' driven'global'governance'discourse'is'the'focus'of'part+four'of'this'study.'My'key'argument'here' is'that'the'seductive'appeal'of'such'framings,'narratives'and'discourses'lies'precisely'in'their' reductionism;'the'ability'to'transform'complex'processes'and'phenomena'at'the'local'scales'into' abstract' ‘manageable’' categories' at' the' service' of' national' action' plans,' regional' and' global' agencies.''

'

The'final'concluding'part'of'this'paper'explores'the'problems'and'prospects'of'achieving'social' innovation'through'social'struggles'in'China'and'India'by'revisiting'one'of'the'most'successful' example' of' innovative' social' struggles' for' retaining' controls' over' local' resources' by' local' communities'that'was'waged'and'‘won’'during'1970s'and'1980ss'in'the'Garhwal'and'Kumaon'

Himalayas;'the'Chipko.''

'

Theoretical+Reflections:+Space,+Scale+and+Power+

+

A'critical'examination'of' the'politics'behind'the'written'geographies'of'marine'environments'

(i.e.' ‘world' heritage’' ‘national' reserves’' or' ‘protected' areas’)' reveals' that' the' “production' of' geographical'knowledge'has'always'involved'claims'to'know'‘space’'in'particular'ways.”15'As' far' as' the' issue' of' scale' is' concerned,'especially'for'the'purposes'of'this'paper,' what'appears' particularly'relevant'to'me'is'the'latest'debate'that'revolves'around'the'claims'that'“scale'itself,' while' no' doubt' an' organizing' moment' in' epistemology,' has' merely' a' transcendental' status' within'the'domain'of'ontology…scale'is'an'epistemology'that,'though'potentially'helpful'in'a' methodological'sense,'is'tied'to'a'global.to.local' continuum' that' underwrites' the' problematic' view'that'social'processes'can'be'detached'from'the'grounded'sites'where'people'and'objects' concretely' reside' and' social' practices' take' place' [e.g.' coastal' communities' of' the' Sundarbans' engaged' in' fishing' to' sustain' livelihoods].' They' offer' in' its' place' a' flat+ ontology' that' resists'

7" " conceptualizing' processes' as' operating' at' scales' that' hover' above' these' sites”16'[regions' and' nation.states].'''

'

Kevin' Cox,' in' the' context' of' local' politics,' draws' a' useful' distinction' between' ‘spaces' of' dependence’'and'‘spaces'of'engagement’'and'argues'that'the'distinction'between'the'two'opens' up'the'possibility'of'a'great'variety'of'contingent'ways'in'which'scale'can'be'constructed.17'He' also' talks' about' the' political' strategy' of' ‘jumping' scales’' (which' is' much' more' than' simply' moving'from'‘local’'to'‘global'scale’)'that'communities'grounded'in'specific'localities'choose'to' draw'from'national,'regional'and'global'discourses'to'improve'the'prospects'of'their'political' struggles.'And'if'power'in'its'minimalist'definition'is'the'ability'of'one'agent/agency'to'affect' the' actions' or' decisions' of' another' agent/agency,' then' a' focus' on' the' meanings,' causes' and' effects'of'power'is'pertinent'to'‘jumping’'scales.''

'

In' the' light' of' above,' it' is' significant' to' explore' how' various' actors' and' agencies' choose' to' ascribe'a'particular'meaning'to'the'category'called'‘environment’.'No'less'important'I'feel'is'the' need' for' questioning' the' tendency' on' the' part' of' some' to' treat' ‘environment’' and' ‘state' of' nature’'as'synonymous'on'the'one'hand,'and'to'perceive'communities'that'depend'on'certain' eco.regions' for' their' livelihoods' as' situated' outside' nature/environment.18'A' relentless' critical' social'science'intervention'in'the'ongoing'debate'on'climate'change,'dominated'so'far'by'‘earth. system.science’,'is'therefore'of'critical'importance.19'I'fully'agree'with'Sally'Eden’s'contention,' without' denying' even' for' a' moment' that' nature' does' exist+ as+ well+ as+ matter,' that' the' social' scientists'should'continue'to'explore'and'explain'how'nature'is'socially'constructed'and'how' culture'informs'our'views'of'environment.20'Mike'Hulme'too'would'argue'in'favor'of'bridging' the'gaps'between'the'scientific'understandings'and'cultural'understandings'of'climate'change.21'

And' equally' compelling' is' Amartya' Sen’s' contention' that,' “focusing' on' the' quality' of' life'

[political' economy' of' life]' can' help' in' this' understanding' and' throw' light' not' only' on' the' demands'for'sustainable'development,'but'also'on'the'content'and'relevance'of'what'we'can' identify'as'‘environmental'issues’.”22''

'

8" " Yet' another' key' concept' that' demands' and' deserves' the' attention' of' a' critical' geopolitical' perspective'(focusing'space,'scale'and'power),'and'assumes'critical'importance'in'both'China' and' India,' is' that' of' ‘ecosystem+ services’.' The' Millennium' Ecosystem' Assessment' (MA),'

(conducted' by' leading' scientists' from' more' than' 100' nations' over' a' period' of' 4' years' and' released'in'2005)'has'provided'rich'insights'and'factual'details'about'“how'human'beings'have' altered' ecosystems,' and' how' changes' in' ecosystem' services' have' affected' human' well.being,' how'ecosystem'changes'may'affect'people'in'future'decades,'and'what'types'of'responses'can' be'adopted'at'local,'national'and'global'scales'to'improve'ecosystem'management'and'thereby' contribute'to'human'well.being'and'poverty'alleviation.”23'The'MA'defines'an'ecosystem'as'“a' dynamic' complex' of' plant,' animal,' and' microorganism' communities' and' nonliving' environment'interacting'as'a'functional'unit’'and'deals'with'‘the'full'range'of'ecosystems'–from' those' relatively' undisturbed,' such' as' natural' forests,' to' landscapes' with' mixed' patterns' of' human'use,'to'ecosystems'intensively'managed'and'modified'by'humans,'such'as'agriculture' land' and' urban' areas”.24'Here' is' yet' another' important' acknowledgment' that' geography' continues'to'matter'in'any'pursuit'of'sustainability.'According'to'MA,'“ecosystem'services'are' the' benefits' people' obtain' from' ecosystems.' These' include' provisioning+ services' such' as' food,' water,'timber,'and'fiber;'regulating+services'that'affect'climate,'floods,'disease,'wastes'and'water' quality;' cultural+ services' that' provide' recreational,' aesthetic,' and' spiritual' benefits;' and' supporting'services'such'as'soil'formation,'photosynthesis,'and'nutrient'cycling.”25'This'raises' in'my'view'the'proverbial'billion'dollar'question'with'regard'to'benefits'‘people'obtain'from' ecosystems’:' who' gets,' what,' when,' where' and' how?' Who' or' which' agency' decides' the'

‘authoritative’'allocation'of'ecosystem'services?''

'

The'MA'has'also'examined'the'issue'of'how'changes'in'the'ecosystem'services'influence'‘human+ well7being’' which'is'“assumed' to' have' multiple' constituents,' including' the'basic+materials+for+a+ good+life,' such' as' secure' and' adequate' livelihoods,' enough' food' at' all' times,' shelter,' clothing,' and'access'to'goods;'health,'including'feeling'well'and'having'a'healthy'physical'environment,' such'as'clean'air'and'access'to'clean'water;'good+social+relations,'including'social'cohesion,'mutual' respect,'and'the'ability'to'help'others'and'provide'for'children;'security,'including'secure'access'

9" " to' natural' and' other' resources,' personal' safety,' and' security' from' natural' and' man.made' disasters;' and' freedom' of' choice' and' action,' including' the' opportunity' to' achieve' what' an' individual' values' doing' and' being.' Freedom' of' choice' and' action' is' influenced' by' other' constituents'of'well.being'(as'well'as'other'factors,'notably'education)'and'is'also'a'precondition' for'achieving'other'components'of'well.being,'particularly'with'regard'to'equity'and'fairness”.26'

The' ethical' imperative' underlying' the' notion' of' ' ‘human' well.being’' assumes' extraordinary' complexity'when'interrogated'in'the'context'of'fast'changing'political'economies'of'more'than' two'billion'people'in'China'and'India.'Can'the'billions'in'Global'South'‘develop’'the'way'the' millions' have' in' the' North?' According' to' MA' approximately' “60%' (15' out' of' 24)' of' the' ecosystem' services' examined' during' the' Millennium' Ecosystem' Assessment' are' being' degraded' or' used' unsustainably,' including' fresh' water,' capture' fisheries,' air' and' water' purification,'and'the'regulation'of'regional'and'local'climate,'natural'hazards,'and'pests.'The' full' costs' of' the' loss' and' degradation' of' these' ecosystem' services,' especially' social' costs,' are' difficult' to' measure,' but' the' available' evidence' demonstrates' that' they' are' substantial' and' growing.”27''

+

+Geopolitics+of+Sustainability+in+the+Era+of+Climate+Change+

+

In' classical.traditional,' state.centric,' geopolitics,' physical' geography' has' been' perceived' in' terms'of'a'static,'situated,'and'bounded'spatiality,'with'much'less'attention'being'devoted'to' human.cultural'geographies.'Critical'perspectives'on'the'geopolitics'of'sustainability'draw'our' attention'to'the'various'ways'in'which'space'and'power'interact'to'produce'diverse'geographies' of' ‘sustainability’' in' a' ‘globalizing’' world.' They'also'raise' the' questions' such' as' who'decides' what'kind'of'a'spatial'arrangement'of'political'power'is'needed'for'sustaining'environments.'

Who'stands'to'gain'(or'lose)'what,'when,'where,'and'why+from'certain'places'being'demarcated' as'ecologically'unique,'fragile'and'vulnerable'environments?'Whose'needs'and'values'are'being' catered'to'by'a'given'ecosystem'service?'What'is'the'scope'for'critical'enquiry'into'the'ways'in' which' environment' is' imagined,' represented' and' resisted' in' both' geo.political' struggles' and' everyday'life?''

10" " '

Henri'Lefebvre'has'rightly'pointed'out'that'in'popular'as'well'as'academic'discourses,'the'word'

‘space’'is'being'treated'in'a'rather'casual'manner.28'Consequently,'space'is'deprived'of'its'most' challenging' characteristics' that' emanate' from' its' plural' nature,' and' call' into' question' simple' and'straightforward'claims'to'knowledge'of'the'ways'in'which'space'is'imagined,'constructed' and' performed.' Such' state.centric' approaches' have' been' criticized' by' John' Agnew29,' who' coined'the'term'‘territorial'trap’'in'order'to'draw'attention'to'the'prevalent'notion'of'state'space' as'a'pre.given,'static'container'within'which'people'‘chosen’'by'a'set'of'borders'and'boundaries' are' being' socialized' into' territorialized' notions' of' citizenship,' democracy,' and' order.' Agnew' underlines'the'need'to'question'this'state.centered'account'of'the'spatiality'of'power.30''

'

In'the'context'of'the'complex'and'dynamic'political'geography'of'climate'change,'the'processes' of' deterritorialization' and' reterritorialization,' operating' in' conjunction,' do' not' so' much' question' or' critique' the' system' of' sovereign' spaces' as' they' reproduce' it.' ' Lovbrand' and'

Stripple31'have' shown' at' length' how' despite' various' trans.border' nature' of' carbon' flows' accumulating' in' the' atmosphere,' state.centric' climate' change' national' actions' plans' and' international'climate'policy'over'the'years'have'resulted'in'territorialization'of'the'carbon'cycle.'

In'their'view,'the'discursive.geopolitical'transformation'of'global'and'deterritorial'carbon'cycles' into'territorial'‘national'sinks’,'can'only'be'understood'with'reference'to'the'inter.governmental' negotiations' on' climate' change.' We' will' return' to' this' critically' important' emerging' commonality'between'China'and'India'shortly'in'this'paper.''

'

Defining+‘Marine+Environments’:+Questioning+Nature7Human+Dichotomies++

+

It'is'widely'acknowledged'among'the'scientific'community'and'emphatically'reported'by'the'

IPCC32,' that' climate' change,' especially' climate' induced' sea' level' rise' (SLR),' will' affect' the' coastal' areas' globally' in' a' number' of' ways,' including' inundation,' flood' and' storm' surges,' erosion,'saltwater'intrusion'and'wetland'loss.'One'encounters'several'estimates'however'of'sea' level'rise'with'regard'to'how'much,'when,'and'where.'In'case'of'India'some'experts'would'

11" " anticipate'SLR'of'1'metre'as'early'as'2050'provided'the'West'Antarctic'ice'sheet'remained'stable' and' ice' streams' from' Greenland' were' not' to' accelerate.33'In' case' of' China,' according' to' State'

Oceanic'Administration34,'coastal'sea'level'“hit'a'30.year'high,'increasing'by'68'mm'during'that'

30.year'period.'From'2008'to'2009'alone,'it'increased'by'8'mm”.35''

'

I' intend' pitching' the' first' set' of' my' arguments' in' this' section' on' the' point' that' ‘marine' environments’'in'many'parts'of'Global'South'are'not'‘empty’'coastal'spaces'of'ecological'value' but'homelands'and'workplace'of'coastal'communities,'providing'vital'‘ecosystem'services’.'It'is' important' to' acknowledge' that' the' categories' of' ‘social’' and' ‘ecological’' need' not' always' be' mutually' exclusive.' This' is' not' to' undermine' the' value' of' deep' ecology' approaches' to' environmental'issues,'which'makes'such'good'sense'in'the'case'of'Antarctica'for'example,'but' to'endorse'the'following'assertion'made'by'Amartya'Sen:'

'

The' environment' is' sometimes' seen' (I' believe' oversimplify)' as' the' ‘state' of' nature’,' including' such' measures' as' the' extent' of' forest' cover,' the' depth' of' groundwater' tables,' the' number' of' living' species' and' so' on...This' understanding'is,'however,'deeply'defective'for'two'important'reasons.'First,' the' value' of' environment' cannot' be' just' a' matter' of' what' there' is,' but' also' consist'of'the'opportunities'it'offers'to'people.'The'impact'of'environment'on' human'lives'must'be'among'the'principle'considerations'in'assessing'the'value' of'the'environment'...'Second,'the'environment'is'not'only'a'matter'of'passive' preservation,' but' also' one' of' active' pursuit.' Even' though' many' human' activities' that' accompany' the' process' of' development' may' have' destructive' consequences,' it' is' also' within' human' power' to' enhance' and' improve' the' environment'in'which'we'live.36'' ' Amartya'Sen'is'not'denying'‘our'sense'of'responsibility'towards'the'future'of'other'species’' that' are' being' destroyed' due' to' ecological' degradation;' say' for' example' mangroves' or' tigers' in' the' Sundarbans' or' Patagonian' Tooth' fish' in' the' Southern' Ocean.' He' does' emphasise'however'that'since'humans'are'much'more'powerful'than'other'species,'they' have'some'responsibility'towards'them.'One'of'the'key'points'that'Sen'is'that,'“people'do' have' needs,' but' they' also' have' values' and,' in' particular,' cherish' their' ability' to' reason,' appraise,' choose,' participate' and' act...Seeing' people' [e.g.' the' Sundarbans' communities]' only' in' terms' of' their' needs' may' give' us' a' rather' meagre' view' of' humanity”.37'' Equally'

12" " significant'and'compelling'is'his'insistence'that'rather'than'visualizing'grand'narratives'of' socio.ecological' justice' (or' for' that' matter' ‘climate' justice’)' we' need' to' focus' on' the' multitude'of'ecological'injustices'handed'out'to'various'marginalized'communities'over'a' long'period'of'time.''

'

Timothy' Doyle' and' I' have' argued' elsewhere 38 'that' in' the' neo.liberal' age,' when' industrialism' has' been' globalized' and' homogenized,' many' ‘environmentalisms’,' ably' supported' by' green' geopolitical' discourses,' seem' to' be' competing' with' one' another' for' greater' visibility,' authority' and' legitimacy.' The' Enlightenment' project,' while' grudgingly' accepting'‘natural'constraints'to'growth’,'continues'to'champion'increased'growth'through' improvements'to'environmental'efficiency'and'management.'Most'recently'this'has'been' pursued' under' the' key' terms' sustainable+ development+ and' ecological+ modernization.+

Significantly,' in' terms' of' temporal' scale+ these' environmental' discourses' place' a' strong' emphasis'on'the'rights'of'‘future'generations’.'Indeed'these'rights'are'one'of'the'defining' features' of' sustainable' development' as' it' was' first' elaborated' in' the' Brundtland' documentation' in' 1987' as' intergenerational' equity.' This' focus' on' ‘future' generations’' is' driven'to'a'large'extent'by'the'Northern'imagination'that'its'global'citizen.consumers'have' realized'their'basic'material'needs'and'can'now'pursue'‘higher'order’'objectives'set'for'the' citizens'of'the'future.'It'is'conveniently'forgotten'at'times'that'in'poorer'and'dominantly' rural'parts'of'the'Global'South,'movements'for'environmental'justice'and'human'security' are'motivated'by'basic'issues'of'survival.'For'those'who'are'already'living'(or'struggling'to' live),' threats' to' their' basic' survival' and' livelihoods' are' as' much' the' result' of' extreme' environmental'degradation'and'hundreds'of'years'of'colonial'exploitation'as'the'outcome' of' industrialization' and' what' Simon' Dalby' appropriately' describes' as' ‘carboniferous' capitalism’.39'The'climate'change'related'dynamics'and'dilemmas'facing'these'communities' should'be'approached'and'analyzed'through'a'human.rights'approach.''

'

The'moment'we'internalize'the'principle'of'‘common'but'differentiated'responsibility’'in' case'of'China'and'India'(a'task'to'which'I'turn'in'the'next'two'sections'of'this'paper)'and'

13" " perceive'it'from'a'subaltern'perspective'of'the'poor'and'marginalized,'who'are'likely'to'be' subjected' to' multiple' exposures' emanating' from' climate' change' (ranging' from' health. livelihood'exposures'to'the'point'where'they' might'be' perceived'as'a'threat'to' domestic' disorder'and'instability)'a'far'more'complex'and'nuanced'notion'of'‘equity’'begs'scrutiny.'

While' it' reinforces' on' the' one' hand' the' need' for' class.affluence' based' approach' to' both' mitigation' of' and' adaptation' to' climate' change,' on' the' other' hand,' it' calls' for' a' greater' focus'and'emphasis'on'people.centric'approaches'to'adaptation.''

'

As'forcefully'argued'by'Simon'Caney,'“Climate'change'jeopardizes'human'rights'and'in' particular' the' human' rights' to' life,' health,' and' subsistence.' Analyzing' the' impacts' of' climate'change'in'terms'of'its'effects'on'human'rights'enjoys'advantage'over'other'ways'of' evaluating' the' impact' of' climate' change.' Endorsing' a' human.rights' framework' for' evaluating'the'impacts'of'climate'change'has'implications'for'our'understanding'of'who' should' bear' the' bear' the' burden' of' climate' change' and' what' kind' of' policies' are' appropriate.”40''

'

As'rightly'pointed'out'David'Harvey41,'one'should'not'be'mislead'by'the'supposition'that' various' proposals' seeking' environmental' change' are' necessarily' aiming' at' social' change' and' social' justice,' without' out' which' the' concept' of' ‘social' innovation’' looks' somewhat' hollow.' On' the' contrary,' many' environmental' agendas' might' seek' to' ideologically' reinforce' class' privilege' and' power' to' sustain' capitalism.' ' No' surprise' perhaps' that' subaltern' perspectives' on' ecologically' sustainable,' socially' just' and' culturally' sensitive' development'look'at'apparently'innovative'concept'of'‘green'economy’'with'a'fair'amount' of'skepticism'bordering'suspicion.'What'is'so'obvious'here'is'the'manipulation'of'spatial' scale'by'the'powers'that'be'in'order'to'eclipse'the'reality'of'ecological'debt'with'the'help'of' the'imagery'of'‘carbon'footprint’.'

'

Equally'important'I'believe'is'the'issue'of'spatial'scale'in'the'geopolitics'of'sustainability.'My' intention'in'this'piece'is'not'to'engage'in'the'scale'debate'per+se,'but'to'provoke'a'debate'on'a'

14" " theoretical'starting'point'from'which'to'approach'and'explore'the'puzzle'of'‘social'innovation’' and'sustainable'[marine]'environments’.'Despite'near'consensus'among'political'geographers' that'scale'is'neither'given'nor'fixed,'and'is'socially'constructed,'fluid'and'contingent,'several' questions'demand'further'critical'reflection'in'the'context'of'climate'change.'What'is'the'most' appropriate' regulatory' scale' (subnational,' national,' supranational)' for' sustainable' marine' environments?' What' are' the' implications' of' various' representational' modes' (including' metanarrative42)' or' discursive' frames' of' scale' for' mitigating' climate' change' and' devising' strategies'for'adaptation?'

It'is'in'the'light'of'questions'raised'above'that'I'turn'next'to'the'insights'I'could'garner'from'my' informal'conversations'with'coastal'communities'in'the'Indian'Sundarbans'and'Zhangjiangkou'

Mangrove' Forestry' National' Nature' Reserve' in' Yunxiao,' Fujian,' China.' I' would' argue' and' illustrate'that'despite'significant'differences'in'terms'of'political'systems'and'political'cultures' in' which' these' two' inhabited' sites' of' ecological' importance' are' situated,' they' have' striking' commonalities.' In' both' the' cases,' there' appears' to' be' a' growing' conflict' over' competing' understandings' and' representations' of' the' ‘Sundarbans’' and' ‘Zhangjiangkou’' as' a' space' (i.e.' beautiful' and' exotic' garden,' world' heritage,' mangroves,' ‘lungs' of' planet' earth’,' ‘blue' carbon' sinks,'sites'of'eco.tourism),'as'a'place'(villages,'communities,'local'histories,'livelihoods)'and'as' a! site/source! of! ecosystem! services.' Equally' implicated' in' this' clash' of' rationalities' and' representations' is' the' question' of' ‘appropriate’' scale' at' which' the' challenge' of' sustainable' marine'environments'could'possibly'be'addressed'in'the'era'of'multiscalar'climate'change.'Who' has' the' power' or' the' authority' to' frame' various' ‘ecosystem' services’' in'the'Sundarbans'and'

Zhangjiangkou,'prioritize'them'and'‘authoritatively’'represent'them'in'certain'ways?'Can'we' ensure'the'wellbeing'of'the'communities'dependent'for'their'livelihood'sustainability/security' on'mangrove'forests'of'the'Sundarbans'and'‘Zhangjiangkou’'without'taking'into'account'their' needs,' values' and' priorities?' Is' the' pursuit' of' sustainable' environments' through' ‘social' innovation’'possible'in'the'absence'of'a'return'to'human'and'cultural'geographies?''

'

Climate!Change!and!The!Sundarbans:!Displacements,!Migration!and!‘Climate!Refugees’!

15" " !

It' is' useful' to' begin' this' section' with' a' brief' overview' of' the' state' and' status' of' mangroves,' extraordinary' ecosystems' situated' at' the' interface' or' land' and' sea,' in' the' context' of' environmental' sustainability' and' climate' change.' Covering' less' than' 1%' of' tropical' forests' globally' speaking' (which' comes' to' around' 0.4%' of' the' total' global' forest' estate)' mangrove' forests'“cover'an'area'of'only'around'152,000'sq.'km'in'123'tropical'and'sub.tropical' forests' worldwide”.43'Despite'the'well.known'fact'that'they'are'not'only'extremely'rich'in'biodiversity' but' also' hold' the' key' to' the' livelihood.food' security' of' millions' of' people' around' the' world' through'the'production'of'numerous'fishery'and'forest'products,'they'are'“disappearing'three' to'five'times'faster'than'overall'global'forest'losses.'Some'countries'have'lost'more'than'40%'of' their'mangrove'area'over'a'25'year'period'and'many'remaining'areas'are'in'a'degraded'state.”44''

Some' of' the' major' anthropogenic' interventions' that' continue' to' destroy' and' degrade' mangroves' include' rapid' population' growth' and' high' population' densities' in' coastal' areas,' over.extraction' and' deforestation,' infilling,' drainage' and' conversion' for' aquaculture' or' other' resource,'agriculture,'urban'and'industrial'runoff,'oil'spills'and'poorly'managed'dredging'and' coastal'development.45'Termed'as'the'‘blue'carbon'sinks,'the'mangrove'forests'serve'as'“highly' effective'global'carbon'stores'and'sinks”'and'in'the'context'of'climate'change'mitigation'“they' can'also'help'build'or'maintain'elevation'in'the'face'of'rising'seas.”46'Relatively'undermined'or' neglected'in'many'national'climate'change'action'plans,'the'mangroves'as'‘blue'carbon'sinks’' are'now'strong'contenders'for'market.industry'driven'clean'development'mechanism'or'carbon' trading.'I'will'be'returning'to'this'last'point'shortly'in'the'study.''

The' Sundarbans,' hosting' one' of' the' largest' continuous' mangrove' forests' in' the' world,' and' shared'between'India'and'Bangladesh,'are'being'increasingly'perceived'as'well'as'reported'in' media' as' the' ‘first' climate' hotspots’' in' South' Asia.' Here' is' an' outstanding' example' of' an' inhabited' ecological' region' that' is' geopolitically' partitioned' and' subjected' to' two' different' regulatory'regimes.'Designated'as'a'UNESCO'world'heritage'site,'the'Indian'Sundarbans'Delta'

(ISD),'the'western'part'of'the'delta'of'the'Ganga.Brahmaputra.Meghna'(GBM)'basin'is'spread' over'about'9630'square'kilometers'and'is'home'to'home'to'over'four'and'a'half'million,'largely'

16" " rural,' people.47'Nearly' sixty' per' cent' of' India’s' mangrove' habitat' is' in' the' Sundarbans.' The' larger' (eastern)' part' of' the' Sundarbans' delta' is' in' Bangladesh.' As' many' as' 54' deltaic' islands'

(occupying'a'little'over'half'of'the'area)'are'populated'and'the'remaining'space'is'covered'by' the'mangrove'vegetation.'Extreme'weather'events,'such'as'severe'storms'or'cyclones,'occurring' at' frequent' intervals,' have' a' long.standing' history.' According' to' the' IPCC' fourth' assessment' report,''

'

Mangroves' may' be' affected' by' climate' change.related' increases' in' temperature' and' sea.level' rise.' Although' the' temperature' effect' on' growth' and' species' diversity' is' not' known,' sea.level' rise' may' pose' a' serious' threat' to' these' ecosystems.' In' Bangladesh,' for' instance,' there' is' a' threat' to' species' in' the' three' distinct' ecological' zones' that' make' up' the' Sunderbans.the' largest' continuous' mangrove' area' in' the' world.' If' the' saline' water' front' moves' further' inland,'Heritiera+ fomes'(the' dominant' species' in' the' landward' freshwater' zone)' could' be' threatened.' Species' in' the' other' two' ecological' zones' (Excoecaria+ agallocha'in' the' moderately' saltwater' zone' and'Ceriops+ decandra'in' the' saltwater' zone)' also' could' suffer.' These' changes' could' result' in' economic' impacts:' Direct+ employment+ supported+ by+ the+ Sunderbans+ is+ estimated+ to+ be+ in+ the+ range+ of+ 500,0007 600,000+people+for+at+least+half+of+the+year+…and+a+large+number+of+these+people+77who+are+ directly+ employed+ in+ the+ industries+ that+ use+ raw+ materials+ from+ the+ Sunderbans+ (e.g.,+ woodcutting;+collection+of+thatching+materials,+honey,+beeswax,+and+shells;+fishing)+77+may+ lose+their+sources+of+income.48'(emphasis'given)' ' Ecological'insecurities,'multiplied'as'well'as'magnified'by'climate'change,'as'experienced'by'the' vast'majority'of'inhabitants'on'both'sides'of'Sundarbans'(especially'those'engaged'in'fishing' and' agriculture),' are' marked' by' a' complex' geographical.spatial' pattern' including' (but' not' exhausted' by)' climate' change' induced' seasonal' variation,' floods' and' droughts.' According' to' the'WWF'India,'

'

A'pronounced'ecological'change'is'evolving'in'this'delta'due'to'huge'discharges'of' untreated'domestic'and'industrial'effluents'carried'by'tributary'rivers'as'well'as' the'disposal'of'contaminated'mud'from'harbour'dredging'and'resulting'from'the' rapid'emergence'of'the'Haldia'Port'Complex,'a'major'oil'disembarkment'terminal' in' eastern' India.' The' Sundarbans' delta' has' become' susceptible' to' chemical' pollutants' such' as' heavy' metals,' organochlorine' pesticides,' polychlorinated' biphenyls' and' polycyclic' aromatic' hydrocarbons,' which' may' have' changed' the' estuaryps'geochemistry'and'affected'the'local'coastal'environment.'As'home'to'a' significant' portion' of' one' of' the' worldps' largest' contiguous' block' of' mangrove' forests,'the'portion'under'natural'vegetation'in'ISD'holds'a'prominent'global'place'

17" " and'a'part'of'it'has'been'designated'as'UNESCO'World'Heritage'site'in'1987'in' recognition' of' its' high' biodiversity' as' well' as' the' occurrence' of' endangered' and' highly' threatened' species,' including' the' only' population' of' tigers' found' in' a' coastal'mangrove'habitat.49' '

As'pointed'out'above,'the'most'prominent'feature'of'the'ISD'is'the'mangrove'ecosystem'that' dominates'the'landscape'and'defies'the'geopolitical'boundaries'between'India'and'Bangladesh.'

Nearly'85'per'cent'of'all'mangrove'habitats'found'in'India'lie'in'the'ISD.'At'least'seven'of'these' mangrove'species'or'species'groups'are'at'risk'and'demand'immediate'conservation'measures.'

Both' the' direct' human' activities' and' natural' environmental' changes' are' responsible' for' the' degradation'of'natural'ecosystems'in'the'ISD.'As'far'as'the'impacts'of'climate'change'on'other' components' of' the' natural' environment' are' concerned,' except' for' changes' in' the' physical' components,'“there'is'insufficient'knowledge'to'attribute'changes'directly'to'climate'change”.50'

While'emphasizing'that'much'more'interdisciplinary'research'is'the'need'of'the'hour,'the'WWF'

Report'points'out'that,'

The' pattern' of' governance' in' the' ISD' has' so' far' struggled' to' keep' up' with' the' management' and' development' challenges' posed' by' this' complex' system.' Given' the' disproportionately' heavy' impact' that' climate' change' is' expected' to' have' on' this' delta' area,' the' need' to' improve' adaptive' management' and' develop' more' appropriate'solutions'for'this'unique'system'has'become'acutely'urgent.'Changes,' in' the' face' of' climate' change,' are' required' in' the' broader' context' of' physical' limitations' of' a' delta' system,' national' development' and' human' settlement' management,' biodiversity' conservation,' and' transboundary' cooperation.' Putting' the' ISD' in' perspective' and' accounting' for' this' broader' context' will' be' crucial' if' correct'management'decisions'are'to'be'made.'If'current'policies'and'patterns'of' development' continue,' the' ISD' is' likely' to' face' steep' and' insurmountable' challenges'in'coping'with'the'pressures'of'predicted'changes,'particularly'in'the' face'of'population'growth'and'impacts'of'climate'change.'To'date,'the'gravity'of' these' challenges' has' not' been' publicly' recognized.' The+ ISD+ is+ in+ need+ of+ early,+ proactive+ and+ informed+ interventions+ by+ all+ actors+ involved+ in+ the+ management+ and+ development+ of+ this+ area,+ especially+ the+ state+ and+ national+ governments.' The' growing' consensus'among'a'vast'body'of'scientists'and'experts'from'all'over'the'world'is' that'unless'highly'informed'and'sometimes'bold'changes'in'policy'and'governance' are' introduced,' coping' with' the' pressures' of' predicted' changes' will' be' nearly' impossible.'In+view+of+the+grave+situation+facing+the+ISD+and+the+fact+that+without+much+ needed+change,+this+environmentally+and+economically+important+area+is+rapidly+heading+ towards+an+uncertain+future…51'(emphasis'given)' '

18" " No'doubt'the'Sundarbans'are'heading'towards'an'uncertain'future'but'with'a'rather'complex' geography'in'terms'of'scale,'space'and'power.'If'Sundarbans'occupy'a'peripheral'position'vis.à. vis' national' and' provincial' geographical.political' mainstream' (in' other' words' vis.à.vis' New'

Delhi' and' Kolkata)' despite' their' growing' visibility' and' centrality' in' the' context' of' ‘global’' climate'change,'there'are'disempowered'communities'that'continue'to'struggle'on'the'margins' of'this'periphery'and'experience'extreme'forms'of'vulnerability'and'livelihood'insecurities.''

The' widely' cited' findings' of' a' study' on' the' Sundarbans,' carried' out' by' Dr.' Sugata' Hazara,'

Director,'School'of'Oceanographic'Studies,'Jadavpur'University,'revealed'as'early'as'2006'that' nearly'two.thirds'of'Ghoramara'Island'had'been'permanently'inundated'due'to'sea'level'rise.'

And'Lohachara'Island,'once'inhabited'by'ten'thousand'people,'and'Supribhanga'island'(both' located'southwest'of'Ghoramara)'had'submerged.'Those'displaced'from'the'Lohachara'Island' fled'to'an'island'called'Sagar,'which'is'said'to'be'equally'vulnerable,'already'having'lost'7,500'to' rising'sea'levels.52''

The'Ghoramara'island'(covering'an'area'of'around'4.8'square'km,'with'a'total'shoreline'length' of'8.5'km)'is'located'in'the'Hooghly'river'estuary'(one'of'the'largest'estuaries'of'River'Ganges),' about'18.36'nautical'miles'away'from'the'Haldia'doc.53'Out'of'the'cluster'of'small'villages'on' this' island54'the'Kashimara'Char,'Lakshmi'Narayanpur'and'Kashimara'have'been'completely' submerged.'The'key'occupation'of'the'communities'in'this'area,'which'experiences'a'tropical' warm'and'humid'climate,'is'agriculture'and'fishing.'Ghoramara'is'6.5'm'above'mean'sea'level' and' subjected' to”55'stronger' flood' tides' for' shorter' duration”' since' “the' Hooghly' estuary' experience' semidiurnal' tide' with' flood' tide' of' short' duration,'3'to'4'hours,'and'the'ebb'tide' remains'for'8'to'9'hours.”56'On'the'issue'of'morphological'changes'of'the'Ghoramara,'a'recent' study'points'out'that:'

The'island'is'undergoing'rigorous'erosion'and'it'has'been'calculated'that' the'island'has'lost'almost'50%'of'its'area'over'four'decades'due'to'severe' erosion'around'all'sides.'The+decrease+of+fresh+water+influx+in+the+Hooghly+River+ due+to+natural+and+anthropogenic+causes+is+a+major+cause+of+the+instability+of+the+ island+system…'Land'use'land'cover'map'also'shows'a'drastic'reduction'in' the'area'of'agriculture'land'and'fisheries.'Land'use'land'cover'calculations'

19" " also'showed'that'the'island'total'area'has'been'reduced'from'9.09'square' km'to'4.8'square'km.57'(emphasis'added)'

In'2001'the'population'of'Ghoramara'was'about'5,000'but'a'number'of'factors,'based'on'both' fear'and'the'hope'to'overcome'that'fear,'have'forced'migration'and'relocation'to'other'nearby' islands' such' as' Sagar,' including' severe' erosion' resulting' in' the' degradation' of' local' environment,'loss'of'homeland'and'livelihood.'Those'who'have'been'displaced'from'already' submerged'Lohachara'and'fast'disappearing'Ghoramara'(experiencing'rapid'and'vast'erosion)' have'been'called'‘environmental'refugees’.''

In'my'view'this'term'is'quite'problematic'and'demands'close'scrutiny.'Timothy'Doyle'and'this' author' have' argued' that,' “…it' is' important' to' ask' the' people' of' the' global' South' themselves'

[e.g.' communities' displaced' from' Ghoramara],' as' to' what' they' think' of' the' climate' refugee' frame.'The'fact'remains'that'many'in'the'global'South'resent'their'depiction'as'‘'victims’+within' climate' refugee' discourses”. 58 'Furthermore,' any' attempt' to' broaden' and' deepen' the''

‘humanitarian'space’'through'the'introduction'of'the'category'of'‘'climate'refugees’—'despite' best'possible'intentions'on'the'part'of'various'actors,'agencies,'or'social'forces—'is'likely'to'be' regressive'rather'than'progressive,'oppressive'rather'than'emancipatory,'and'exclusive'rather' than'inclusive.”''

During' my' visit' to' Ghoramara' and' several' conversations' with' the' local' communities' during'

December'2012'what'becomes'graphically'obvious'to'me'at'the'outset'was'the'vital,'but'often' overlooked,'distinction'between'geographical'proximity'and'geopolitical'remoteness.'In'terms' of' geographical' distance' for' example' Ghoramara' is' not' that' far' from' either' the' mainland'

Kolkata' or' the' Sagar' Island,' of' which' it' was' a' part' before' drifting' away' and' stabilizing' as' a' separate' island' in' 1903.' But' in' terms' of' access' to' and' from' the' ‘outside' world’,' transportation/ferry' services' (which' remain'highly'infrequent'and'ill'maintained)'and'lack' of' interest'shown'by'both'the'government'agencies'and'the'NGOs'(as'pointed'out'by'many'on'the' island),'Ghoramara'appears'distant'and'remote.''

Despite'that'fact'that'global'warming'and'‘stopping'the'island'from'disappearing’'was'reported' to'be'“the'only'issue”'that'“dominated'the'pre.poll'scenario”'and'election'campaigns'of'the'two'

20" " major'political'parties'of'West'Bengal'in'March'200959,'namely'the'then'ruling'CPI'(M)'and'the'

Trinamool'Congress'(that'won'the' elections),' the' local' population' appears' to' be' having' a' far' more'nuanced'understanding'of'‘climate'change’'than'no'doubt'critically'important'issue'of'the' island'drowning.''It'is'issues'like'poverty'and'powerlessness,'combined'with'steadily'shrinking' resource'base'and'livelihood'security'that'appear'far'more'compelling'to'them'then'the'climate' change'rhetoric'of'the'politicians'on'the'eve'of'elections.''

As' the' poor' communities' lose' their' homes,' land' and' fields' and' are' exposed' to' multiple' displacements,'irrespective'of'which'side'of'the'Sundarbans'they'are'(Indian'or'Bangladeshi),' they' would' demand' and' deserve' transboundary' cooperation' and' complementarities' at' sub. regional' and' regional' levels.' Having' said' that,' the' key' policy' responses' to' multifaceted' and' multiscalar' plight' of' Sundarbans' so' far' have' been' predominantly' national' rather' local' and' trans.national.' Anamrita' Anurag' Danda' (before' he' joined' WWF' and' co.authored' the' above' cited'2011'WWF'report'on'Indian'Sundarbans)'had'cautioned'against'privileging'the'national' scale'over'the'local'scale'in'his'doctoral'thesis'on'the'Sundarbans.60'The'complexity'of'spatial. scalar'matrix,'within'which'the'structural'approach'to'secure'Sundarbans'has'been'deployed'by' various' government' agencies,' has' been' graphically' captured' by' Danda' in' the' following' manner:'

The'embankments'are'crucial'for'sustaining'human'habitation'in'the'Sundarbans.' Though'the'significance'of'embankments'is'local,'the'ownership'is'non.local'in'the' sense'that'these'are'public'property'rather'than'common'property'and'the'onus'of' their'maintenance'rests'on'institutionalized'collective'action'organization'that'is'a' level' far' too' removed' from' the' communities' immediately' affected' due' to' breaches/collapses'in'embankments.61''

'

Danda'while'obviously'mindful'of'the'alienation'caused'by'the'physical'and'cognitive'distance' between' the' locality/communities' (that' have' to' bear' the' brunt' of' action' or' inaction)' and' the' authorities,' seems' unable' somehow' to' escape' the' dilemma' inherent' in' a' structural' approach,' however' innovative' it' might' appear' in' first' instance.' He' ‘jumps' the' scale’' but' in' a' different' sense.'To'quote'Danda'again,'

'

21" " Shifting+ a+ large+ population+ of+ over+ 1.76+ million+ out+ of+ the+ eco7region+ does+ not+ appear+ feasible+given+that+rural+West+Bengal+already+has+a+population+density+of+676+persons+per+ square+ kilometer.' Minimizing' further' degradation' of' the' land' mass' is' the' only' option'to'ensure'that'the'population'has'the'opportunity'to'develop'with'the'rest' of' the' country.' Large.scale' investments' in' concrete' structures' located' further' inland' so' that' tides' have' the' space' to' play' is' likely' to' allow' more' stability' than' currently'possible.'Given+the+magnitude+of+physical+forces,+the+global+phenomena+of+sea+ level+rise,+the+level+of+investment+required+for+erecting+and+securing+the+structures,+and+the+ significance+ of+ the+ eco7region,+ it+ might+ be+ more+ appropriate+ to+ transfer+ ownership+ of+ embankments+and+the+responsibility+of+maintaining+these+even+further+by+several+levels+to+ the+national+level+or+even+beyond+since+the+Protected+Area+is+of+global+significance+and+has+ consequences+for+the+World+Heritage+site.'Moreover,'it'is'not'within'the'means'of'the' State'of'West'Bengal'to'make'such'large.scale'investment.62'(emphasis'given)' ' The' ‘Delta' Vision’' of' the' 2011' WWF' Report' (referred' to' earlier' in' this' piece)' talks' about'

“enhanced' protection' for' human' economic' activities' together' with' restoration' of' mangrove' forests,'and'encouragement'of'phased'and'systematic'outmigration”'and'suggests'a'four.phase' approach.'Central'to'the'vision,'among'various'other'suggestions,'is'the'reconstitution'of'the'

Sundarban'Biosphere'Reserve'as'‘Biosphere'District’'in'Phase'I'and'in'Phase'IV,'“the'population' below'the'green'line'starts'to'migrate'to'the'newly'developed'areas”.63'What'about'the'popular' response'to'such'a'vision?'The'following'excerpt'from'the'concluding'paragraph'of'the'WWF'

Report'sums'it'all:'

'

'This'Vision'Scenario'was'discussed'with'at'least'500'residents'of'the'ISD'at'three' different' locations' during' consultative' sessions' in' April.May'2010.'Only'about'5' percent' of' the' participants' thought' emigration' was' possible.' This' may' partly' be' due' to' the' fact' that' current' circumstances' present' few' opportunities' for' positive' emigration' and' the' inhabitants' of' the' region' feel' that' current' opportunities' for' change'are'limited.'The'experience'of'involuntarily'displaced'people'in'other'parts' of' the' country' in' terms' of' rehabilitation' and' resettlement' may' also' be' partly' responsible' for' the' current' position' on' emigration' that' the' people' of' ISD' are' taking.'The'perception'of'how'feasible'the'proposed'scenario'is'could'be'markedly' different' if' a' carefully' phased' out,' participatory' capacity' building' and' empowerment' is' pursued.' In' such' circumstances' moving' away' from' high.risk' areas'towards'better'opportunities'may'appear'as'the'most'attractive'option'for'the' younger' section' of' the' population.' Even' in' countries' that' have' more' economic' resources'than'India,'it'is'becoming'clear'that'moving'away'from'high.risk'areas'is' and' should' be' a' preferable' option.' Hurricane' Katrina' and' its' aftermath' in' New' Orleans,'USA'is'a'case'in'point.64' '

22" " As'the'resident'communities'of'geopolitically'split'Sundarbans'struggle'to'adapt'to'multiples' transitions,' transformations' and' dislocations' (without' getting' lost' in' the' process),' against' the' backdrop' of' various' top.down' structural,' managerial' and' market.based' solutions' being' vigorously'pursued'and'indiscriminately'imposed'in'some'cases'by'the'authorities'concerned,' the'subaltern'perspectives'will'continue'to'highlight'the'fact'that'in'cases'where'the'dominant' spatiality' of' ‘social’' happens' to' be' deeply' hierarchical,' ‘innovation’' appears' difficult' in' the' absence'of'empowerment'(social.cultural,'political'and'economic)'at'the'grassroots.''.'

Zhangjiangkou+ ‘Mangrove+ Forestry’+ ‘National’+ ‘Nature’+ ‘Reserve’:+ Planted+ Ecologies+ and+ Alienated+Communities+

'

It'is'useful'in'my'view'to'begin'with'a'brief'overview'of'the'overall'state'and'status'of'coastal'

China' before' focusing' more' sharply' on' a' small' but' significant' part' of' the' coastal' marine' environment,' namely' Zhangjiangkou' Mangrove' Forestry,' National' Nature' Reserve.' ' In' 2008,' the'Southern+Metropolis+Daily'brought'out'a'report'entitled'“Dark'Waters:'Coastal'China'on'the'

Brink”'in'two'parts.65'Part'one'while'reporting'on'the'death'of'local'fishing'industry'said,'“The' seas' are' dying.' China’s' coastline' has' become' a' massive' dumping' ground.' The' fish' are' vanishing;'the'water'is'becoming'filthier'by'the'day'and'the'air'is'impossible'to'breathe.'Areas' that'were'once'bustling'and'prosperous'are'now'uninhabitable.'The'seaside'towns'of'east'China' provinces'of'Jiangsu'and'Shandong'are'being'deserted…the'sea'is'becoming'a'danger'zone.”66'

Part'two'of'this'report'focused'on'a'number'of'industrial'zones'and'reported'how'a'industrial' zone' located' along' the' Chao' River' was' forced' the' inhabitants' of' Duigou' village,' Gunnam' county,' without' a' proper' environmental' and' social' impact' assessment.67'And' when' the' Chao'

River' turned' ‘red’' due' to' severe' contamination,' the' villagers' protesting' and' demanding' compensation' “were' sued' for' fraud' by' the' management' of' the' industrial' zone.”68'' It' was' pointed'out'in'the'report'that,'“it'is'not'only'sea'life'that'is'poisoned'when'waste'from'the'land' enters'rivers'and'seas.'Toxins'are'turning'u'on'dinner'tables'through'the'salts'extracted'from' seawater.'Toxins'may'even'end'up'back'inside'the'bodies'that'produce'them.”69'Gao'Zhiguo,' then' Head' of' the' Maritime' Development' Strategy' Research' Institute' at' China’s' National'

23" " Maritime'Bureau,'was'quoted'as'saying'that,'“The'Bohai'Gulf'area'is'becoming'one'of'China’s' three'big'economic'regions…The'environment'there'is'coming'under'unprecedented'pressure.'

Severe'pollution'in'some'regions'is'rapidly'spreading'to'others.'In'some'parts,'there'has'been'a' total'breakdown'of'the'local'ecology.'The'fishing'industry'has'virtually'run'out'of'resources.'

Ecological' disasters' such' as' red' tides' and' oil' slicks' are' frequent.”70'It' is' important' to' bear' in' mind'that'fisheries'and'marine'aquaculture'in'the'Bohai'Sea'[a'semi.enclosed'sea'with'fragile' ecosystems]' not' only' provide' seafood,' but' also' sustain' livelihoods' of' a' large' number' of' fishermen'around'the'sea.'All'this'is'now'under'a'serious'threat'due'to'fast'degrading'marine' ecosystems,' illegal' fishing' and' destructive' fishing' methods' such' as' explosives' and' toxins.'

According'to'one'analyst,'“an'estimated'43'of'the'53'major'waterways'that'run'into'Bohai'are' heavily'polluted,'with'the'worst'conditions'occurring'near'the'mouths'of'the'Yellow,'Xiaoqing' and'Zhangwei'rivers.”71'

With'a'total'area'of'about'2'360'ha.'Zhangjiangkou'Mangrove'Forestry'National'Nature'Reserve' is,' located' in' Yunxiao,' Fujian,' China.72'Sitting' on' the' estuary' of' Zhangjiang' river' as' well' as' named'after'it,'the'largest'Avicennia'marina'forest'in'China73'is'home'to'688'species'of'plants' and'animals'and'provides'habitat'and'nursery'sites'for'many'commercially'important'fish'and' crustaceans.' The' mangrove' forest' plays' important' roles' in' shoreline' protection,' chemical' buffering,' water' quality' maintenance,' recreation' and' education,' and' as' reservoirs' of' genetic' materials.'As'pointed'out'by'some'experts,'“During'the'past'decades,'the'reserve'and'the'area' surrounded'has'been'changed'due'to'the'environmental'pollution'problem,'human'activities,' urbanization'development,'and'other'social/economic'issues'imposed'on'it,'which'brought'on'a' series' of' responses' of' regional' eco.environment' and' the' variation' of' its' ecosystem' service' values.”74'These' wetlands' are' very' important' for' wetland' aquaculture' for' the' local' habitants.'

The' human' activities' have' been' classified' under' four' categories:' picking' seafood' under' mangrove,' collecting' seafood' by' couple' in' a' boat,' collecting' seafood' in' both' sides' of' public' watercourse,'and'mudflat'aquaculture.''

Communities'living'in'the'Zhuta'village'close'proximity'to'Zhangjiangkou'Mangrove'Forestry'

National' Nature' Reserve' (cited' hereafter' as' Zhangjiangkou' Reserve),' and' depending' on' its'

24" " resources,' especially' fishe,' for' their' livelihood' security,' feel' alienated' vis.à.vis' what' many' would'perceive'as'‘planted'ecologies’.'L.'E.'Tongchao75'has'examined'at'length'the'relationship' between'the'Zhangjiangkou' Reserve'and'the'adjacent'community' in' the' Zhuta' village.' In' his' view'since'the'community'economy'relies'upon'the'natural'reserve'resources,'the'perspectives' of' the' villagers' must' be' incorporated' into' decision.' making' and' “the' Nature' Reserve' should' attract'public'participation'to'improve'its'sustainable'development.”76'This'does'not'appear'to' be'case'as'for'as'the'inhabitants'of'village'Zhuta'are'concerned.''

At' one' level' one' finds' a' clash' between' the' government' officials' and' communities)' over' the' dominant' understandings/' representations' of' each' of' the' notions' I' have' placed' under' single' inverted'commas'above.''In'the'official'discourse'(as'one'official'of'the'local'forest'department' would'describe'to'me)'Zhangjiangkou'Reserve'is'a'site'of'conflict'between'the'logic'of'ecology' and'the'logics'of'economy.'The'impression'that'is'conveyed'through'such'a'statement'is'that'the' local'communities'(perceived'as'located'outside'the'‘nature’'but'at'the'same'time'expected'to'act' as'environmental'stewards)'are'dictated'more'by'the'logic'of'economy/capital'(making'money)' and'much'less,'if'at'all,'by'the'logic'of'ecology/preservation.'Whereas'the'conversations'with' members'of'local'community'reveal'that'there'are'several'reasonings'at'play'within'the'‘logic'of' capital’'and'the'‘logic'of'ecology’.'Many'members'of'the'local'fishing'community'expressed'a' deep' sense' of' dismay,' bordering' anger,' on' the' time' limits' imposed' on' their' only' source' of' income'by'the'local'authorities.''

Communities'also'find'themselves'at'a'considerable'distance'(physical'as'well'as'mental)'both' vis.à.vis' the' official.regulatory' agencies' and' the' mangrove' site.' They' find' the' government' agencies' omnipresent' but' at' the' same' time' invisible.' The' naming' of' the' mangroves' as'

‘Zhangjiangkou’'National'Nature'Reserve'after'the'river,'and'not'after'their'village,'is'perceived' by'some'in'the'village'as'the'evidence'of'its'‘planted’'nature.''

Conversations' with' the' local' communities' of' ‘Zhuta' Village’,' ‘Yunxiao' County’,' ‘Dongshan'

Port’,' ‘Zhangzhou' City’,' Fujian' Province' on' the' one' hand,' and' ‘government' officials’' on' the' other,'reveals'a'good'deal'of'uncertainty,'bordering'confusion,'over'the'nature,'scope'and'reach'

25" " of' ‘governance’' and' policies' over' the' ‘place’' in' question.' The' following' insightful' statement' made'by'Judith'Shapiro'appears'to'provide'some'explanation'for'this:'

There'is'fragmentation,'both'horizontal'and'vertical,'in'China’s'government'structure.' Competing'and'overlapping'bureaucracies'plague'every'level'of'administration,'and' the'lines'of'authority'from'the'“centre”'in'Beijing'to'the'localities'are'often'weak,'with' government' officials' at' the' prefecture,' district,' country' and' township' levels' often' answering' to' other' local' officials' rather' than' to' their' superiors' in' the' central' environmental' bureaucracy.' As' a' result' there' are' competing' perspectives' on' development'and'environment'within'the'state,'and'differences'of'opinion'as'to'how' much'attention'to'pay'to'the'environment.''Within'the'bureaucratic'system'there'are' strong' advocates' for' a' new,' more' ecological' form' of' modernization,' but' they' face' serious'challenges.77'

The' NGOs' like' the' China' Mangrove' Conservation' Network' (CMCN),' operating' within' the' obvious' constraints,' hope' to' bridge' the' persisting' gaps' between' the' two' estranged' entities,' namely'multilayered'authority'and'local'communities;'an'uphill'task'indeed.'My'conversations' with' the' young' members' of' this' NGO' (mostly' in' their' mid' twenties),' including' its' lead' campaigner' Liu' Yi,78'revealed' first' and' foremost' their' resolve' to' make' a' difference' on' the' ground'through'education'and'awareness.'A'former'student'environmental'group,'established' in'2000'at'Xiamen'University,'turned'into'professional'conservation'organization,'CMCN'today' has'at'least'“40'cooperative'nongovernmental'entities'(including'NGOs,'communities,'schools,' nature'reserves'and'research'institutions):'3,000'volunteers;'and'150,000'network'members”.79'

CMCN'is'committed'to'a'conservation'philosophy'that'is'inclusive'in'its'approach'and'rigorous' in'its'outreach.'It'believes'in'addressing'the'core'needs'of'all'stakeholders'and'has'been'engaged' in' “campaigns' that' have' been' promoting' research,' encouraging' mangrove' rehabilitation' and' providing' public' education,' community' development' and' training' to' restore' and' sustainably' use' mangroves.”80'I' was' introduced' for' the' first' time' to' an' excellent' example' of' eco.social' innovation' at' the' micro' level' called' the' ‘Duck' Egg' Model’81'that' was' skillfully' deployed' by'

CMCN'campaigners'to'reduce'friction'between'the'logic'of'ecology'and'logic'of'livelihood'in' the'context'of'the'wise'and'sustainable'use'of'mangrove'ecosystem'services'by'the'communities' that' depend' on' them' for' their' livelihood' security.' A' local' delicacy' of' Fangchenggang' in'

Guangxi' Province' is' Red.heart' salty' duck' egg' that' fetches' three' times' the' price' than' regular' eggs'due'to'its'better'taste'and'high'nutritional'value.'Since'mangroves,'besides'having'a'water'

26" " cleansing'function,'play'an'important'role'in'the'production'of'this'egg'by'providing'a'rich' supply'of'seashells,'fish'and'shrimps,'local'fishermen'remain'deeply'conscious'of'the'fact'that' the'carrying'capacity'of'the'mangrove'must'not'be'overstretched'or'overexploited'by'increasing' the'number'of'duck'beyond'a'sustainable'point'in'order'to'ensure'the'quality'of'eggs.'Once'the' vital'link'between'sustainable'economy'and'a'sustainable'ecology,'is'perceived'and'appreciated' in'this'manner,'the'fishermen'develop'a'stake'in'not'only'protecting'the'local'mangroves'but' also'expanding'their'size.''

CMCN'is'a'good'example'of'how'the'youth'of'China'are'forming'associations'and'solidarities' despite'numerous'odds,' including' the' cumbersome' registration' process' with' the' government' and'prospects'of'sudden'closure.'82'Making'full'use'of'the'new'media,'these'young'activists'are' creating'a'new'socio.spatial'consciousness'and'new'geographies'of'hope'in'rural'China'where' even'‘collective'petitioning’'carries'risks,'and'only'those'who'are'relatively'well'off'in'terms'of' economic' security' might' be' more' willing' to' take' the' risk.83'It' is' worth' pointing' out' that''

‘Zhangjiangkou' Mangrove' National' Reserve' Green' Map’84,' based' on' data' and' information' collected'by'CMCN'over'a'period'of'six'years'is'not'a'‘map'to'scale’'and'this'is'where'its'key' strength' lies.' This' subtle' cartographic' innovation' is' a' kind' of' subversion' (without' out' right' confrontations' with' the' party' state' and' its' multilayered' ‘governance’' structure)' of' empty' yet' dominant' official' cartographies' of' natural' reserves' that' blatantly' empty' out' ecosystems'

(terrestrial' as' well' as' marine)' of' their' social.cultural' substance.' The' strategies' adopted' by'

CMCN' compel' us' to' appreciate' in' my' view' that' environmental' activism' in' China' are'

“delicately'dealing'with'political'constraints,'and'in'fact'have'been'able'to'achieve'their'goals,' maintain' their' autonomy,' and' convince' the' government' of' their' intentions' through' non. contentious'means”.85''

The'odds'facing'the'micro'geopolitics'of'resistance'in'both'China'and'India'are'enormous'and' include' steadily' unfolding' dynamics' and' fall' outs' (social,' environmental' and' cultural)' of' the'

‘hegemony'of'transnational'liberalism’'and'neoliberal'globalization.'Is'to'this'issue'area'that'I' turn'next.'

27" " Entrenched+ Ecological+ Irrationalities,+ Neoliberalism+ and+ Un;sustainability:+ Critical+ Perspectives+on+China+and+India++ '

Both' China' and' India' are' graphic' examples' of' how' ‘development’' induced' environmental' destruction,'social.cultural' dislocations' and' forced' displacements' have' been' taking' place' at' a' gigantic' scale' with' consequences' affecting' spaces' and' societies' far' beyond' national' borders.'

There' is' no' dearth' of' literature' on' this' subject' of' environmental' degradation' in' China' and'

India86'and'what'follows'by'way'of'a'quick'snap'shot'in'a'few'paragraphs'is'the'proverbial'tip' of'the'iceberg.'''

'

In' India' where' biological' contamination' of' major' rivers' has' reached' alarming' proportions,' millions' of' already' malnourished' children' are' being' killed' by' ‘toxic' water’' with' or' without' climate'change.'According'to'the'Central'Pollution'Control'Board'(CPCB),'“out'of'88'industrial' clusters,'43'are'“critically'polluted”.'In'a'vast'majority'of'cases,'“untreated'industrial'effluents' continue'to'be'dumped'into'the'nearer'water'body,'sometimes'a'river'that'also'supplies'water'to' urban' residents.' This' heady' mix' of' toxic' chemicals' is' often' the' only' source' of' water' for' the' urban'poor'who'do'not'have'the'capacity'to'treat'the'water'before'they'consume'it.'As'a'result,' the'cycle'of'illness'and'death'is'played'out,'especially'amongst'children”.87''

'

In'apparently'more'prosperous'Indian'state'of'Punjab,'the'Malwa'region,'a'cotton.growing'belt'

(comprising'the'southern'districts'of'Bhatinda,'Faridkot,'Moga,'Mukhastar,'Ferozpur,'Sangrur' and'Mansa)'the'highest'incidence'of'cancer'has'been'reported.'In'a'survey'conducted'by'Science' and' Environment,' New' Delhi,' in' 2005,' “unacceptable' levels' of' pesticides”' were' found' in' the' blood'samples'of'people'living'in'the'District'of'Bhatinda.88'And'in'China'after'a'long'standing' silence' on' the' matter' the' Chinese' environmental' ministry' has' grudgingly' acknowledged' the' existence'of'‘cancer'villages’'and'steadily'growing'deaths'due'to'pulmonary'diseases'and'lung' cancer.'The'ministry'has'refused'to'accept'the'term'‘cancer'villages’'but'the'country’s'five'year' plan' has' acknowledged' that,' “In' recent' years,' toxic' and' hazardous' chemical' pollution' has' caused'many'environmental'disasters,'cutting'off'drinking'water'supplies,'and'even'leading'to' severe'health'and'social'problems'such'as'‘cancer'villages’.89'Chao'Quingchen,'Deputy'Director.

28" " General' of' the' Department' of' Science' and' Technology' Development' at' the' China'

Meteorological'is'said'to'have'remarked,'“Since'the'1990s,'up'to'400'million'people'in'China' have'been'affected'each'year'by'weather.related'disasters'and'secondary'hazards,'at'a'loss'of'

$30'billion,’.”90'

'

A' recent' critical' study' on' the' ‘new' economic' policy’' of' India91'raises' a' number' of' critically' important' questions.' In' this' volume,' Richard' Peet92'thoughtfully' asks:' “Who' controls' the' economy' [in' India' and' for' that' matter' in' China],' through' what' institutional' and' ideological' means,'in'whose'interest'and'to'benefit'whom?”'Summing'up'the'key'findings'of'the'volume,' the' editors' conclude' on' the' following' note:' ‘Neoliberalism' in' the' form' of' the' New' Economic'

Policy'in'India'has'not'meant'a'triumph'of'the'new'over'the'entrenched'habits'of'the'old,'as'the' conventional'(pro.business)'media'always'phrase'it.'Instead'it'has'meant'a'lot'more'power'and' money' for' a' relative' few,' located' in' the' elite' spaces' of' India’s' glittering' cities' and' utter' deprivation'and'exploitation'for'the'masses,'sleeping'on'the'streets,'encamped'in'urban'slums' and'struggling'to'survive'in'over'half'a'million'villages.”''

'

How'does'one'describe'the'changing'nature'of'Indian'state'today'in'the'context'of'neoliberal' globalization?'For'the'purposes'of'analysis'in'this'paper'I'find'the'following'statement'made' with'regard'to'India'in'general'and'the'city'of'Ahmadabad'in'the'state'of'Gujarat'in'particular' quite'thought'provoking.''

…since'neoliberalism'propagates'a'truncated'role'for'the'state,'it'falsely'assumes'that' ideological'interplay'will'be'minimized'because'the'state'as'the'supreme'ideological' apparatus'has'been'made'to'take'a'back'seat'–red'tape'of'the'‘corrupt’'states'can'be' downsized' so' that' the' efficiency' of' the' market' can' roll' out' the' red' carpet' of' prosperity…the+local+state+in+its+reorganization+vis7à7vis+the+market+is+not+rolled+back,+rather,+ it+is+vigorously+present+in+its+new+avatar+as+market7state+where+the+hyphen+between+state+and+ market+ is+ increasingly+ blurred…Market' rhetoric' is' fused' with' the' bureaucratic' to' envision' a' ‘new’' model' of' development.' Since' the' market.state' is' no' longer' accountable' for' distributive' justice,' death' of' the' ‘unfit’' is' no' longer' considered' a' failure' of' the' state' machinery,' it' is' simply' a' sad,' but' necessary' consequence' of' a' thriving'market'system.'93'(emphasis'supplied)'' '

29" " It'is'important'to'note'that'India'and'China'are'becoming'the'hubs'of'‘carbon'trading’,'which' appears'to'be'a'telling'example'of'how'‘market'fundamentalism’'(pronounced'as'dead'by'many' including'Joseph'Stiglitz)'is'reinventing'itself'in'its'new'avatar'in'the'Global'South'in'the'form' of'‘green'economy’'and'climate'change'‘mitigation’'through'the'so.called'Clean'Development'

Mechanisms'(CDMs).''Are'we'witnessing'the'rise'of'a'‘green'market'fundamentalism’'in'two'of' the'fastest'growing'economies'of'the'world?'Here'are'some'arguments'backed'up'by'facts'and' figures'to'ponder'over.'

'

A'2008'report'from'the'World'Bank'listed'India'as'the'second'largest'seller'of'carbon'credits'in' the' world' with' a' 6%' share' in' 2007,' with' China' at' top' of' the' list' with' a' 73%' share.' The' attractiveness' of' China' for' buyers' of' carbon' credits' was' attributed' largely' to' vthe' large' size,' economies' of' scale' in' origination,' and' its' favorable' investment' climate.v' The' ways' in' which' carbon'markets'function'appears'to'be'an'excellent'example'of'what'can'be'called'‘green'market' fundamentalism’'that'is'deeply'anchored'in'neoliberalism'and'marked'by'the'contradictions'of'

‘climate'commodity’94.'It'is'based'on:'

'

'The' allocation' of' a' given' number' of' CHG' emissions' permits' or' allowances,' and' polluters'can'then'trade'these'permits'on'a'market'according'to'their'needs,'a'system' often'referred'to'as'‘cap'and'trade’.'The'logic'behind'such'a'system'is'to'turn'GHG' into' tradable' commodities,' encouraging' efficient' market' behaviour,' and' hence' the' hope' that' the' immense' financing' that' is' needed' for' investing' in' green' technologies' (such'as'researching'and'building' new' renewable' energy' plants)' would' come' from' those'big'polluters'that'do'not'want,'or'find'it'comparatively'expensive,'to'reduce'the' GHG'emissions.'Coupled'with'the'system'are'various'‘flexibility’'mechanisms,'such' as'carbon'offsetting,'which'allows'polluters'to'compensate'for'emissions'produced'in' one'location'by'investing'in'emissions'reductions'schemes'elsewhere.95' '

It' has' been' persuasively' argued' by' Boyd,' Boykoff' and' Newell96'that' composed' of' “several,' inter.connected'carbon'markets”'a'“carbon'economy”97''is'now'increasingly'seen'by'its'movers' and' supporters' (in' both' Global' North' and' Global' South)' as' authoritative,' legitimate' and' effective' market.driven' solution' to' ‘planetary' emergency’' introduced' by' climate' change.'

Despite'being'seriously'questioned'as'the'new'avatar'of'(neo)colonial'dispossession'by'some98,' the'carbon'economy'has'taken'different'forms'in'different'parts'of'the'globe,'including'different'

30" " kinds' of' emission' trading,' the' so' called' ‘voluntary' markets’' and' ' ‘compliance' markets’.' The' most'notable'version'of'the'compliance'markets'is'through'the'Clean'Development'Mechanism'

(CDM)'created'by'the'Kyoto'Protocol.''These'scholars'rightly'caution'us'against'undermining' the'importance'of'carbon'economy'despite'the'unstable'nature'of'its'markets.'For'example,'the' expectation' is' that' during' the' first' CDM' commitment' period' of' the' Kyoto' Protocol,' Certified'

Emission' Reductions' (CERs)' amounting' to' more' than' 2.7' billion' tonnes' of' carbon' dioxide' equivalent'will'be'produced.99'According'to'the'World'Bank'most'of'the'financial'support'for' funding' mitigation' efforts' by' the' developing' countries' is' expected' to' come' from' this' source,' and' it' was' expected' that' dover' the' period' 2001.2012,' “CDM' projects' could' raise' US$15.24' billion'direct'carbon'revenue'for'developing'countries”'depending'upon'the'‘price'of'carbon’.100'

'

The' manner' in' which' the' so' called' ‘new’' carbon' economy' with' a' ‘human' face’' not' only' commodifies'carbon'but'also'intends'to'“open'up'nearly'all'sectors'of'the'economy'in'all'parts' of' the' world' to' the' potential' reach' of' carbon' markets”101'it' would' be' naïve' to' assume' that' it' would'address'existing'inequalities.''These'trends'besides'reinforcing'inequalities'might'even'

“change'the'value'and'viability'of'existing'livelihood'options”102'for'millions'in'China'and'India' and' the' rest' of' the' world.' ' For' example' those' living' in' forests' or' adjacent' to' the' mangroves'

(including'Sundarbans'and' ‘Zhangjiangkou’)' might' find' their' livelihoods' seriously' disrupted' and'displaced'due'to'the'maps'of'values'and'meanings'imposed'on'their'habitat'and'homeland.'

These'communities'on'the'margins'would'paradoxically'find'themselves'paradoxically'‘central’' to'the'process'of'what'Maria'Gutierrez'aptly'describes'as'‘making'markets'out'of'thin'year’.''

'

Maria'Gutierrez'has'shown'how'a'new'neoliberal'logic'continues'to'he'vigorously'marketed'at' present,'notwithstanding'various'ups'and'downs'in'international'climate'negotiations,'on'the' hopeful' note' that' it' is' both' scientifically' feasible' and' morally' desirable' to' sell' to' companies' worldwide'offsets+from+carbon+sequestration'by'trees'–so'called'“sinks”—and'also'thereby'provide'

“a' new' crop' for' farmers' in' the' tropics”.'103'The' intriguing' as' well' as' intricate' geoeconomic' discourse' that' has' been' built' ‘from' the' point' of' view' of' the' atmosphere’' flattens' the' highly'

31" " polemical' geography' of' responsibility' and' accountability' associated' with' climate' change' and' environmental'sustainability.'Once'this'is'done,'As'Gutierrez'puts'it'so'forcefully,'

'

...it+did+not+matter+where+in+the+world+a+reduction+in+emissions+took+place.+Thus+trees+and+ vegetative+ growth+ in+ one+ place+ could+ offset+ carbon+ emitted+ anywhere+ else…So' even' though'it'was'always'recognized'that'carbon'sequestration'was'just'a'temporary' solution' of' limited' effect,' investing' in' carbon' sinks' appeared' as' a' simple' and' inexpensive'[innovative]'solution'that'addressed'both'the'increase'in'greenhouse' gas'emissions'and'deforestation'–two'major'environmental'problems—at'the'same' time…Yet'once'the'idea'of'accounting'for'carbon'sinks'in'the'context'of'a'market' was'accepted,'an'intermediate'list'of'problems'appeared.'How+does+one+define+forest+ in+a+way+that+applies+to+all+countries+and+contexts?+Even+the+common+definition+of+forests+ has+changed+in+the+last+few+years,+having+evolved+from+notions+that+included+the+idea+of+ climax,+ to+ references+ to+ ecosystems,+ and+ most+ recently+ images+ of+ an+ “erratic,+ shifting+ mosaic+of+trees”.'But'then'what'about'savannas'and'woodlands?'And'short'shrubs,' mangroves,' or' marshland?' And' forest' transitions?' What' makes' the' removal' “human' induced”?' How' does' one' set' apart' natural' regeneration' or' fertilization' from'other'natural'processes'or'past'practices?104'(emphasis'added)'' '

Questions'raised'above'(and'many'more)'by'Gutierrez'are,'as'he'himself'points'out,'may'sound' technical' to' some' but' they' are' not.' Behind' apparently' politically' neutral' and' seductive' discourse' that' revolves' around' the' ‘point' of' the' view' of' atmosphere’,' lies' a' highly' contested' terrain'marked'by'politics'of'post.political,'sovereignty'concerns'relating'to'land'and'land'use'

(e.g.' Brazil),' lure' of' procuring' additional' resources' and' investments' in' the' forestry' sector' for' poor'countries'of'Global'South.'As'a'matter'of'fact,'“…in'the'context'of'a'new'global'market'any' call' to' distinguish' between' political' and' technical' issues' in' regard' to' sinks' was' quickly' considered'politically'motivated.”105''

'

It'appears'that''‘making'markets'out'of'a'thin'year’'through'an'assemblage'of'markets'for'sinks' under' the' CDM,' aimed' at' reducing' complex' social.ecological' processes' and' related' political' concerns'to'carbon'accounting'under'a'market'mechanism,'which'in'turn'is'wrapped'up'in'a' language'that'is'muddled'due'to'jargons,'and'only'within'the'comprehension'of'a'few'experts' belonging' to' a' highly' specialized' field' in' the' world,' qualifies' as' ' ‘involution’' rather' than' an'

‘innovation’.'According'to'Gutierrez'the'term'involution'applies'also'“to'the'entanglement'that'

32" " resulted'from'commodifying'something'like'carbon'sequestration'from'trees'and'vegetation,'a' process'which'takes'place'naturally'everywhere,'any'way.”''''''

'

Coming' to' China' and' India,' these' two' major' protagonists' of' common' but' differentiated' responsibility'principle'form'a'part'of'puzzle'when'it'comes'to'their'participation'in'the'market' for'carbon'offsets.'Far'from'challenging'it'on'either'moral'or'geopolitical'grounds,'both'have' become,'as'noted'above,'the'major'sites'and'supporters'of'‘ecological'modernization’.'And'both' have' failed' to' question' effectively' ‘the' atmosphere’s' point' of' view’,' despite' the' fact' this' deceptive' ‘view' from' no' where’' provides' a' strategic' distancing' to' the' major' high' per' capita' polluters' by' allowing' them' to' equate' all' emissions' from' all' countries' and' thereby' make' the' distinction'with'‘survival'emissions’'and'‘luxury'emissions’'opaque.'There'appears'to'be'a'little' critical' appreciation' in' India,' and' for' obvious' reasons' more' so' in' China,' that,' “the' global' emissions' trading' system' is' poorly' monitored,' contains' a' built.in' incentive' for' fraudulent' emission'reductions'claims,'and'results'in'land.use'activities,'such'as'plantation'forestry,'that' appears' to' generate' environmental' benefits,' while' in' actual' facts' are' gross' examples' of' environmental'injustice.”106'

'

A'latecomer'to'carbon'market'and'after'showing'initial'caution'China'is'said'to'have'“taken'a' more'involved'role'in'the'project'approval'process'than'any'other'developing'country”.107'It'is' useful'to'note'that'five'years'after'the'entry'into'force'of'the'Kyoto'Protocol,'the'CDM'projects' were'pronounced'eligible'for'crediting.''But'China'ratified'the'treaty'only'in'August'2002.'The' designated'national'authority'to'oversee'CDM'projects'was'put'into'place'in'June'2004'and'it' was'in'October'2005'that'the'State'Council'adopted'rules'for'the'management'of'CDM'projects.'

Beijing'took'this'long'to'make'an'authoritative'entry'into'carbon'trading'market'because'of'its' early'skepticism'over'the'legitimacy'of'CDM.'The'CDM'were'viewed'by'China'as'“a'way'for' developed'countries'to'avoid'their'own'responsibility'to'reduce'emissions”'and'there'was'an' additional' concern' “about' the' potential' for' foreign' exploitation' of' rights' to' ownership' of' emission'credits”.108'

'

33" " More'recently'a'passionate'appeal'to'decarbonize' political' economy' and' models' of' economic' growth' has' been' made' by' Peter' Newell' and' Matthew' Paterson109'based' on' the' hope' (against' hope!)'that'a'‘climate'capitalism’'that'is'more'humane'and'deeply'wary'of'unregulated'carbon' markets'is'not'only'desirable'but'also'feasible.'They'themselves'acknowledge'however'in'their' concluding'remarks'that,'“…achieving'a'humane'form'of'climate'capitalism'will'not'always'be' easy.'Financers'may'not'always'accept'the'need'for'more'regulation,'even'in'the'current'climate' of'rebuke'about'their'conduct,'and'political'conflict'will'be'involved.'We'see'this'now'even'in' the' face' of' a' financial' crisis' that' has' threatened' to' bring' global' economy' to' its' knees.' It' will' entail,'therefore,'negotiating'a'complicated'and'irresolvable'dilemma'between'the'promise'and' pitfalls'of'carbon'market.”110''

'

India' and' China' are' fast' emerging' as' key' players' in' the' carbon' market' today' From' the' standpoint'of'‘equity’'and'climate'justice'it'is'highly'doubtful'whether'carbon'trading'will'be' able' to' contribute' much' to' the' protection' of' the' earth’s' ‘climate’' as' a' global' space.' As' Rajni'

Bakshi,'asks'so'thoughtfully''

'

Can'the'sky'be'owned?'And'if'yes,'then'by'whom?'Where'should'commons'end' and' markets' begin?' Can' value' be' liberated' from' the' dominance' of' the' price' mechanism?'How'do'we'decide'the'value'of'a'700'year.old'tree?'We'need'only'to' ask'how'much'it'would'cost'to'make'a'new'one.'Or'a'new'river,'or'even'a'new' atmosphere.'The'intrinsic'value'of'the'natural'world,'its'right'to'exist'irrespective' of' usefulness' to' humans,' is' fundamentally' an' ethical' matter' that' cannot' be' resolved'by'markets....'Is'earth'our'home'or'is'it'one'large'market'place?111' + In'the'new'discursive'mapping'of'the'globe'for'the'purposes'of'climate'change'mitigation,'many' parts'of'globe'are'currently'being'marked'as'‘carbon'sinks’'so'at'to'bring'them'within'the'fold'of'

CDMs'and'carbon'trading.'So'far,'more'emphasis'has'been'placed'on'terrestrial'environments' such'as'temperate'and'tropical'forests.'An'increasing'number'of'studies'seem'to'suggest'that,'

“the'contribution'of'coastal'and'marine'ecosystems'to'mitigate'climate'change'through'carbon' sequestration'and'storage'can'rival'their'terrestrial'counterparts.'The'blue'carbon'sinks'include' the'open'sea,'kelp'forests,'salt'marshes,'sea'grass'beds,'coral'reefs,'and'mangroves.”112'What'is' the'total'as'well'as'segregated'(in'terms'of'goods'and'services'such'as'forestry,'fisheries,'storm'

34" " protection'and'carbon'cycling)'value'of'a'particular'mangrove'forest'for'example'and'how'do'we' calculate' it?' ' According' to' a' 2006' study' on' the' subject,' “total' economic' values' (TEV)' for' mangrove' ecosystems' have' estimate' value' as' high' as' $200,000' to' $900,000/ha.”113'What' is' in' store'for'the'mangrove'forests'as'‘blue'carbon'sinks’'is'that,'“Using'the'carbon'storage'capacity' supported' by' the' literature,' the+ potential+ sellable+ carbon+ credits+ per+ hectare+ of+ mangroves+ will+ be+ calculated' and' compared' to' the' opportunity' costs' of' alternative' land' uses,' such' as' shrimp' farming' in' Thailand.”114'And' this' is' how' mangrove' forests' too' be' brought' into' whirlpool' of' commodification'of'nature,'carbon'economy'and'carbon'trading'in'the'hope'that'this'will'lead' to'‘climate'stabilization’.''

'

Minqi'Li'has'persuasively'argued'that'there'is'a'fundamental'incompatibility'between'‘climate' stabilization’'and'the'“pace'of'capital'accumulation'required'for'economic'and'political'stability' under' a' capitalist' system.”115'In' his' view,' meaningful' and' effective' actions' towards' climate' stabilization'presuppose'and'require'fundamental'social'change.”116'In'other'words,'it'is'only'by' liberating' itself' from' the' market' domination' and' the' hegemonic' economic' growth' oriented' model'of'development'that'a'society'can'become'ecologically'sustainable.'Limited'government' regulations' are' unlikely' to' make' a' meaningful' difference117'“as' the' national' governments' themselves' are' also' under' constant' pressure' in' the' global' market' to' compete' against' one' another'to'pursue'economic'growth”.''

+ National!Climate!Change!Action!Plans!of!India!and!China:!Critical!Perspectives!on!‘Marine! Environments’!! '

My'intention'in'this'section'is'not'so'much'to'examine'at'length'the'official'action'plans'and' responses' of' India' and' China' to' climate' change' as' to' briefly' but' critically' reflect' on' the' emphasis' they' seem' to' place' on' marine' environments' in' general' and' mangrove' forests' in' particular'in'the'context'of'mitigation'and'adaptation.'A'great'deal'has'already'been'said'and' written' about' how' climate' change' is' going' to' impact' China' and' India' and' how' the' two' governments' have' responded' so' far' both' in' terms' of' national' action' plans' and' international' diplomacy.118'Domestically,' vulnerability' of' these' two' rising' Asian' giants' to' the' impact' of'

35" " climate'change'makes'a'strong'case'for'mitigation'and'adaptation.'In'the'case'of'both'China'and'

India' linkages' between' ‘national' security’' and' climate' change' have' been' getting' increasing' attention'of'strategic'communities.'It'has'been'argued'for'example'that'water'scarcity'caused'by' climate' change' will' further' aggravate' political' instability' in' Tibet' with' national' security' implications'for'China.119'While'talking'about'“multiplying'climate'threats”,'Brahma'Chellaney' would'argue'that,'“A'new'great'game'over'water'could'unfold,'given'China’s'control'over'the' source'of'most'Asia’s'rivers'–the'Plateau'of'Tibet”'and'“water'is'becoming'a'key'security'issue' in'Sino.Indian'relations'and'is'a'potential'source'of'enduring'record.”120'

'

The'2006'National'Environmental'Policy'of'India121,'lists'the'following'elements'as'central'to'the' national'response'to'global'warming:'adherence'to'the'principle'of'common'but'differentiated' responsibilities'and'respective'capabilities;'prioritization'of'the'right'to'development;'belief'in' equal' per' capita' entitlements' to' all' countries' to' global' environmental' resources;' reliance' on' multilateral' approaches;' and' participation' in' voluntary' partnerships' consistent' with' the' UN'

Framework' Convention' on' Climate' Change' (UNFCCC).' Both' India' and' China' underline' the' critical'importance'of'‘common'but'differentiated'responsibility’'(and'for'good'reasons'in'my' view)' but' have' avoided' a' domestic' debate' for' various' reasons' the' internalization' of' this' principle.'The'moment'they'do,'the'policy'makers'would'be'confronted'with'the'harsh'reality'of' highly'differentiated'geographies'of'affluence'within'their'respective'societies'and'the'urgency' of'pushing'their'climate'change'discourses'beyond'the'mitigation/adaptation'dichotomy.'''

'

China’s'2007'National'Climate'Change'Programme122'mentions'in'its'foreword:'“Climate'change' is' a' major' global' issue' of' common' concern' to' the' international' community.' It' is' an' issue' involving'both'environment'and'development,'but'it'is'ultimately'an'issue'of'development.'As' noted' by' the' United+ Nations+ Framework' Convention+ on+ Climate+ Change+ …the' largest' share' of' historical' and' current' global' emissions' of' greenhouse' gases' has' originated' from' developed' countries,' while' per' capita' emissions' in' developing' countries' are' still' relatively' low' and' the' share'of'global'emissions'originating'from'developing'countries'will'grow'to'meet'their'social' and'development'needs.”'123'

36" " '

Under'section'4.2.4,'China’s'Climate'Change'Action'Plan'deals'with'‘coastal'zones'and'coastal' regions’' in' the' context' of' climate' change' mitigation' and' adaptation.' It' underlines' the' importance' of' “establishing' and' improving' relevant' laws,' regional' management' regulations' and'detailed'rules'in'accordance'with'Marine'Environment+Protection+Law+of+the+Peoplebs+Republic+ of+China,+Law+of+the'Peoplebs+Republic+of+China+on+Administration+of+Sea+Areas,+keeping'in'mind'the' characteristics' of' the' specific' localities' in' the' coastal' areas.”124'The' importance' of' putting' into' place'integrated'coastal'zone'management'(ICZM)'system,'the'comprehensive'decision.making' mechanism' and' effective' coordination' mechanism' is' duly' highlighted' along' with' technology' development' and' extension.' The' Program' underlines' the' need' to' “Strengthen' research' and' development' of' technologies' for' protection' and' restoration' of' the' marine' ecosystems,' with' emphasis' on' cultivation,' transplanting,' and' recovery' of' coastal' mangroves,' protection' and' restoration' of' coral' reefs' and' coastal' wetlands' to' reduce' the' vulnerability' of' ecosystems' in' coastal'zones.”125'We'are'further'told'that'it'is'important'to'“accelerate'the'construction'of'the' designated' marine' natural' reserves,' such' as' coral' reef' reserves,' mangrove' reserves,”' and'

“improve'capability'of'protection'of'marine'biodiversity.”126''

'

According'to'the'State'Oceanography'Administration'(2010),'“the'sea'level'in'February/October'

2009' was' higher' than' the' 30.year' average”' with' South' China' Sea' measuring' “the' highest' historical'records'in'September'2009”.127'It'is'anticipated'that'following'provinces'of'China'are' gong'to'be'hard'hit'by'the'sea'level'rise'and'the'corresponding'seawater'intrusion,'salinization' and'increase'in'storm'surge'hazards:'Liaoning,'Hebei,'and'Shandong.'''

'

The'2010'Report'of'State'Oceanic'Administration'entitled,'‘Coastal'Economic'Zones:'Responses' to'Sea'Level'Rise'and'Adaptation’'reaffirmed'the'central' importance'of'coastal'regions'in'the' overall'economic'development'and'prosperity'of'China'and'acknowledged'that'whereas'coastal' zones' hold' key' to' the' sustainable' development' of' key' sectors' of' Chinese' economy,' mapping' differentials'among'them'in'terms'of'coastal'erosion,'saltwater'intrusion'and'soil'salinization' due'to'sea'level'rise'and'other'natural'disasters'is'important'but'quite'challenging.'The'report'

37" " proposed'the'following'(reproduced'below'verbatim)'in'order'to'“effectively'reduce'the'impact' of'rising'sea'levels”:''

'

1. Local'governments'in'coastal'zones'should'attach'importance'to'the'impact'of'rising'sea'levels'at'

all' administrative' levels,' strengthen' investigations' into' the' impact' of' sea' level' rise,' control' the'

impact' of' sea' level' rise' based'on'the'regional'setting,'and'formulate'development'plans'in'the'

region'that'take'full'account'of'the'impacts'of'sea'level'rise.'

2. Key' economic' zones' in' coastal' areas' should' carry' out' sea' level' rise' impact' assessments,'

vulnerability' assessments,' and' area' zoning' projects.' These' will' be' important' indicators' for' the'

planning'of'key'economic'zones'in'coastal'areas.'

3. In'the'Liaoning'Coastal'Economic'Zone,'the'Caofeidian'Industry'Zone,'and'Yellow'River'Delta'

Ecological' Zone,' great' attention' should' be' paid' to' seawater' intrusion' and' soil' salinization.'

Reasonable' allocation' of' water' resources,' irrigation' facilities,' planning' of' marine' aquaculture'

areas'to'mitigate'sea'level'rise'and'the'impact'of'seawater'intrusion'should'be'carried'out.''

4. The' Tianjin' Binhai' New' Area,' the' economically' developed' Yangtze' River' Delta' and' the' Pearl'

River'Delta'should'be'strictly'planned.'Building'height'and'groundwater'exploitation'have'to'be'

controlled'for'effective'mitigation'of'land'subsidence'and'reduction'of'the'relative'sea'level'rise.'

5. For'the'Pearl'River'Estuary,'the'Yangtze'River'Estuary,'and'other'areas'that'would'be'affected'by'

serious'seawater'intrusion,'water'resources'in'the'entire'basin'should'be'allocated'reasonably'in'

order' to' reduce' the' impacts' of' seawater' intrusion' and' guarantee' water' supply' during' the' dry'

season.'

6. Costal'areas'in'the'provinces'Zhejiang,'Fujian,'Guangdong,'and'Hainan'should'monitor'riptides'

and'typhoon'landing'sites'during'the'high'sea'level'seasons.'Early'warning'systems'should'be'

included' in' the' disaster' prevention' and' mitigation' plans.' The' role' of' sea' level' rise' in' natural'

hazards'has'to'be'fully'taken'into'account'in'order'to'reduce'the'extent'of'storm'surge'hazards.'

7. Results' of' monitoring' and' forecasting' of' sea' level' rise' have' to' be' used' in' order' to' revise' the'

standard'installations'of'embankments'and'sewers.'

8. In' coastal' wetlands,' mangrove' swamps,' and' other' coastal' marine' protected' areas,' a' coastal'

network'across'all'ecosystems'should'be'established'in'order'to'reduce'sea'level'rise'caused'by'

coastal'erosion.128''

'

38" " What' appears' to' be' missing' by' and' large' in' the' above' mentioned' recommendation' is' the'

‘social’;' e.g.' the' coastal' communities' whose' livelihoods' depend' on' eco.services' provided' by' mangrove'reserves.'The'focus'and'emphasis'here'is'overwhelmingly'on'mitigation'and'there'is' no'mention'whatsoever'of'community'centric'adaptation.''

'

More'recently'a'new'discourse'of'China’s'aiming'at'the'status'of'a'‘maritime'power’'has'come' into' play.129'The' official' manifestation' of' this' course' can' be' seen' in' the' restructuring' plan' officially'announced'on'10'March'2013,'which'will'bring'its'so'called'‘Five'Dragons’'(the'five' maritime' law' enforcement' agencies:' the' Maritime' Surveillance' of' the' State' Oceanic'

Administration,' the' Coast' Guard' of' the' Public' Security' Ministry,' the' Maritime' Safety'

Administration' of' the' Transport' Ministry,' the' Fisheries' Law' Enforcement' Command' of' the'

Agriculture'Ministry,'and'the'Maritime'Anti.Smuggling'Policy'of'the'General'Administration'of'

Customs)'under'the'control'of'the'new'Oceanic'Administration.'

'

The'release'of'India’s'National'Action'Plan'on'Climate'Change'(NAPCC)130'by'Prime'Minister'

Manmohan'Singh'in'2008'has'been'widely'commented'as'a'turning'point'in'India’s'engagement' with'climate'change.'Along'with'prioritizing'India’s'development'imperatives,'the'NAPCC,'for' the'first'time,'established'a'concrete'framework'to'address'climate'in'the'domestic'context.''The'

NAPCC'is'a'package'of'measures'addressing'both'mitigation'and'adaptation'and'includes'eight' national' “missions”' for' solar' energy,' energy' efficiency,' water' conservation,' more' public' transport,'sustainable'agriculture,'sustaining'the'Himalayas'and'scientific'research.'Whereas'a' good'deal'of'emphasis'has'been'rightly'placed'on'sustaining'the'Himalayan'ecosystems'(where' glaciers' are' a' major' source' of' India’s' water' supplies),' policies' aimed' at' sustaining' marine' environments' of' the' Indian' Ocean' appear' to' be' missing' or' rather' weak.' Sadly' lacking' is' the' realization'that'the'concept'of'‘adaptation’'sounds'hollow'in'both'theory'and'practice'without' placing' communities' (and' the' question' of' their' capacities)' at' the' core' of' debate' on' climate' change.''

'

39" " This' is' not' to' suggest' that' India' has' completely' neglected' the' economic' and' ecological' importance'of'mangroves'along'with'other'coastal'resources'like'coral'reefs'and'coastal'forests.'

There'has'been'a'growing'acknowledgment'(also'by'the'Ministry'of'Environment'and'Forests,'

Government'of'India)'of'the'threats'to'marine'ecosystems'that'come'from'wideranging'sources' including'polluting'industries'and'settlements'and'their'haphazard'locations,'overexploitation' of' living' natural' resources,' and' more' importantly' (but' also' more' recently)' “inadequate' institutional' capacity' for,' and' participation' of' local' communities' in' formulation' and' implementation' of' coastal' management' plans.”131'At' the' same' time' there' is' no' dearth' of' acts/policies'and'programs'within'India’s'existing'policy'and'legal'framework'of'‘coastal'and' marine'ecosystems’.132'In'the'context'of'climate'change'the'report'does'point'out'that'“climate'

Change'and'its'impact'on'coastal'regions'of'India'are'little'known.”133''

'

One' of' the' key' issue.areas' identified' in' the' Report' relates' to' coastal' livelihood' and' peoples’' participation'in'sustainable'marine'environments.'According'to'the'Report:''

'

Peoples’' participation' is' extremely' important' in' conservation' and' management'of'coastal'resources.'Realizing'this,'almost'all'States'of'India' have'initiated'Joint'Forest'Management'(JFM)'activities'in'conservation'and' management' of' their' coastal' ecosystems.' No' decision.making' is' complete' without'participation'of'local'people'whose'livelihood'depends'on'wetland' resources.'People'have'been'using'mangrove'areas'in'a'traditional'manner' since' times' immemorial.' Both' traditional' and' latest' scientific' technologies' need' to' be' blended' to' achieve' long.term' conservation' goals.' Participatory' Rural' Appraisal' (PRA)' involving' local' communities' should' be' the' main' approach'to'ensuring'community'participation.'This'approach'should'also' take'into'consideration'issues'of'gender'sensitization'and'involve'women'in' the'management'of'issues.134'' '

The'insights'provided'by'Steinberg'demand'and'deserve'due'incorporation'in'national'actions' plans' on' climate' change' mitigation' and' adaptation' with' regard' to' marine' environment.'

According' to' Steinberg' the' marine' environment,' including' the' ocean,' “is' not' simply' an' environment'wherein'distinct'marine'phenomena'may'be'observed'by'marine'specialists'(i.e.' marine' geographers).' Rather' it' is' a' space' that,' like' land,' shapes' and' is' shaped' by,' a' host' of' physical'and'social'processes.”135''Steinberg'therefore'underlines'the'importance'of'taking'into'

40" " account'“the'geography'of'ocean7space,'a'term'that'is'intended'to'capture'both'the'specificity'of' the'world'ocean'and'the'fluidity'between'the'study'of'landward'and'seaward'domains,'as'both' are'socially'and'physically'constructed'through'linked'dynamics.136''

'

Such'a'nuanced'understanding'of'coastal'marine'environments'seems'to'be'missing'thus'far'in' the'official'policies'of'India'and'China'with'regard'to'climate'change'and'its'implications'for'the' coastal'zones'and'coastal'communities.''

Metanarratives!of!Climate!Change!and!the!Politics!of!Knowledge!

Jean.Francois'had'announced'in'his'seminal'work'titled'“The'Postmodern'condition:'A'Report' on' Knowledge”' (1992)' the' death' of' ‘metanarrative’' as' a' totalizing' system' of' knowledge' with' claims'of'foundational'truths'with'universal'applicability.''Greg'McCarthy'would'disagree'(and'

I' agree' with' McCarthy)' on' the' ground' that' what' Jean.Francois' had' described' as' the' key' defining' features' of' a' metanarrative' can' be' found' in' the' dominant' Western' discourses' of' climate' change.' These' three' major' characteristics' are' as' follows.' Among' various' competing' discourses'one'that'is'likely'to'qualify'as'metanarrative'has'a'story/narrative'to'tell'that'can'go' beyond' its' own' scientific/epistemic' community' and' make' itself' intelligible' to' both' politicians/policy'makers'and'the'community'at'large.'Secondly,'it'is'crucial'that'the'narrative' itself'becomes'inextricably'intertwined'with'the'scientific'knowledge'that'it'draws'on,'so'that' scientific' narrative' not' only' gets' legitimized' through' rule.making' and' rule.implementing' institutions'but'also'transforms'itself'through'this'process'into'a'truth'claim'without'an'author' subject.' Finally,' such' intimate' intertwining' of' science' and' politics' tends' to' evoke' a' sense' of' powerful''‘global’'and'globalizing'moral'justification,'persuading'communities'(irrespective'of' their'location'on'the'face'of'the'globe)'to'act'in'a'particular'(ethical'manner)'in'the'‘best'interests' of'humankind’.''

The'most'authoritative'scientific'basis'to'various'climate'change'narratives'has'been'provided' by'the'Intergovernmental'Panel'on'Climate'Change'(IPCC),'which'was'established'in'1988'by' the'World'Meteorological'Organization'(WMO)'and'United'Nations'Environment'Programme'

(UNEP)' to' “assess' on' a' comprehensive,' objective,' open' and' transparent' basis' the' scientific,'

41" " technical'and'socio.economic'information'relevant'to'understanding'the'scientific'basis'of'risk' of' human.induced' climate' change,' its' potential' impacts' and' options' for' adaptation' and' mitigation”.137'' The' mandate' of' the' IPCC' is' to' review' the' published' scientific' literature' on' climate' change,' in' order' to' assess' its' costs,' impacts' and' possible' policy' responses.' It' is' also' expected'to'provide'expert'advice'and'assessment'on'various'scientific'and'technical'issues'for' the'UN'Framework'Convention'on'Climate'Change.''

According' to' the' IPCC' Fourth' Assessment' (released' in' April' 2007),' ‘most' of' the' observed' increase'in'the'global'average'temperature'since'the'mid.20th'century'is'very'likely'due'to'the' observed'increase'in'anthropogenic'greenhouse'gas'concentrations.'These'results'are'based'on' more'than'29,000'observational'data'series'from'the'physical'and'biological'systems,'more'than'

89%'are'said'to'be'consistent'with'the'direction'of'change'expected'as'a'response'to'warming.’''

'

It'is'in'the'executive'summary'of'Chapter'6'entitled,'‘coastal'systems'and'low'lying'areas’138'that'

Working' Group' II' of' the' Fourth' Assessment' Report' of' the' IPCC' talks' about' the' following'

(reproduced' verbatim)' six' important' policy.relevant' messages:' ‘Coasts' are' experiencing' the' adverse'consequences'of'the'hazards'related'to'climate' and'sea'level'(very'high' confidence)’;'

‘Coasts'will'be'exposed'to'increasing'risks,'including'coastal'erosion,'over'coming'decades'due' to'climate'change'and'sea'level'rise'(very'high'confidence)’;'‘The'impact'of'climate'change'on' coasts' is' exacerbated' by' increasing' human.induced' pressures' (very' high' confidence)’;'

‘Adaptation'for'the'coasts'of'developing'countries'will'be'more'challenging'than'for'coasts'of' developing' countries' due' to' constraints' on' adaptive' capacity' (high' confidence)’;' ‘Adaptation' costs' for' vulnerable' coasts' are' much'lesser'than'the'costs'of'inaction'(high'confidence)’;'‘The' unavoidability'of'sea'level'rise,'even'in'the'longer.term,'frequently'conflicts'with'present.day' human'development'and'trends'(high'confidence)’.139'

'

The'IPCC'aims'at'reaching'a'consensus'view'on'the'scientific'aspects'of'global'climate'change,'as' this'is'perceived'as'necessary'for'arriving'at'policy'decisions'based'on'best'available'knowledge' and'expertise.''According'to'the'first'chairman'of'the'IPCC,'Bert'Bolin,'the'IPCC'was'designed'

42" " in'order'to'generate'trust'in'the'science'and'scientific'research'among'nations.140'The'IPCC'was' founded'in'the'hope'that'a'wider'participation'of'scientists'along'with'government'officials'and' bureaucrats'would'result'in'greater'scientific'consensus,'which'in'turn'would'ensure'a'stable' political'outcome.141'The'extent'to'which'this'hope'has'been'realized'remains'debatable'at'best.'

As'a'hybrid'agency'comprising'scientists'and'bureaucrats'‘it'was'to'be'governed'by'a'Bureau' consisting' of' selected' government' representatives' thus' ensuring' that' the' Panel’s' work' was' clearly'seen'to'be'serving'the'needs'of'government'and'policy.'The'Panel'was'not'to'be'a'self. governing' body' of' independent' scientists.’' In' reality,' however,' “.' .' .this' boundary' between' science'and'policy'has'proved'a'difficult'one'to'maintain'and'to'police.”142'This'should'not'come' as'a'surprise'to'social'scientists;'especially'those'aware'of'the'intricacies'of'politics'of'knowledge' and'the'dialectics'of'knowledge.power'nexus.''

Without'doubting'that'climate'change'is'a'reality'to'reckon'with,'I'find'it'useful'to'take'note'of' the' following' pertinent' questions' raised' by' Reiner' Grundmann 143 ':' ‘What' is' the' IPCC' consensus?' Who' has' been' shaping' the' consensus?' How' important' was' it' for' public' policy?’'

Whereas'James'Lovelock'would'say,'“I'know'and'respect'the'scientist'of'the'IPCC'and'several' of'them'are'my'personal'friends'but'I'was'shocked'to'hear'that'they'had'reached'a'consensus'on' a'matter'of'science;'it'is'a'good'and'useful'word'but'it'belongs'to'the'world'of'politics'and'the' courtroom,' where' reaching' a' consensus' is' a' way' of' solving' human' differences.' Scientists' are' concerned' with' probabilities,' never' with' certainties' or' consensual' agreement.”144'' Whereas'

Grundmann'would'point'out'that,'

'

The' IPCC' likes' to' present' itself' as' the' international' authoritative' body' pronouncing' scientific' expertise' on' the' issue.' However,' some' ‘‘contrarian’’' scientists' and' other' critics' think' that' the' IPCC' misrepresents' the' state' of' knowledge'and'exaggerates'the'size'and'urgency'of'the'problem.'While+the+skeptics+ accuse+IPCC+scientists+of+being+environmentalists+in+disguise,+others+point+to+the+processes+ of+exclusion+of+specific+social+groups+representing+different+knowledge+claims.145'(emphasis' mine)'' ' Grundmann'further'points'out'that'the'IPCC'‘consensus’'has'led'to'different'policy'responses' across'countries.'One'probable'explanation'is'that'in'many'countries,'climate'change'policy'is'

43" " driven'by'complex'and'precarious'domestic'political'agendas,'which'in'turn'are'influenced'by' shifting' national' constellations' of' interest' groups,' corporate' interests' and' civil' society' assertions.' No' doubt' IPCC' sought' from' the' governments' the' best' available' scientific' knowledge.''But'the'governments'in'some'cases'would'retrieve'expertise'from'different'sources' through' their' usual,' well' established' and' ‘reliable’' bureaucratic' channels.' Whereas' in' some' countries'the'tone'and'tenor'of'media'reporting'on'climate'change'issues'could'be'more'in'line' with' government' policies' and' the' broader' political' climate' prevalent' within' domestic' constituencies.146'An'additional'point'to'be'noted'is'that'the'science'of'climate'change'is'still'in' the' making' and' much' more' research' is' needed,' especially' in' terms' of' indigenous.native' knowledge'systems'and'from'a'social.science'perspective.''

'

According'to'Richard'B.'Norgaard,”'the'MA'(Millennium'Ecosystem'Analysis)'picked'up'where' the' IPCC' had' gotten' to' after' a' decade,' and' started' with' scientists' from' the' developed' and' developing'countries'participating'almost'equally,'exposing'tensions'over'equity'and'Western' visions' of' the' future,' right' from' the' beginning.”147'Norgaard’s' criticism' of' the' IPCC' is' that'

“interpretive'social'scientists'were'never'able'to'append'themselves'to'the'core'climate'models,' and' hence' worked' apart' from' the' IPCC' process,' while' interpretive' social' scientists' were' welcomed'from'the'beginning'into'the'MA.”148'There'is'one'issue.area'that,'in'my'view,'seems' to' have' escaped' the' critical' gaze' of' interpretative' social' science' component' of' MA,' including' ecological' economics' and' critical' geopolitics.' The' MA' ‘Framework' for' Understanding'

Ecosystem'Services'and'Ecosystem'Change’'talks'of'three'scales'(global,'regional'and'local)'and' divides'the'‘drivers'of'change’'into'two'broad'categories'namely'‘indirect’'and'‘direct’.'Whereas' the'indirect'category'comprise'factors'such'as'demographic,'economic'(e.g.'globalization,'trade' market,' and' policy' frame),' socio.political,' science' and' technology,' cultural' and' religious,' the' direct'category'is'said'to'consist'of'factors'such'as'changes'in'local'land'use'and'cover,'species' introduction'or'removal,'technology'adaptation'and'use,'climate'change,'harvest'consumption' so' on' and' so' forth.' This' fuzzy' distinction' as' well' as' complex' interplay' between' the' two' categories' demands' some' scrutiny,' especially' in' the' context' of' neoliberalism.' I' wonder' as' to' what'extent'are'the'market,'corporate'globalization'and'neoliberal'capitalism'‘indirect’'drivers'

44" " in'terms'of'their'impacts'on'and'implications'for'access+to,'control+over'and'distribution+of'various' ecosystem'services.'As'David'Harvey'puts'is'so'succinctly,'

'

Neoliberalism'is'in'the'first'instance'a'theory'of'economic'practices'that'proposes'that' human+ well7being' can' best' be' advanced' by' liberating' individual' entrepreneurial' freedoms' and' skills' within' an' institutional' framework' characterized' by' strong' property' rights,' free' market' and' free' trade.' The' role' of' the' state' is' to' create' and' preserve' an' institutional' framework' appropriate' to' such' practices.' The' state' has' to' guarantee,'for'example,'the'quality'and'integrity'of'money…Furthermore,+if+markets+do+ not+exist+(in+areas+such+as+land,+water,+education,+health+care,+social+security,+or+environmental+ pollution)+then+they+must+be+created+by+state+action+if+necessary.149'(emphasis'added)' ''

Especially'when'it'comes'to'China'and'India'today'it'is'becoming'increasingly'difficult'to'deny' or' dismiss' the' role' of' neoliberalism150'(with' Indian' and' Chinese' characteristics' of' course)' or''

‘hegemony' of' transnational' liberalism’,' as' John' Agnew' and' Stuart' Corbridge151'choose' to' describe'it.''

'

B.S.'Chimni’s'argument'with'regard'to'the'emergence'of'a'‘global'nascent'state’'and'a'‘unified' global'economic'space’'too'is'quite'provocative.152'This'transnational'space'of'globalizing'capital+ according'to'him+is'being'crafted'through'“a'range'of'international'law'instruments'that'include' international' trade' law' as' embodied' in' World' Trade' Organization' (vWTOv)' texts' and' international' monetary' law' as' prescribed' by' international' financial' institutions.”153'This' does' not'lead'to'the'displacement'of'the'territorial'state,'which'co.exists'for'the'time'being'but'more' as'a'‘gatekeeper’.'Yet'another'“principal'reason'is'that'the'vision'of'transnational'capital'is'at' present' challenged' by' competing' social' forces' and' interests.' In' fact,' a' significant' task' of' the' territorial' state' is' to' mediate' between' transnational' capital,' national' capital' hurt' by' globalization,' and' subaltern' classes.' The' mediation' will' take' place' in' the' matrix' of' strategic' interests,'the'need'to'maintain'rule'of'law,'and'the'demands'of'electoral'democracy.”154'One' may'or'may'not'fully'agree'with'B.S.'Chimni’s'analysis'of'a'‘unified'global'space’'or'the'role'of'

State155,'the'normative'issues'raised'by'him'remain'significant'with'regard'to'the'rhetoric'and' reality'of'sustainability'in'the'era'of'climate'change.''

+

45" " Social+Struggles,+Resistance+and+Social+Innovation:+Prospects+in+India+and+China+

The'21st'century'has'been'variously'termed'as'the'‘Asian'Century’'or'‘Climate'Century’'or'‘New'

American'Century”.'I'have'argued'elsewhere'with'Joe'Painter'that,'“there'is'evidence'to'suggest' that'what'is'also'unfolding'before'us'is'a'century'of'resistance'marked'by'a'number'of'silent,' often'invisible,'revolutions,'demanding'justice'and'dignity.”156'What'kind'of'future'beckons'the' communities' on' the' margins' such' as' those' inhabiting' the' Sundarbans' and' Zhangjiangkou'

Reserve' in' the' era' of' climate' change' and' scarcities' is' difficult' to' predict.' What' does' appear' hovering'on'the'horizon'is'more'vociferous'resistance,'grounded'in'contentious'politics,'at'the' grassroots'level'against'the'discourse'of'‘global'governance’'on'the'one'hand,'and'against'the' dominant' state.centric' imaginations' and' representation' of' the' ‘marine+ environments’' on' the' other.'Inherent'in'both'is'the'tendency'to'downplay'the'experiences'and'perspectives'of'local' communities.'A'territorialized,'representation'of'marine'environments'will'lead'to'a'rhetoric'of' sustainability'that'remains'prisoner'of'‘national’'scale'and'the'concomitant'definition'of'marine' environments'as'constitutive'of'(and'constituted'within)'the'territories'of'states'concerned.'On' the'other'hand,'visualizing'marine'environments'as'fluid,'multi.dimensional'spaces,'formed'by' the'ongoing'multi.scalar'linkages'and'interactions'among'states,'civil'societies'and'ecosystems,' might'open'new'spaces'for'bottom.up'approaches'to'sustainability'through'a'social'innovation' anchored'in'social'justice.'

The' fast' changing' fluid' geographies' of' marine' environments' both' in' the' Sundarbans' and'

Zhangjiangkou'Reserve,'in'the'era'of'climate'change,'demand'and'deserve'new'imaginations' and' social' constructions.'I' have' had'no'intention'whatsoever' in' this'study' of' privileging' one' scale' over' the' other.' On' the' contrary,' I' would' like' to' sound' a' note' of' caution' against' such' a' practice,'which,'I'believe,'could'result'in'the'clash'of'scales'inhibiting'innovative,'proactive'and' holistic'responses'to'sustainable'environments'and'climate'change.''A'multi.scalar,'overlapping' and' fluid' spatiality' of' climate' change' cannot' be' captured' by' the' classical,' fixed' geographical' scale,'with'neatly'marked'aggregated'levels'ranging'from'‘local’'to'‘global’.'Having'said'that,' approaches'to'climate'change'mitigation'and'adaptation'that'ignore'or'marginalize'the'micro' scale'or'grass'roots'are'highly'unlikely'to'be'yield'much'desired'and'badly'needed'results.'''

46" " The'proverbial'billion.dollar'question'still'remains'largely'unanswered:'what'are'the'prospects' of' alienated' and' marginalized' coastal' communities' in' India' and' China' ‘jumping' the' scale’' in' order'to'invite'global'attention'and'acquire'strategic'visibility?'Can'the'world.renowned'Chipko' movement'of'1970s'waged'and'‘won’'in'the'Garhwal'Himalayas,'and'its'more'recent'avatars,' provide'some'insights'if'not'complete'answers'to'this'question?''

Before'making'a'modest'attempt'to'answer'this'question,'I'would'like'to'make'reference'to'a' statement' attributed' in' a' blog' on' chinadialogue' to' Ma' Zhong,' Director,' Department' of'

Environmental' Studies,' Renmin' University,' that,' “agitated' street' protests' must' develop' into' social' movements' that' actually' effect' real' reforms,' not' just' knee.jerk' reactions”.157'We' are' further'told'that,'“Among'present'environmental'movements'in'China,'another'question'that' deserves'reflection'is'the'distribution'of'public'and'private'matters.'In'the'“mass'incidents”'that' have'already'happened,'it’s'easy'to'see'that'people'take'care'of'issues'that'affect'their'homes' and'personal'lives,'but'with'regard'to'other'issues,'there'is'an'obvious'gap'in'public'concern.”158''

Micro+ Geopolitics+ and+ Struggles+ for+ Social+ Innovation:+ Revisiting+ the+ ‘Chipko’+ in+ Retrospect+ and+ Prospects++

!

By' micro' geopolitics' I' mean' a' set' of' social.spatial' strategies' of' resistance' adopted' by' communities' located' on' the' margins' against' the' maps' of' meaning' forcibly' imposed' on' their' respective'embedded'localities'and'political'economy'of'livelihoods.'What'is'unfolding'in'both'

India'and'China'I'would'argue'is'a'micro'geopolitics'of'resistance'against'the'nexus'between'the' neo.liberal,'market.driven'global'warming'discourses'and'state.centric'national'climate'action' plans'that'tends'to'push'into'oblivion'the'long'standing'histories'of'environmental'destruction' and'injustices.'In'contemporary'China,'as'Elizabeth'C.'Economy'points'out,'“social'discontent'is' evident' everywhere.' It' is' expressed' in' forms' as' diverse' as' labor' unrest,' mounting' peasant' protest,'and'increased'ethnic'violence.'As'the'government'has'diminished'its'role'in'guiding'the' economy,'its'role'in'managing'society'has'decreased'as'well…It'is'this'discontent,'if'mobilized' throughout' the' country' and' more' specifically' directed' at' the' Communist' party,' that' Chinese'

47" " authorities' fear.”159'Elizabeth' C.' Economy' makes' another' important' point' that' in' my' view' deserves'full'quote:'

'

In' otherwise' totalitarian' states,' environmental' issues' provided' a' state. approved' outlet' for' public' discontent.' Environmental' degradation' and' other' political'considerations'fueled'awareness'and'political'activism,'environmental' NGOs' became' the' lightning' rods' through' which' the' popular' social' and' political' discontent' was' channeled.' The' result' was' not' necessarily' an' improvement' in' the' state' of' environment' but,' in' several' cases,' the' reconfiguration'of'the'entire'system'of'governance.160' '

Questions'related'to'whether'and'when'such'prospects'would'reveal'themselves'in'China'will' do'no'doubt'continue'to'generate'debate,'but'there'it'is'difficult'to'deny'the'fact'that'the'number' of' protests' and' petitions' with' regard' to' environmental' issues' (especially' water' and' air' pollution)'in'China'are'increasing'with'each'passing'day.''This'day'to'day'geopolitical'assertion,' while' drawing' upon' the' civilizational' ethos' and' philosophical' traditions' of' China' and' India,' questions' the' calculated' ambiguity' and' abstraction' in' climate' change' discourses' and' aims' at' creating' spaces' for' what' D.L.' Sheth' would' describe' as' micro' movements' in' favour' of' participatory' democracy;' “a' parallel' politics' of' social' action,' creating' and' maintaining' new' spaces'for'decision.making'(i.e.'for'self.governance)'by'people'on'matters'affecting'their'lives' directly.” 161'In' his' view,' “the' micro.movements' in' India' represent' a' varied' and' complex' phenomenon.' They' are' variously' referred' to' as' pgrass' roots movementsp,' social' movements,' non.party' political' formations,' social.action' groups' and' movement.groups”. 162''

What' they' do' seem' to' share' in' common,' despite' various' differences' in' terms' of' scope' and' emphasis,'is'the'firm'resolve'to'oppose'the'post.political'push'of'market'driven'climate'change' mitigation'and'adaptation'strategies.'It'is'equally'noteworthy'that,''

'

Although' the' movements' usually' work' in' local' areas' they' invariably' define' local' issues' in' trans.local' terms.' Theirs' is' thus' a' new' kind' of' local' politics' which,' unlike' the' conventional' politics' of' local' governments,' is' not' linked' vertically' to' the' macro' structures' of' power' and' ideology,'either'of'a'nation'state'or'of'the'global'order;'nor'is'this'politics'parochially'local.'It' expands' horizontally' through' several' micro.movements' of' people' living' in' different' geographical' areas' and' socio.cultural' milieus,' but' experiencing' the' common' situation' of'

48" " disempowerment'caused'by'mal.development'and'contemporary'forms'of'governance'which' are'imperiously'distant,'yet'close'enough'to'feel'their'coercive'edge.163' '

The' Chipko' movement,' from' one' important' perspective' has' been' described' as' “the' result' of' decentralized' and' locally' autonomous' movements.” 164 'Imaginatively' waged,' the' Chipko'

Andolan' (movement),' dexterously' drawing' upon' a' mix' of' design' and' spontaneity,' is' an' inspiring' example' of' social' innovation' offering' both' local' dividends' and' universal' appeal.' It' reminds'us'that'innovation'in'general'and'social'innovation'in'particular'need'not'(and'should' not)'be'taken'as'an'end'by'itself.'On'the'contrary,'innovation'is'means'to'realize'certain'concrete' goals'or'objectives'and'there'may'be'winners'and'losers'in'a'particular'instance'of'innovation.''

It'was'on'June'24,'1973'that'the'first'non.violent'act'of'resistance'was'directed'against'the'forest' felling' undertaken' by' the' rich' contractors' from' the' plains' in' the' Mandal' forests.' A' far' more'

“vociferous'yet'non.violent'resistance'at'the'Reni'forest'was'triggered'off'by'the'news'of'auction' of'some'local'forests'for'telling'to'a'sports.goods'company'from'the'plains.”165'The'philosophy' and'poetics'of'Chipko'is'graphically'illustrated'in'the'following'lines'written'by'the'folk.poet'of' the'movement,'Ghanshyam'Raturi:''

Embrace'the'trees'in'the'forests' And'Save'them'from'being'felled!' Save'the'treasure'of'our'mountains'

From'being'looted'away'from'us166'

At'a'later'date'and'at'a'different'site'(the'Doon'Valley)'he'elaborated'the'local'but'at'the'same' time'trans.local'philosophical'ethos'of'the'micro'geopolitics'of'resistance'in'the'following'words'

(note'the'deep'meaning'behind'the'symbol'of'hugging)':''

A'fight'for'truth'has'begun'at'Sinsyaru'Khala'' A'fight'for'rights'has'begun'in'Mulkot'Thano'Sister' It'is'a'fight'to'protect'our'mountains'and'forests' They'give'us'life' Hug+the+life+of+the+living+trees+and+streams+to+your+hearts+ 'Resist' the' digging' of' mountains' which' kills' our' forests' and' our' streams'' A'fight'for'life'has'begun'at'Sinsyuru'Khala'

49" " ' The'ecological'turn'of'Chipko'thus'came'a'bit'later'and'was'captured'so'succinctly'by'Sunder'

Lal'Bahuguna'in'his'contention'that,'“ecology'is'permanent'economy”.'It'was'this'message'in' particular'that'he'would'spread'all'along'the'trail'of'his'historical'5,000'km'foot'march,'which' eminently'qualifies'in'my'view'an'excellent'example'of'social'innovation,'used'to'rejuvenate'the' long' standing' tradition' of' resistance' in' this' part' of' Indian' Himalayas.' On' the' occasion' of' receiving'the'Right'to'Livelihood'Award'on'9'December'1087,'Mr.'Bahuguna'said,''

It'must'be'admitted'that'to'begin'with'Chipko'was'an'economic'movement' and'we'looked'upon'forests'as'a'source'of'employment'through'tree'felling' and'providing'raw'material'for'industries.'The'long'suffering'of'hill'women' have' guided' the' activists' to' reach' new' heights' in' their' movement,' when' these'preserving'mothers'of'the'future'generations'dictated'that'forests'were' their' maternal' homes,' which' provided' water,' food,' fodder' and' fuel.' Both' the'trees'and'mothers'teach'that'to'live'and'also'to'be'ready'to'die'for'the' sake'of'others'proves'to'be'the'real'fountain'of'bliss.'Thus'came'the'famous' slogan:'What'do'the'forests'bear?'Soil,'water'and'pure'air;'soil,'water'and' pure'air'are'the'basis'of'life.'

The' Chipko' has' been' a' victim' of' its' own' success' in' the' sense' of' “floated' myths' and' flouted' realities”167'In'response'to'the'question'related'to'the'key'driving'factors'and'forces'behind'the'

Chipko'movement,'Jayanta'Bandyopadhyay'has'persuasively'argued'and'illustrated'that'it'was' neither'a'movement'guided'by'the'“ideas'of'deep'ecology”,'nor'a'“feminist'movement'based'on' gender'conflicts”.'The'movement,'argues'Bandyopadhyay,'“got'its'initial'start'in'the'conflicts' over' mountain' forests' between' the' economic' interests' of' the' mountain' communities' and' the' economies' of' the' plains.' However,' this' fundamental' basis' of' the' movement' got' substantially' reduced'with'the'contract'system'of'felling'being'stopped'and'the'establishment'of'the'public' sector'Forest'Development'Corporation.'The'fellings'were'then'onwards'undertaken'with'the' help'of'local'village'cooperatives.”168''

Most'of'the'discussion'that'has'taken'place'on'the'issue'of'roots'and'routes'of'Chipko'has'failed' to' acknowledge' the' seminal' contributions' of' two' visionary' European' disciples' of' Mahatma'

Gandhi:'Mira'Behn'(Madeleine'Slade)'and'Sarala'Behn.'Mira'Behn'could'sense'early'on'that'the' forces'of'commercial'forestry'were'up'against'the'livelihood'economy'in'the'Himalayas'and' wrote'in'1952:''''

50" " Year'after'year'the'floods'in'the'North'of'India'seem'to'be'getting'worse,' and'this'year'they'have'been'absolutely'devastating.'This'means'that'there' is' something' radically' wrong' in' the' Himalayas,' and' that' something' is,' without'doubt,'connected'with'the'forests.'It'is'not,'I'believe'just'a'matter'of' deforestation' as' some' people' think,' but' largely' a' matter' of' change' of' species…The' Banj' [Himalayan' Oak]' brings' them' no' cash' for' the' coffers,' whereas'the'Chir'pine'is'very'profitable,'yielding'as'it'does'both'timber'and' resins.169'' '

Whereas'Sarla'Behn,'highly'regarded'as'the'‘Daughter'of'the'Himalayas’,'was'at'the'forefront'of' anti.alcohol' movement' and' vociferously' critical' of' the' centralized' governments.' She' argued' that,' “the' principles' that' govern' humanity' are' higher' than' those' that' govern' the' state…a' centralized'government,'indifferent'to'its'people,'is'a'joke.”170''''

It'needs'to'be'acknowledged'that'the'real'strength'of'the'Chipko'movement'has'been'that'it'has' served'as'a'catalyst'and'source'of'inspiration'for'various'micro'social'struggles'in'different'parts' of' India.' One' outstanding' example' of' this' is' the' Appiko' movement.' To' quote' Pandurang'

Hegde,'the'leader'of'this'movement,'“Like'a'migratory'bird'the'Chipko'Ideology'traversed'2500' km'from'the'Himalayas'crossing'the'central'India'and'roots'on'the'west'coast'in'the'Western'

Ghats'in'South'India.'It'got'a'different'name'with'the'same'tone'known'as'Appiko'(Meaning' hug' the' trees' in' Kannada' language)' Andolan”.171'The' key' guiding' principles' of' Appiko' are'

Ulisu'(to'save)'Belasu'(to'grow),'and'Balasu'(rational'use'of'forest'resources).'Of'central'value'to'

Appiko'philosophy'of'conservation'are'the'five' species:' frit,' fodder,' fuel' wood,' fertilizer' and' fibre.'

The'Western'Ghats'(or'Sahyadri'mountain'range'along'the'west'coast'of'India),'catchments'of' major'rivers'that'provide'irrigation'to'thousands'of'hectares'in'the'Deccan'plains,'is'not'only' well'known'for'tropical'forests'and'numeric'endemic'species'of'flora'and'fauna,'it'is'considered' as' one' of' the' eighteen.biodiversity' hotspots' in' the' world.' The' local' agriculture' economy' has' been' under' the' assault' of' large.scale' eucalypts' plantations' in' order' to' meet' the' commercial' revenue'of'the'state.'The'tremendous'loss'of'biodiversity'as'well'as'the'tree'cover'have'resulted' in'the'drying'up'of'the'water'sources'and'caused'scarcity'of'biomass'for'agricultural'inputs.'The'

51" " local' communities' were' deeply' concerned' about' their' steadily' dwindling' agricultural' yields' and'depleting'forests.''

'

The' genesis' of' the' Appiko' can' be' traced' back' to' protest' registered' by' the' Youth' Club' in'

Balegadde'village'of'Sirsi'taluka'(Uttara'Kannada'district'in'Karnataka)'against'the'clear'felling' of'natural'growth'forest'in'order'to'pave'way'for'teak'plantations.'The'response'of'the'forest' department'was'that'its'action'was'a'“part'of'the'scientific'forestry'policy'of'state'government”.'

Aware' of' the' Chipko' struggle' and' its' outcome,' the' villagers' decided' to' invite' Sunderlal'

Bahuguna'to'their'village.'After'marching'to'the'forests'that'had'been'marked'for'clear'felling' by'the'forest'department,'the'villagers'took'a'vow'to'protect'the'forests'by'non.violent'Chipko'

Movement' or' known' locally' in' Kannada' language' as' Appiko' ...meaning' hug' the' trees.' The'

Appiko' Andolan' or' Movement' was' thus' launched' in' Kelase' forest,' near' Salkani' village' on' 8'

September'1983.'According'to'Hegde,'“The'Appiko'Movement'uses'various'techniques'to'raise' awareness:' foot' marches' in' the' interior' forests,' slide' shows,' folk' dances,' street' plays' and' so' on.”172'

'

As'mentioned'above,'to'begin'with,'the'Appiko'Movement’s'goal'was'to'halt'the'clear'felling'of' natural'forests'and'conversion'to'monoculture'plantations,'which'came'to'be'perceived'by'the' local'forest'authorities'as'a'threat'to'the'government'policy.'Despite'all'possible'moves'made'by' the'government'officials'to'arrest'the'further'spread'of'the'movement,'the'“hidden'hardships'of' the'people'and'the'conflict'over'the'natural'resources”'acted'as'powerful'catalyst'for'taking'the' movement' to' various' parts' of' Karnataka.' As' Hegde' puts' it,' “The' thrust' of' the' Appiko'

Movement' in' carrying' out' its' work' reveals' the' constructive' phase' of' people’s' movement.'

Through' this' constructive' phase,' depleted' natural' resources' can' be' rebuilt.' This' process' promotes' sharing' of' resources' in' an' egalitarian' way,' helping' the' forest' dwellers.' The' movement’s' aim' is' to' establish' a' harmonious' relationship' between' people' and' nature,' to' redefine'the'term'development'so'that'ecological'movements'today'form'a'basis'for'sustainable,' permanent'economy'in'the'future.”173'

'

52" " In'response'to'well.organized'grass'roots'actions'over'a'decade'and'pressure'from'a'number'of' groups'forced'the'state'government'to'change'the'forest'policy.'In'1989'a'ban'on'felling'of'green' trees'in'the'natural'forests'was'imposed'by'the'state'government,'which'continues'till'today.'In' the'meanwhile'new'threats'to'livelihood'security'of'communities'living'on'the'margins'in'India' have' emerged.' In' the' last' week' of' December' 2012' a' series' of' protests' unfolded' in' Kumta,' a' coastal'town'in'Karnataka'against'the'proposed'expansion'of'four.lane'highway'along'the'West'

Coast.''They'would'not'allow'the'public'hearing'to'take'place'because'they'felt'that'the'‘space’' was'not'large'enough'to'allow'a'large'number'of'protesters'to'gather'and'protest.'Pandurang'

Hegde'reported'and'analyzed'the'popular'protest'as'follows:'“The'people'were'up'in'their'arms' against'the'large'infrastructure'project'that'would'destroy'their'livelihoods.'Ironically'most'of' them,' even' the' lawyers' who' were' leading' them' were' not' aware' that' a' day' before' the' public' hearing' the' cabinet' had' passed' the' formation' of' the' National' Investment' Board' (NIB)' or'

Cabinet'Committee'on'Investment'(CCI).'This'had'sealed'the'fate'of'four'lakh'people'in'the'190' km' stretch' on' the' fragile' west' coast.' The' proposed' project' if' implemented' would' violate' the'

Forest'Conservation'Act'and'Wild'Life'Conservation'Act.'Nevertheless,'the'CCI,'as'the'supreme' body' had' been' vested' with' powers' to' over.rule' these' violations' and' grant' permission' to' implement'the'project”.174'What'are'the'prospects'of'this'resistance?'''

'

Hegde' in' his' communication' with' this' author175'has' raised' a' number' of' key' questions' in' the'

Indian'context'that,'in'my'view'are'relevant'to'some'extent'for'China.'He'wonders'whether'the' movements'such'as'Appiko'lost'their'relevance'and'would'eventually'fizzle'out'due'to'factors' such'the'absence'of'a'second'line'leadership?'To'quote'him,'“Has'it'[Appiko]'become'a'legend' that'is'incorporated'in'text'books'in'schools'rather'than'to'be'followed'in'everyday'life?”'He' goes'to'ask,'how'conducive'is'the'current'social'situation'in'India'to'launch'movement'of'any' kind'for'public'good?'What'are'the'implications'of'excessive'role'of'media,'consumer'culture' and'attraction'of'urban'way'of'living'for'social'struggles'aiming'at'innovation?' According'to' him,'“Even'though'the'ban'stays'on'felling'of'green'trees'in'the'natural'forests,'there'are'big' projects'like'hydel'dams,'railway'lines'and'mining'which'are'taking'a'toll'on'natural'forests.”176'

53" " From+Chipko+to+Appiko+to+Climate+Change:+Resisting+the+Politics+of+Post7Political+

In' the' era' of' climate' change,' the' geopolitics' of' sustainability' has' increasingly' acquired' a' complex' and' convoluted' character.' The' post.structural' climate' change' metanarrative' and' its' various' strands,' including' ‘green' carbon' economy’,' tends' to' push' the' highly' contentious' domain' of' sustainability' into' a' post.political' phase.' In' such' a' context' where' the' distinction' between'the'perpetrator/polluter'and'the'victim'is'made'to'simply'evaporate'in'the'thin'air,'it' becomes' far' more' difficult' to' conceive,' launch,' lead' and' sustain' a' movement' like' Chipko' precisely' at' a' time' when' such' movements' are' most' needed' from' the' standpoint' of' the' marginalized.''

Pankaj'Gupta177''in'his'thoughtfully'entitled'paper,'‘From'Chipko'to'Climate'Change’'has'raised' a' number' of' issues' that' are' worth' engaging' with.' His' key' argument' is' that' “few' mountain' communities'remain'untouched'by'the'influence'of'globalization”'and'the'village'of'Jardhar'in'

Garhwal'is'a'revealing'example'of'how'“the'global'conservation'ethic'and'global'development' are,'in'certain'circumstances,'detrimental'to'local'interests:'they'transfer'costs'from'power'urban' centers'and'demand'sacrifices'from'fragile'mountain'communities.”178'Some'of'the'leading'but' relatively'unknown'figures'of'Chipko'movement'like'Dhum'Singh'Negi,'have'been'involved' with'Beej+Bachao+Andolan'(Save'the'Seeds'Movement)'which'resists'the'government'sponsored' schemes'to'spread'the'Green'Revolution'in'the'mountains'in'order'to'“increase'food'availability' in'cities'and'to'keep'food'prices'low.”179'The'net'result'is'that'the'community'that'once'had'over'

80'varieties'of'rice'and'over'200'kinds'of'beans'stands'split'as'some'local'farmers,'lured'by'the' prospects' of' higher' and' faster' yields,' opted' for' hybrid' seed' varieties' of' rice.' Abandoning' subsistence' ecology' in' favor' of' commodity' production' has' wide' ranging' implications' for' agricultural' sustainability' based' on' seed' preservation,' compost' and' crop' diversity.180'' Vijay'

Jardhari' (a' leading' voice' of' the' Beej+Bachao+Andolan)'would'argue:'“A'farmer’s'independence' can'only'be'ensured'if'he'keeps'his'own'seed,'otherwise'he'is'just'a'slave'of'the'company'or'the' government.'What'kind'of'new'seeds'are'these'that'cannot'be'kept'for'the'next'crop?”181'

'

54" " According'to'Gupta,'“The'power'of'global'environmental'discourse'is'pervasive'and'operates'at' several'levels.'It'influences'national'governments'to'formulate'policies'that'are'often'insensitive' to'fragile'rural'ecologies;'it'also'conditions'the'arguments'of'local'movements.”182''His'statement' that' “Chipko' echoed' the' global' green' agenda' of' the' 1970s' and' 1980s,' specifically' that' of' conservation'of'forests'and'wildlife”'needs'to'be'tempered'with'the'realization'that'Chipko'was' a' locally' embedded' movement' with' a' trans.local' vision' that' questioned' the' imposition' of' a' particular' dominant' view' of' ‘development’' that' was' fast' becoming' the' metanarrative' of' sustainable' development.' Gupta’s' contention' however' that' “Beej+ Bachao+ Andolan+ reflects' the' global'emphasis'on'biodiversity'of'the'1990s”'is'spot'on'along'with'his'argument'that,'“In'the'

21st'century,'as'climate'change'takes'center'stage'in'the'global'environment'debate,'forests—in' order'to'fulfill'their'‘carbon'sink’'function—could'be'made'even'more'inaccessible.'Again,'it'is' local'communities'like'Jardhar'that'will'be'the'vanguard'of'a'revolution'not'of'their'making”183.''

I'would'like'to'expand'the'scope'of'Gupta’s'argument'by'saying'that'along'with'the'forests,'the' water' bodies' (the' seas,' rivers,' estuaries,' mangrove' forests' etc.),' in' order' to' fulfill' their' ‘blue' carbon'sink’'as'well'as'‘carbon'trading’'functions,184'too'might'become'increasingly'inaccessible' to'those'who'depend'on'them'for'their'livelihoods,'and'this'includes'millions'in'both'India'and'

China.''

It'is'reasonable'therefore'to'at'least'envisage'the'migratory'bird'of'Chipko'landing'on'the'coastal' areas'to'resist'new'forms'of'domination,'discriminations'and'destructions'in'various'parts'of'the'

Global'South'and'beyond.'While'looking'for'such'examples'(and'eventually'finding'one'thanks' to' John' Kurien)' I' came' across' the' following' insightful' remark' by' James' C.' Scott' in' his' book'

‘Weapons' of' the' Weak:' Everyday' Forms' of' Peasant' Resistance’:' “Most' subordinate' classes' throughout' most' of' history' have' been' rarely' afforded' the' luxury' of' open' organized' political' activity.' But' as' fast' as' millions' of' anthozan' polyps' create' willy.nilly' a' coral' reef,' so' the' multitude'of'peasant'insubordination'and'evasion'create'barrier'reef'of'their'own.”185''

John' Kurien' has'found'a'good'example'in'the'Indian' state'of'Kerala,'in'India,'“where'small. scale,'community.based'fisherfolk'initiated'collective'action'to'invest'in'rejuvenating'the'natural' assets' of' the' sea' that' had' been' destroyed' by' the' incessant' fishing' operations' of' large.scale'

55" " bottom'trawlers'in'the'region.”186'The'strategy'they'chose'to'resist'commercial'fishing'is'literally' the'same'as'metaphorically'stated'by'James'C.'Scott.'What'they'did'was'to'erect'artificial'reefs'at' the'sea'bottom'in'coastal'waters.'By'creating'anthropogenic'marine'environments'the'fisherfolk' created' a' space' in' which' to' exercise' power' of' protest' in' support' of' their' livelihood' security.'

Whereas'the'multi.purpose'artificial'reefs,'strategically'positioned'in'the'coastal'waters,'can'in' due' course' of' time' enrich' the' overall' biomass' and' rejuvenate' the' fish' stock' in' the' local' ecosystem.''

A'unintended'side.effect'of'sufficiently'large'artificial'reefs'is'that'they'act' as'barriers'to'the'operation'of'bottom'trawl'nets,'effectively'performing'the' role'of'a'sea'bottom'fence'against'incursions'of'trawlers'into'coastal'waters.' Such' reefs' have' not' yet' healed' the' wounds' inflicted' on' the' coastal' ecosystem'of'the'area,'nor'can'the'fishing'communities'depend'exclusively' on'them'as'a'major'source'of'livelihood.'But'such'community'investments' by'small.scale'fisherfolk,'and'their'appropriation'of'coastal'sea'area'to'form' community' property' rights,' point' to' the' potential' for' strategies' for' visualizing' natural' resources' in' a' new' light' –' as' natural' assets' that' can' contribute' significantly' to' sustainable' resource' use,' community' empowerment,'and'well.being.'Only'with'such'strategies'can'we'have'the' blessing'of'the'commons.187'' ' Revisiting'Chipko'in'retrospect'and'prospects'is'useful'also'in'the'sense'that'it'reminds'us'of'the' compelling' fact' that' in' Global' South,' including' China' and' India,' it' is' neither' feasible' nor' desirable' to' approach' and' analyze' climate' change' issues' in' isolation.' These' issues' are' intractably'intertwined'with'environmental'and'social'justice'issues.'As'Peter'M.'Haas188'puts'it' so' insightfully,' “the' nearly' 20' years' of' persistent' negotiations' on' the' climate' change' regime' have' had' significant' second.order' displacement' effects' on' environmental' governance' more' generally.'They'have'diverted'attention'away'from'other'possibly'pressing'problems,'crowding' out' issues' such' as' ecosystem' decay,' or' Third' World' water' quality.' They' have' unnecessarily' elevated'‘‘cooperation’’'to'the'status'of'an'end'rather'than'a'means'to'environmental'protection.'

Scarce'political'capital'has'been'channeled'into'trying'to'build'a'constituency'for'climate'change' policies'and'domestic'enforcement.”''

Towards+Chinese+‘Chipkos’:+Imagining+the+Unthinkable?++

56" " In'a'recent'scholarly'study'focusing'‘the'struggle'for'sustainability'in'rural'China’,'Bryan'Tilt' has'provided'a'detailed'account'of'how'villagers'in'the'Futian'village,'while'silently'drawing' upon'“China’s'historical'legacy'of'civic'dissent'–grounded'in'millennia.old'concepts'such'as'the' mandate'of'heaven'and'solidified'in'mass'movements'such'as'the'Cultural'Revolution”189,'have' skillfully' initiated' and' sustained' their' protests' against' damages' to' their' health,' local' environment'and'economic'livelihoods.'They'have'been'ably'assisted'in'their'struggles'by'the'

“growing'body'of'civil'law'that'increasingly'affords'legal'standing'to'individuals”.190'Tilt'refer' to'the'argument'made'by'some'scholars'that'what'Chinese'society'is'experiencing'today'is'more' of' ‘dynamic' environmentalism’' which' falls' quite' short' of' ‘environmental' movement’.' I' agree' with'Tilt’s'argument'that,'

While'there'may'be'a'certain'truth'to'it,'this'conclusion'does'little'more'than'raise'a' more'difficult'question:'What’s'in'a'movement?'If'we'adjust'our'scholarly'lens'to' see' only' those' movements' that' are' formal' and' institutionalized,' China' indeed' appears' to' lack' a' cogent' environmental' movement.' But+ this+ overlooks+ the+ subtle,+ spontaneous,+ ad+ hoc+ collectivities+ that+ cohere+ around+ shared+ interests+ regarding+ environmental+ problems.+ In+ fact+ these+ sorts+ of+ actions+ happen+ in+ rural+ China+ every+ day;' official' government' statistics' suggest' that' environmental' protests' number' in' the' thousands'every'year,'and'such'public'mobilization'undoubtedly' exert' pressure' on'environmental'regulators'and'policy.191'

A' meticulous' mapping' (rather' than' reckless' bashing)' of' ongoing' transitions' and' transformations' in' China' is' likely' to' reveal' an' increasing' number' of' sites' and' sights' that' are' suggestive'of'both'“the'subtle'burgeoning'of'environmental'civil'society'in'China'today”192'and' the'fact'that'“no'matter'how'solid'a'grip'the'central'government'appears'to'have'on'citizens'and' on'local'officials,'its'control'is'never'hegemonic;'those'at'the'margins'possess'creative'strategies' for'affecting'the'political'system”.193'

Conclusion+

The' official' framings' of' climate' change' issues' in' both' China' and' India' continue' to' oscillate' between'the'‘scientific’'imperatives'of'deterritorialized.global'understandings'of'climate'change' and' reterritorialisation' of' climate' space' at' national' scale' through' geopolitical.geoeconomic' reasoning.'The'tone'and'tenor'of'climate'change'geopolitical'discourses'in'both'the'countries'is' tempered'in'many'ways'by'what'can'be'described'as'the'‘revolution'of'rising'socio.economic'

57" " expectations’.' Well' within' a' decade' after' the' signing' of' the' Kyoto' Protocol,' the' emerging' political'consensus'seems'to'be'that'the'most'effective'and'efficient'way'to'protect'the'global' climate'system'is'to'assign'property'rights'for'greenhouse'emissions'and'to'trade'these'rights'on' international' markets.' This' study' has' also' shown' that' in' both' China' and' India' the' official' responses'to'climate'change'mitigation'are'overwhelmingly'land.centric'and'there'is'a'relative' neglect' of' marine' environments,' especially' mangrove' forests,' and' the' problems' faced' by' the' coastal'communities.'''

'

Yet' another' major' argument' made' by' this' study' is' that' the' ‘clash' of' scales’' in' the' ongoing' debates' on' environmental' sustainability' and' climate' change' demands' and' deserves' the' attention' of' a' critical' social' science' perspective.' Despite' the' truism' that' most' human. environmental'interactions'take'place'at'the'micro.local'scale,'the'national'and'the'global'scales' continue'to'be'both'hegemonic'and'homogenizing.'The'climate'change'metanarrative'also'tends' to' conceal' the' longstanding' histories' and' geographies' of' environmental' unsustainability' and' environmental'injustice'in'various'parts'of'the'world,'especially'Global'South,'and'thereby'push' under'the'carpet'various'innovative'social'struggles'that'emerged'out'of'how'local'communities' chose'to'interact'with'their'environment'in'terms'of'not'only'their'needs'but'also'values.''

'

Mahatma'Gandhi'had'once'talked'about'majestic'oceanic'circles,'i.e.'about'the'independence'of' the'grassroots.'According'to'Gandhi,'centralized'government'is'inherently'prone'to'violence.'By' contrast,' he' advocated' the' decentralization' of' political' power.' The' same' could' apply' to' the' governing'arrangements'at'the'regional'and'global'scales.'Explaining'his'metaphorical'vision'of' the'structure'of'a'future'non.violent'society,'Gandhi'wrote:'“Life'will'not'be'a'pyramid'with'the' apex'sustained'by'the'bottom.'But'it'will'be'an'oceanic'circle'whose'centre'will'be'the'individual' always'ready'to'perish'for'the'village,'the'latter'ready'to'perish'for'the'circle'of'villages,'till'at' last'the'whole'becomes'one'life'composed'of'individuals,'never'aggressive'in'their'arrogance,' but'ever'humble,'sharing'the'majesty'of'the'oceanic'circle'of'which'they'are'integral'units.”194'

What'is'important'here'for'the'purposes'of'concluding'this'study'is'the'contrast'between'the' inclusive'spatiality'and'the'horizontal'spacing'of'the'‘oceanic'circles’'of'Gandhi’s'geographical'

58" " imagination'of'political'economy'of'life'and'the'exclusive'spatiality'and'the'vertical'spacing'of' the'various'competing,'often'colliding,'conceptualizations'of'state.centric'space'and'scale.'An+ unorthodox+ imagination+ of+ replacing+ ‘scales’+ with+ ‘circles’+ might+ open+ up+ new+ intellectual+ spaces+ in+ pursuit+ of+ social+ innovation+ howsoever+ defined.+ The' metanarratives' of' climate' change,' framed' largely' in' terms' of' global' scale' and' global' governance' will' no' doubt' continue' to' privilege' govern.mentality'with'regard'to'both'mitigation'and'adaptation'on'the'on'hand'and'co.opt'or' subvert' the' concerns' and' perspectives' of' local' communities' situated' on' the' geographical. political'peripheries.'It'is'rather'ironical'that'those'who'remain'on'the'margins'for'all'practical' purposes'(be'it'the'coastal'communities'of'Sundarbans'or'Zhangjiangkou'Reserve)'are'central'to' the'dominant'framings'of'victims'of'climate'change'by'various'agencies'and'actors'including'

IPCC,'think'tanks'and'‘civil'society’.''

This'study'has'shown'that'sustainable'environments'on'both'land'and'at'sea'are'unlikely'to'be' realized' in' the' absence' of' a' pursuit' of' social' innovation' through' an' equally' innovative' contentious' politics' anchored' in' the' notions' such' as' participatory' democracy' and' environmental.social' justice,' which,' on' the' one' hand,' demands' a' return' to' human.cultural' geographies' in' all' their' diversity' and' decentralized' political' systems' marked' by' non. domination'as'the'fundamental'principle'of'governance'at'all'levels,'on'the'other.'Looking'at'

Chipko'in'retrospect'(and'also'in'terms'of'prospects)'has'been'useful'for'the'purposes'of'this' study.'Chipko'has'been'creatively'imagined'as'a'‘migratory'bird’,'which'is'a'very'useful'way'of' looking'at'social'innovation.'The'Chipko'also'reminds'us'that'geography'..physical'as'well'as' human.cultural—does'matter'a'great'deal'in'various'pursuits'of'social'innovation.''

The' ancient' civilizations' of' China' and' India' are' not' short' in' terms' neither' geographies' nor' histories' of' resistance.' Decolonization' of' mind195'remains' critically' important' in' search' for' alternative' imaginations' of' space,' scale' and' power.' The' micro' geopolitics' of' resistance' is' unlikely'to'acquire'entirely'similar'forms,'trajectories'or'even'outcomes'in'China'and'India'but' the' carriers' of' this' multifaceted' non.violent' resistance' from' below' ..i.e.' micro' movements' against'unsustainable'environments—should'be'brought'into'a'face'to'face'relationship'through' a' trans.local' dialogic' conversation' among' apparently' scattered' and' fragmented' monologues.'

59" " There'are'valuable'lessons'to'be'learnt'from'each'other’s'experiments'and'experiences'in'social' innovation'in'strategizing'resistance'from'below'through'foot'marches,'petitions'and'even'silent' candle' light' processions.' The' spirit' and' philosophy' of' Chipko' will' acquire' its' own' Chinese' characteristics'and'lingua'franca'both'on'land'and'at'sea.'' """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1'European'Commission'(2010)'“Empowering'People,'Driving'Change:'Social'Innovation'in'the'European' Union”,'Bureau'of'European'Policy'Advisers.''See:' ec.europa.eu/bepa/pdf/publications_pdf/social_innovation.pdf' ' 2'See'Liverman,'D.'(2009)'“Suffering'the'Science:'Climate'Change,'People'and'Poverty”,'130'Oxfam' Briefing'Paper.' ' 3'Chaturvedi,'S.'and'Doyle,'T.'(2010)'“Geopolitics'of'Climate'Change'and'Australia’s'Reengagement'with' Asia:'Discourses'of'Fear'and'Cartographic'Anxieties”,'Australian+Journal+of+Political+Science,'45(1):'pp.'95. 115.'' ' 4'Dalby,'S.'(2009)'Security+and+Environmental+Change,'Cambridge:'Polity'Press.'' '

5'Chatterton,'P.,'Featherstone,'D.'and'Routledge,'P.'(2012)'“Articulating'Climate'Justice'in'Copenhagen:' Antagonism,'the'Commons,'and'Solidarity”,'Antipode,'doi:'10.1111/j.1467.8330.2012.01025.x'

' 6'See' Dasgupta,' C.' (2012)' “Present' at' the' Creation:' The' Making' of' the' UN' Framework' Convention' on' Climate' Change”' in' Dubash,' N.' K.' ed.' Handbook+ of+ Climate+ Change+ and+ India:+ Development,+ Politics+ and+ Governance,' Delhi:' Oxford' University' Press:' 89.97;' ' Harris,'P.G.,'Alice'S.'Y.'Chow,'A.'and'Karlsson,'R.' (2012)' “China' and' Climate' Justice:' Moving' Beyond' Statism”,' International+ Environmental+ Agreements:+ Politics,+Law+and+Economics,'10.1007/s10784.012.9189.7.'' ' ' 7'See' Duncan,' F.' (2000)' “Developing' States' and' International' Environmental' Law:' The' Importance' of' Differentiated'Responsibilities”,'International+and+Comparative+Law+Quarterly,'49(1):'pp.'35.60.' ' 8'Agnew,'J.'(1994)'“The'Territorial'Trap:'The'Geographical'Assumptions'of'International'Relations' Theory”,'Review+of+International+Political+Economy,'1(1):'pp.'53.80.' ' 9'Tharoor,'S.'(2012)'Pax+Indica:+India+and+the+World+of+21st+Century,'Delhi:'Allen'Lane:'p.'125.'' ' 10'Chen,'Xi'(2012)'Social'Protest'and'Contentious'Authoritarianism'in'China,'Cambridge:'Cambridge' University'Press.''I'would'like'to'thank'Dr.'Xi'Chen,'Department'of'Political'Science'for'a'stimulating' dialogue'on'social'protests'on'China'during'my'visit'to'University'of'North'Carolina'in'November'2012.'' ' 11'Ibid.'' ' 12'Ibid.'

60" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ' 13'Sheth,'D.'L.'(2004)'“Globalization'and'New'Politics'of'Mirco.Movements”,'Economic'&'Political' Weekly,'39(1):'pp.'45.58;'Tilt,'B.'(2010)'The+Struggle+for+Sustainability+in+Rural+China:+Environmental+Values+ and+Civil+Society,'New'York:'Columbia'University'Press.'' ' 14'Adarsa,'J.,'Shamina,'S.'and'Arkoprova,'B.''(2012)'“Morphological'Change'Study'of'Ghoramara'Island,' Eastern'India'Using'Multi'Temporal'Satellite'Data”,'Research+Journal+of+Recent+Sciences,'1(10):'p.'72.'' ' 15'Gregory,'D.'(2009)'“Space”'in'Derek'Gregory,'Ron'Johnston,'Grealdine'Pratt,'Michael'J.'Watts'and' Sarah'Whatmore'(eds.)'The+Dictionary+of+Human+Geography,'Chichester:'Wiley.Blackwell:'p.'707.' ' 16'See'the'entry'on'‘scale’'in'Derek'Gregory,'Ron'Johnston,'Grealdine'Pratt,'Michael'J.'Watts'and'Sarah' Whatmore'(eds.)'The+Dictionary+of+Human+Geography,'Chichester:'Wiley.Blackwell,'p.666.'' ' 17'Cox,'K.'(1998)'“Spaces'of'dependence,'spaces'of'engagement'and'the'politics'of'scale,'or:'looking'for' local'politics”,'Political+Geography,'17:'pp.'l.23.' ' 18'Eden,'S.'(2011)'“Environmental'Issue:'Nature'Versus'the'Environment”,'Progress+in+Human+Geography,' 21'(1):'pp.'79.85.'' ' 19'' See:' Doyle,' T.' (2008)' “Crucible' for' Survival:' Earth,' Rain,' Fire' and' Wind.’”' In' Crucible+ for+ Survival:+ Environmental+Security+and+Justice+in+the+Indian+Ocean+Region,'eds'T.'Doyle'and'M.'Risley,'Piscataway,'NJ:' Rutgers'University'Press;'Hulme,'M.'(2008)'“The'Conquering'of'Climate'Change:'Discourses'of'Fear'and' their'Dissolution.’”'Geographical+Journal'174'(1):'5–16;'Raleigh,'C.'and'Urdal,'H.'(2007)'“‘Climate'Change,' Environmental'Degradation'and'Armed'Conflict”,'Political+Geography,+26:'pp.'674.694.' ' 20'Ibid.'' ' 21'Hulme,'M.'(2008)“Geographical'Work'at'the'boundaries'of'climate'change”,'Transactions+of+the+Institute+ of+British+Geographers,'33(3):'pp.'420.423.'' 22'Ibid.' 23Millennium+Ecosystem+Assessment,+2005.+Ecosystems+and+Human+Well+being,'Washington'DC:'Island'Press,'' www.maweb.org.en/Framework.aspx' ' 24'Ibid.'p.'v' 25'Ibid.'' 26'Ibid.'' 27'Ibid.'p.1.'' 28'Lefebvre,'H.'(1991)'The+Production+of+Space,'Oxford:'Blackwell.'Also'Massey,'D.'(2005)'For+Space,'London:' SAGE.' ' 29'Agnew,' J.' (1994)' “The' Territorial' Trap:' The' Geographical' Assumptions' of' International' Relations' Theory”,'Review+of+International+Political+Economy+1:'pp.'53–80;'Agnew,'J.'(1998)'“Mapping'Political'Power' Beyond' State' Boundaries:' Territory,' Identity,' and' Movement' in' World' Politics”,' Millennium:+ Journal+ of+ International+Studies,+28(4):'pp.'99–521.+ ' 30'Agnew,'J.'(2003)'Geopolitics:+Revisioning+World+Politics.'London:'Routledge.''

61" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ' 31''Lovbrand,'E.'and'Stripple,'J.'(2006)'“The'Climate'as'Political'Space:'On'the'Territorialization'of'the' Global'Carbon'Cycle”,'Review+of+International+Studies,'32:'pp.'217.235.' ' 32'IPCC.'2007.'Climate+Change+2007:+Impacts,+Adaptations+and+Vulnerability,'Working'Group'II'contribution' to'the'Fourth'Assessment'Report'to'the'IPCC,'Cambridge:'Cambridge'University'Press.'' ' 33'See'Byravan,'S.'Rajan,'S.'C.'and'Rangarajan,'R.'(2012)'“Sea'Level'Rise:'Impact'on'Major'Infrastructure,' Ecosystems'and'Land'Along'the'Tamil'Nadu'Coast”'in'Dubash,'N.'K.'ed.'Handbook+of+Climate+Change+and+ India:+Development,+Politics+and+Governance,'Delhi:'Oxford'University'Press:'41.50.'' ' 34'State'Oceanic'Administration'(SOA)'(2009)'Sea'Level'in'China'in'2009'Communiqué,'Beijing:'SOA.' 35'Cao,'L.,'Gemmer,'M.'and'Jiang,'T.'(2012)'“Adaptation'to'Climate'Change'in'China:'Policy,'Action'and' Progress”'in'Zheng,'G.'and'Wang,'J.'(eds.)'China’s++Climate+Change+Policies,'London:'Routledge:'p.'61.'' 36'''Sen,'A.'The'Idea'of'Justice,'New'Delhi:'Penguin,'pp.'248.249.' 37'Ibid.'p.'250.'' ' 38'See'Doyle,'T.''and'Chaturvedi,S.'(2010)'“Climate'Territories:'A'Global'Soul'for'Global'South?”,' Geopolitics,'15:'pp.'516.535.' ' 39'Dalby,'S.'(2009)'Security+and+Environmental+Change,'Cambridge:'Polity'Press:'p.'77.'' ' 40'Caney,' S.' (2010)' “Climate' Change,' Human' Rights,' and' Moral' Thresholds”' in' Stephen' M.' Gardiner,' Simon' Caney,' Dale' Jamieson' and' Henry' Shue' (eds.)' Climate+ Ethics:+ Essential+ Readings,' Oxford:' Oxford' University'Press:'p.'173.'' ' 41''Harvey,'D.'(1996)'Justice,+Nature+and+the+Geography+of+Difference,'Chichester:'Wiley.Blackwell.'Also,' Williams,'M.'(1998)'“The'Ambiguity'of'Nature”,'Antipode,'30(1):'pp.'26.35.'' ' 42 'See' McCarthy,' G.' (2010).' “The' Climate' Change' Metanarrative,' State' of' Exception' and' China’s' Modernization”,'Journal+of+the+Indian+Ocean+Region,'6(2):'pp.'252.266.'' ' 43'See' Van' Lavieren,' H.' ,' Spalding,' M.,' Alongi,' D.' M.,' Kainuma,' M.,' Clusner.Godt,' M.,' and' Adeel,' Z.' (2012)' “Securing' the' Future' of' Mangroves”,' A' Policy' Brief.' UNU.INWEH,' UNESCO' MAB' with' ISME,' ITTO,' FAO,' UNEP' WCMC' AND' TNC:' p.3.' Available' at:' unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002192/219248e.pdf'' ' 44'Ibid.' ' 45'Ibid.' 46'Ibid.'p.'3.'' ' 47'The' Indian' Sundarbans' Delta' is' bounded' by' the' Ichamati.Raimangal' River' in' the' east,' by' the' Hugli' River'in'the'west,'by'the'Bay'of'Bengal'in'the'south,'and'the'Dampier.'Hodges'line'drawn'in'1829.1830'in' the'north.'

62" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ' 48'See''http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_sr/?src=/climate/ipcc/regional/292.htm#man'

' 49'Danda,'A.'A.,'Sriskanthan,'G.,'Ghosh,'A.,'Bandyopadhyay,'J.'and'Hazara'S.'(2011)'Indian+Sundarbans+ Delta:+A+Vision','World'Wide'Fund'for'Nature.India,''New'Delhi:'p.'7.' ' 50'Ibid.''p.'35.' 51'Ibid.'p.'31.'' ' 52'See''Sengupta,'S.''“India’s'River'Delta'Islands'Washing'Away”,'The+New+York+Times,'10'April'2007;''The+ Hindu'(New'Delhi)'24'March'2010.' ' 53'Adarsa,'J.,'Shamina,'S.'and'Arkoprova,'B.''(2012)'“Morphological'Change'Study'of'Ghoramara'Island,' Eastern'India'Using'Multi'Temporal'Satellite'Data”,'Research+Journal+of+Recent+Sciences,'1(10):'pp.'72.81.'' ' 54'The'major'villages'on'this'island'include'Khasimara,'Hathkola,'Baghpara,'Raipara,'Mandirtala,' Chunpuri'Lakshmi'Narayanpur'and'Khasimara'Char.'' ' 55'Adarsa,'J.,'Shamina,'S.'and'Arkoprova,'B.''(2012)'“Morphological'Change'Study'of'Ghoramara'Island,' Eastern'India'Using'Multi'Temporal'Satellite'Data”,'Research+Journal+of+Recent+Sciences,'1(10):'pp.'72.'' ' 56'Ibis.'' 57'Adarsa,'J.,'Shamina,'S.'and'Arkoprova,'B.''(2012)'“Morphological'Change'Study'of'Ghoramara'Island,' Eastern'India'Using'Multi'Temporal'Satellite'Data”,'Research+Journal+of+Recent+Sciences,'1(10):'p.'81.' ' 58'Doyle,'T.'and'Chaturvedi,'S.'(2011)'“Climate'Change'and'Refugees:'Conceptualizations,'Categories'and' Contestations”'in'John'S.'Dryzek,'J.'S.,'Norgaard,'R.'B.'and' Schlosberg,'D.'eds.'The+Oxford+Handbook+of+ Climate+Change+and+Society,'Oxford:'Oxford'University'Press:'p.'' ' '' ' ' 59'Thakur,'J.'(2009)'“Global'Warming'the'only'issue'Ghormara'Island”,'Hindustan+Times'(New'Delhi),'28' March.'' ' 60 'Danda,' A.' A.' (2007)' “SURVIVING' IN' THE' SUNDARBANS:' THREATS' AND' RESPONSES:' An' analytical' description' of' life' in' an' Indian' riparian' commons”,' PhD' thesis' submitted' to' University' of' Twente,'Netherlands.' ' 61'Ibid.p.'148.'' 62'Ibid.'p.'151.'' 63'Danda,'A.'A.,'Sriskanthan,'G.,'Ghosh,'A.,'Bandyopadhyay,'J.'and'Hazara'S.'(2011)'Indian+Sundarbans+ Delta:+A+Vision','World'Wide'Fund'for'Nature.India,''New'Delhi:'pp.'39.40.'' ' 64'Ibid.'p.'40.''

63" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 65'See'“Dark'Water:'Coastal'China'on'the'Brink'(part'one)”'chinadialogue:'china'and'the'world'discuss' the'environment,'available'at:'www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/1882.Dark.water.coastal. China.on.the.brink'(accessed'on'1'March'2013)' 66'Ibid.' 67'“Dark'Water:'Coastal'China'on'the'Brink'(part'one)”'chinadialogue:'china'and'the'world'discuss'the' environment,'available'at:'www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/1885.Dark.water.coastal. China.on.the.brink'(accessed'on'1'March'2013)' 68'Ibid.'' 69'Ibid.' 70'Ibid.'' 71'Liu,'Y.'(2007)'“China’s'Coastal'Pollution'Necessitates'Rethinking'Government'Role”,'Mangrove'Action' Project,'Worldwatch'Institute'see:'mangroveactionproject.org/news/current_headlines/China2019' ' 72'“Summary' description:' Fujian' Zhangjiangkou' National' Mangrove' Nature' Reserve.' 02/02/08;' Fujian;' 2,358'ha;'23°552N'117°252E).'National'Nature'Reserve.'Dominated'by'mangrove'forest'in'the'estuary'area' and'including'intertidal'mudflats'and'salt'marshes,'located'in'the'estuary'of'Zhangjian'River.'Due'to'high' productivity,' high' decomposition' and' restitution' rate,' the' mangrove' coastal' marsh' and' coastal' arenaceous' vegetation' provides' habitat' for' more' than' 154' birds' species,' including' IUCN' Red.listed' species'like'Daimao'(Eretmochelys'imbricate),'Lengpigui(Dermochelys'coriacea),'Xigui'(Caretta'caretta),' Taipingyangligui(' Lepidochelys' olivacea),' Huangzuibailu(' Egretta' eulophotes),' andHeizuiou' (Larus' saundersi),'as'well'as'240'other'aquatic'animal'species'and'224'vascular'plants.'It'is'also'a'spawning'and' breeding' place' for' important' fish' species' like' Yicheng' (Sinonovacula' constricat),' Banji' (Clupanodom' puncthatus),'and'Ziyu(Mugil'cephalus).'The'site'plays'an'important'role'in'typhoon'resistance,'coastline' protection,'purifying'water'and'maintenance'of'regional'microclimate.'Aquaculture'is'practiced'here'for' local'economic'purposes.”'Source:'Wetland'International'China.' See'shttp://www.wetwonder.org/en/news_show.asp?id=476'' ' 73'Chen,'J.,'Wu,'F.,'Xiao,'Q.,'Yang,'Z.H.,'Huang,'S.,'Wang,'J.,'Wu,'Y.,'Dong,'X.J.,'Pei,'Z.'and'Zheng,'H.' (2010)'“Diurnal'variation'of'nitric'oxide'emission'flux'from'a'mangrove'wetland'in'Zhangjiange'River' Estuary,'China”,'Estuary,+Coastal+and+Shelf+Science,'90:'pp.'212.220.'' ' 74 'ZHANG' Dong.Shui,' WANG' Qin.Min,WANG' Xiao.Qin,LAN' Zhang.Ren,ZHANG' Wei,LI' Zheng,' (2009)'“The'Analysis'of'Service'Value'Change'of'the'Ecosystem'in'Zhangjiangkou'Mangrove'Forestry' National'Nature'Reserve'Based'on'Remote'Sensing”'Wetland+Science,'3.++ ' 75'Tongchao,'L.E,'(2006)'“Analysis'on'Relationship'between'Zhangjiangkou'Mangrove'National'Nature' Reserve'and'Adjacent'Community”,'Forest'Research'Management,'no.'6:'p.13.' 76'Ibid.' ' 77'Shapiro,'J.'(2012)'China’s+Environmental+Challenges,'Cambridge:'Polity'Press.'' ' 78'I'visited'the'office'of'CMCN'on'' 79'See'Yi,'L.'(2008.2009)'“Commentary:'Neither'Black'Nor'White:'Mangrove'Conservation'With'Chinese' Characteristics”,'China+Environment+Series,'Washington'D.C.:'Woodrow'Wilson'International'Centre'for' Scholars:'P.'76.' 80'Ibid.'p.'75.'' 81'Ibid.'

64" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 82'Shapiro,'J.'(2012)'China’s+Environmental+Challenges,'Cambridge:'Polity'Press:'123.' ' 83'Chen,'J.'(2012)'“Who'Participates'in'Collective'Petitions'in'Rural'China”,'Journal'of'Chinese'Political' Science,'17(3):'pp.'251.268.' ' 84'See'www.greenmap.org/greenhouse/en/node/6874' ' 85'Wu,'F.'(2009)'“Environmental'Politics'in'China:'An'Issue'Area'in'Review”,'Journal+of+Chinese+Political+ Science,'14:'p.'391.'' ' 86'See'Lewis,'J.'(2010)'“Environmental'Challenges:'From'the'Local'to'the'Global”'in'Fewsmith,'J.'(ed.)' China+Today,+China+Tomorrow:+Domestic+Politics,+Economy+and+Society,'Lanham:'Rowman'&'Littlefield' Publishers:'pp.'259.275.'' ' 87'“Toxic'Water”'(2013)'Editorial,'Economic+&+Political+Weekly,'XLVIII(9):'p.'9.'' ' 88'Matharu,'S.'(2012)'“Keeping'Cancer'Alive”,'Down'to'Earth,'www.downtoearth.org.in/content/keeping. cancer.alive' ' 89'Carlson,'S.'(2013)'“Recording'Breaking'Pollution'and'Cancer'Villages'Plague'China’s'Industrial' Success”,'The+International,'19'March.'' ' 90'Liverman,'D.'(2009)'“Suffering'the'Science:'Climate'Change,'People'and'Poverty”,'130'Oxfam'Briefing' Paper.'Also'see''Chao,'Q.'(2009),'China'Meteorological'Administration,'address'to'Copenhagen'Science' Conference,'March'2009,'http://climatecongress.ku.dk/speakers/qingchen_chao_10march2009.pdf/''' ' 91'Ahmed,'W.,'Kundu,'A.'and'Peet,'R.'eds.'('2011)'The+New+Economic+Policy+of+India:+A+Critical++Analysis,' London:'Routledge:'p.'10.' ' 92'Peet,'R.'(2011)'“Neoliberalism,'Inequality'and'Development”,'in'Ahmed,'W.,''Kundu,'A.'and'Peet,R.'' eds.,'The+New+Economic+Policy+of+India:+A+Critical++Analysis,'London:'Routledge:'p.'11.'' ' 93'Chatterjee,'I.'(2012).'“Violent'Narratives'of'Neoliberalizing'Ahmeadabad’'in'Ahmed,'W.,''Kundu,'A.' and'Peet,R.''eds.,'The+New+Economic+Policy+of+India:+A+Critical++Analysis,'London:'Routledge.'' ' 94'Lohmann,'L.'and'Bohm,'S.'(2012)'“Critiquing'Carbon'Market:'A'Conversation”,'ephemera:+theory+and+ politics+in+organization,'12(1/2).'' ' ' 95'Bohm,'S.,'Murtola,'A.'and'Spoelstra,'S.'(2012),'“The'Atmosphere'Business”,'ephemera:+theory+and+politics+ in+organization,'12(1/2),'pp.'1.11.'' ' 96'Boyd,'E.,'Boykoff,'M.'and'Newell,'P.'(2011)'“The'“New'Carbon'Economy”:'What’s'New?”,'Antipode,' 43(3):'601.611.'' ' 97'Ibid.'' '

65" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 98'See' Bachram,' H.' (2004)' “Climate' Fraud' and' Carbon' Colonialism:' The' New' Trade' in' Greenhouse' Gases”,' Capitalism,+ Nature,+ Socialism' 15(4):' 10.12;' Friends' of' the' Earth,' 2009.' “Sub.Prime' Carbon:' Rethinking'the'World’s'Largest'New'Derivatives'Market”,'Washington'DC:'Friends'of'the'Earth.'' ' 99''Boyd,'E.,'Boykoff,'M.'and'Newell,'P.'(2011)'“The''“New'Carbon'Economy”:'What’s'New?”,'Antipode,' 43(3):'601.611.' ' 100'Ibid.'' ' 101'Ibid.'p.'608.'' 102'Ibid.' ' 103'Gutierrez,'M.'(2011)'“Making'Markets'Out'of'Thin'Air:'A'Case'of'Capital'Involution”,'Antipode'43(3):' 639.'' ' 104'Ibid.'p.'642.'' ' 105'Ibid.'' ' 106'Baldwin,'A.'(2009)'“Carbon'Nullius'and'Racial'Rule:'Race,'Nature'and'the'Cultural'Politics'of'Forest' Carbon'in'Canada”,'Antipode,'41(2):'p.'238.'' ' 107'Lewis,'J.'I.'(2007)'“China’s'Strategic'Priorities'in'International'Climate'Change'Negotiations”,'The+ Washington+Quarterly,'31(1):'p.'163.'' ' 108'Ibid.'p.'164.'' ' 109'Newell,'P.'and'Paterson,'M.'(2010)'Climate+Capitalism:+Global+Warming+and+the+Transformation+of+the+ Global+Economy,'Cambridge'University'Press.'' ' 110'Ibid.'p.'184.' ' 111'Bakshi,'R.'(2009)''Bazaars,+Conversations+and+Freedom:+For+a+Market+Culture+Beyond+Greed+and+Fear,'New' Delhi:'Penguin.'' ' 112'Yee,'S.'M.'(2010)'“REDD'and'BLUE'Carbon:'Carbon'Payments'for'Mangrove'Conservation”,'MAS' Marine'Biodiversity'and'Conservation'Capstone'Project.'See:'' cmbc.ucsd.edu/Research/Yee_CAPSTONE.pdf:'p.'4.'' ' 113'Ibid.'p.'6.'' 114'Ibid.'p.'7.'' 115'Li,'M.'(2009)'“Capitalism,'Climate'Change'and'the'Transition'to'Sustainability:'Alternative'Scenarios' for'the'US,'China,'and'the'World”,'Development+and+Change'40(6):'p.'1039.'' ' 116'Ibid.'' 117'Ibid.'p.'1058.''

66" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 118'See'Rastogi,'N.'P.'('2011)'''“Winds'of'Change:'India’s'Emerging'Climate'Strategy”,'The+International+ Spectator,' 46(2):' pp.' 127.141;' Zang,' D.' (2009)' “Green' From' Above:' Climate' Change,' New' Development' Strategy' and' Regulatory' Choice' in' China”,' Texas+ International+ Law+ Journal,' 45:' pp.' 201.232;' Lewis,' J.' I.' (2009)'“Climate'Change'and'Security:'Examining'China’s'Challenges'in'a'Warming'World”,'International+ Affairs,'85(6):'pp.'1195.1213;'Urban,'F.'(2009)'“'Climate'Change'Mitigation'Revisited:'Low'Carbon'Energy' Transitions'for'China'and'India”,'Development+Policy+Review,'27(6):'pp.'693.715;'Yagi,'H.'(2011)'“Climate' Change'in'China:'Can'China'Be'a'Model'of'Sustainable'Development”,'Global+Majority+E7Journal,'2(2):'pp.' 114.124;' Danny,' M.' (2010)' “China’s' Climate' Change' Policy' Process:' Improved' but' Still' Weak' and' Fragmented”,' Journal+ of+ Contemporary+ China,' 19(67):' pp.' 971.986;' Lo,' A.' (2010);' “China’s' Response' to' Climate'Change”,'Environmental+Science+&+Technology,'44(15):'pp.'5689.5690;'Morton,'K.'(2008)'“China'and' Environmental'Security'in'the'Age'of'Consequences”,'Asia7Pacific+Review,'15(2):'pp.'52.67;'Xiong,'W.,'Lin,' E.,'Ju,'H.,'and'Xu,'Y.'(2007)'“Climate'Change'and'Critical'Thresholds'in'China’s'Food'Security”,'Climate+ Change,'8(2):'pp.'205.221.'' ' 119'See' Lewis,' J.' I.' (2009)' “Climate' Change' and' Security:' Examining' China’s' Challenges' in' a' Warming' World”,'International+Affairs,'85(6):'pp.'1195.1213;'Chellaney,'B.'(2009)'“Climate'Risks'to'Indian'National' Security”'in'Michel,'D.'and'Pandya,'A.'eds.'Indian+Climate+Policy:+Choices+and+Challenges,'Washington'DC:' The'Stimson'Centre.'' ' 120'Chellaney,' B.' (2009)' “Climate' Risks' to' Indian' National' Security”' in' Michel,' D.' and' Pandya,' A.' eds.' Indian+Climate+Policy:+Choices+and+Challenges,'Washington'DC:'The'Stimson'Centre:'p.'25.' ' 121'National'Environmental'Policy'(2006),'available'at'.' ' 122'China’s'National'Climate'Change'Programme'(Prepared'under'the'Auspices'of'National'Development' and'Reform'Commission'People’s'Republic'of'China)'June'2007.'' ' 123'Ibid.'p.'2.'' 124''Ibid.'p.'52.'' 125'Ibid.'' 126'Ibid.'' 127'Cao,'L.,'Gemmer,'M.'and'Jiang,'T.'(2012)'“Adaptation'to'Climate'Change'in'China:'Policy,'Action'and' Progress”'in'Zheng,'G.'and'Wang,'J.'(eds.)'China’s++Climate+Change+Policies,'London:'Routledge:'p.'65.'' 128'Cited'in'Cao,'L.,'Gemmer,'M.'and'Jiang,'T.'(2012)'“Adaptation'to'Climate'Change'in'China:'Policy,' Action'and'Progress”'in'Zheng,'G.'and'Wang,'J.'(eds.)'China’s++Climate+Change+Policies,'London:'Routledge:' p.'61.' ' 129'Li,'P.'(2013)'“High'Time'for'Sea'Change”,'China+Daily,'11'March'2013.'' ' 130'Government'of'India,'National'Action'Plan'on'Climate'Change.'For'more'details'see'Pew'Center,' Summary:+India’s+National+Action+Plan.+' ' + 131'See'Mangroves'for'the'Future.'National'Strategy'and'Action'Plan'(NSAP):'India'(2008),'Mangroves'for' the'Future'Program'Coordinated'by'UNDP'and'IUCN:'See:'www.mangrovesforthefuture.org' '

67" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 132'See'Ibid.'p.'20.'The'list'of'twenty'six'Acts/Policies'and'Programs'includes'1882'India'Forest'Act,'1897'

Indian' Fisheries' Act,' 1908' Indian' Ports' Act,' 1950' Coast' Guard' Act,' 1958' Merchant' Shipping' Act,' 1972'

Wildlife'Protection'Act,'1974'Water'(Prevention'and'Control'of'Pollution),'1976'Maritime'Zones'Act,'1978'

Marine'Fishing'Regulation'Act,'1980'Forest'Conservation'Act,'1982'Coastal'Pollution'Control'Series,'1986'

Environmental'Protection'Act'(EPA),'1991'Costal'Regulation'Zone'Notification'(under'EPA'1986),'1991'

Coastal' Ocean' Monitoring' and' Prediction' System,' 1995' National' Environment' Tribunal' Act,' 1995'

UNCLOS,'1996'Coastal'Zone'Management'Plans,'1997'National'Environment'Appellate'Authority'Act,'

1998'Integrated'Coastal'and'Marine'Area'Management'Project,'1998'Ocean'Observation'and'Information'

Services,'1998'Turtle'Excluder'Device,'1998'DOD'Program'on'Assessing'Marine'Life'beyond'70m'depth,'

2002' The' Biodiversity' Act,' 2004' Swaminathan' Review' Committee' on' CRZ' Notification' 1991,' 2006'

National'Environment'Policy'and'2007'Draft'National'Biodiversity'Action'Plan.''

' 133'Ibid.'p.'48.'' 134'See'Mangroves'for'the'Future.'National'Strategy'and'Action'Plan'(NSAP):'India.'Mangroves'for'the' Future'Program'Coordinated'by'UNDP'and'IUCN:'See:'www.mangrovesforthefuture.org' p.'47.'' ' 135'Steinberg,'P.'E.'(1999)'“Navigating'to'Multiple'Horizons:'Toward'a'Geography'of'Ocean.Space”,' Journal+of+The+Professional+Geographer,'51'(3):'367.'' ' 136'Ibid.' ' 137'IPCC'[Intergovernmental'Panel'on'Climate'Change].'2007.'Summary'for'Policymakers.'Contribution'of' Working' Group' II' to' the' Fourth' Assessment' Report' of' the' IPCC.' Cambridge:' Cambridge' University' Press.'URL:'5http://www.ipcc.wg2.org/index.html4.'Consulted'13'July'2011.' ' 138'Nicholls,'R.J.,'Wong,'P.P.,'Burkett,'V.R.,'Codignotto,'J.O.,'Hay,'J.E.,'McLean,'R.F.,'Ragoonaden,'S.'and' Woodroffe,'C.D.'(2007),'‘Coastal'systems'and'low.lying'areas.'Climate'change,'impacts,'adaptation'and' vulnerability’,' in' M.L.' Parry,' O.F.' Canziani,' J.P.' Palutikof,' P.J.' van' der' Linden' and' C.E.' Hanson,' eds.,' Contribution'of'Working'Group'II'to'the'Fourth'Assessment'Report'of'the'Intergovernmental'Panel'on' Climate'Change.'Cambridge:'Cambridge'University'Press,'pp.'317.318.'' ' 139''Ibid.'pp.'317.318.'The'policy.oriented'statements'made'by'the'IPCC,'and'marked'by'different'levels'of' ‘confidence’,' are' backed' up' by' facts' and' figures.' Here' are' just' a' few' citations' from' the' executive' summary.'The'number'of'those'‘exposed’'to'tropical'cyclone'hazards'annually'in'different'parts'of'the' globe'is'about'120'million,'out'of'which'250,000'people'were'killed'between'1980'and'2000.'We'are'told' that,'‘The'anticipated'climate.related'changes'include:'an'accelerated'rise'in'sea'level'of'up'to'0.6'm'or' more'by'2100;'a'further'rise'in'sea'surface'temperatures'by'up'to'3'degrees'centigrade;'and'intensification' of'tropical'and'extra.tropical'cyclones;'larger'extreme'waves'and'storm'surges;'altered'precipitation/run' off;'and'ocean'acidification.'The'phenomena'will'vary'considerably'at'regional'and'local'scales,'but'the'

68" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" impacts' are' virtually' certain' to' be' overwhelmingly' negative’.' Furthermore:' Increased' flooding' and' the' degradation' of' freshwater,' fisheries' and' other' resources' could' impact' hundreds' of' millions' of' people,' and' socio.economic' costs' on' coasts' will' escalate' as' a' result' of' climate' change' .' .' .' Populated' deltas' (especially' Asian' mega' deltas),' low' lying' coastal' urban' areas' and' atolls' are' key' societal' hotspots' of' coastal'vulnerability,'occurring'where'the'stresses'on'natural'systems'coincide'with'low'human'adaptive' capacity'and'high'exposure.'Regionally,'South,'South.east' and' East' Asia,' Africa' and' small' islands' are' most' vulnerable' .' .' .' Without' adaptation,' the' high.end' sea.level' rise' scenarios,' combined' with' other' climate'changes'(e.g.'increased'storm'intensity),'are'as'likely'as'not'to'render'some'islands'and'low'lying' areas'unviable'by'2100'.'.'.'Sea'level'rise'has'substantial'inertia'and'will'continue'beyond'2100'for'many' centuries.''' ' 140'R.'Grundmann,R.'(2007)''‘Climate'change'and'knowledge'politics’,'Environmental+Politics,'16(3):'pp.' 414.432.' ' 141'Ibid.'' ' 142''Hulme,'M.'(2009)'Why+We+Disagree+About+Climate+Change:+Understanding+Controversy,+Inaction+and+ Opportunity,'Cambridge:'Cambridge'University'Press:'p.'96.' ' 143'Grundmann,'R.'(2007)'“Climate'change'and'knowledge'politics”,'Environmental+Politics,'16(3):,'p.'415.'' ' 144''Lovelock,'J.'(2010)'The+Vanishing+Face+of+Gaia:+A+Final+Warning,'London:'Penguin'Books:'p.'2003.' ' 145''Grundmann,'R.'(2007)'“Climate'change'and'knowledge'politics”,'Environmental+Politics,'16(3):'p.'416.'' ' 146'Ibid.'' ' 147'Norgaard,'R.'B.'('2012),'“Segmented'Knowledge,'Integrated'Environmental'Assessment'and' Governance”'in'Bandyopadhyay,'J.,''Chopra,'K.'and'Ghosh,'N.'(eds.)'Environmental+Governance:+ Approaches,+Imperatives+and+Methods.'London:'Bloomsbury.'' ' 148'Ibid.'p.'41.' ' 149''Harvey,'D.'(2005)'A+Brief+History+of+Neoliberalism,'Oxford:'Oxford'University'Press.' 150'Ibid.' 151'Agnew,'J.'and'Corbridge,'S.'(1995)'Mastering+Space:+Hegemony,+Territory+and+International+Political+ Economy,'London:'Routledge.' ' 152'Chimni,'B.'S.'(2006)'“A'Just'World'Under'Law:'A'View'from'the'South”,'American+University+ International+Law+Review,'22(2):'pp.'199.222.'' 153'Ibid.' 154'Ibid.''''' 155'Alston,'P.''(2006)'“Remarks'on'Professor'B.S.'Chimni’s'A'Just'World'Under'Law:'A'View'from'the' South”,'American+University+International+Law+Review,'22('2)'pp.'+ ' 156'Chaturvedi,'S.'and'Painter,'J.'(2007)'“Whose'World,'Whose'Order?'Spatiality,'Geopolitics'and'the' Limits'of'the'World'Order'Concept”,'Cooperation'and'Conflict'42(4):'375.395.''

69" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" ' 157'See''Nan,'X.'and'Chun,'Z.'“Protests'Alone'Will'not'Help'China'Protect'Its'Environment”'(translated'by' China'Dialogue'volunteer'Marta'Casey)' ' 158'Ibid.'' 159'Economy,'E.'C.'(2004)'The+River+Runs+Black:+Environmental+Challenge+to+China’s+Future,'Ithaca'&'London:' Cornell'University'Press:'p.'252.' 160'Ibid.'p.'251.'' 161'Sheth,'D.'L.'(2004)'“Globalization'and'the'New'Politics'of'Micro'Movements”,'Economic'&'Political' Weekly,'39(1):'56.' 162'Ibid.' 163'Ibid.' 164'Ekins,'P.'(1992)'A+New+World+Order:+Grassroots+Movements+for+Global+Change,'London:'Routledge,'p.'143).'''' 165'Bandyopadhyay,'J.'(1999)'“Chipko'Movement:'Of'Floated'Myths'and'Flouted'Realities”,'Economic++&+ Political+Weekly,'10'April:'880.'' 166'Cited'in'Ibid.'p.'880.'' 167'See'Bandyopadhyay,'J.'(1999)'“Chipko'Movement:'Of'Floated'Myths'and'Flouted'Realities”,'Economic++ &+Political+Weekly,'10'April:'pp.'880.882.' 168'Ibid.'p.'880.'' 169'Mira'Behn'(1952)'“Something'Wrong'in'the'Himalaya”.''' 170'Sarala'Behn.'' 171'Pandurang'Hegde,'in'correspondence'with'the'author,'26'October'2012.'' 172'Hegde,'P.'(1989)'“The'Appiko'Movement:'Forest'Conservation'in'Southern'India”,'Cultural'Survival' Quarterly,'13(2).'' 173'Ibid.'' 174"Hegde,'P.'(2012)'“Serving'the'Interests'of'Crony'Capitalism”,'Deccan+Herald,'Monday,'1'April."" 175"Pandurang'Hegde'in'correspondence/conversation'with'the'author'through'email.'26'October'2012." 176"Ibid." 177"Gupta,'P.'(2008)'“From'Chipko'to'Climate'Change:'Remote'Rural'Communities'Grapple'with'Global' Environmental'Agenda”,'Mountain+Research+and+Development,'28(1):'pp.''4.7."" 178'Ibid.'p.'4.'' 179"Ibid.'p.'6.'" 180"Ibid." 181"Cited"in"Ibid."p."6."" 182'Ibid.'' 183"Ibid."" 184'See'Yee,'S.'M.'(2010)'“REDD'and'BLUE'Carbon:'Carbon'Payments'for'Mangrove'Conservation”,'MAS' Marine'Biodiversity'and'Conservation'Capstone'Project.'See:'' cmbc.ucsd.edu/Research/Yee_CAPSTONE.pdf' ' 185'Scott,'J.'(1985)+Weapons+of+the+Weak:+Everyday+Forms+of+Peasant+Resistance,'Yale'University'Press.'' ' 186'Kurien,'J.''(2004)'“'The'Blessings'of'Commons:'Small'Scale'Fisheries,'Community'Property'Rights,'and' Coastal'Natural'Assets”,'Working'Paper'Series,'Number'72,'Political'Economy'Research'Institute,' University'of'Massachusetts'Amherst,'p.'1.' ' 187''Ibid.'p.'1.'

70" " """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 188'Haas,'P.H.'(2008).'‘Climate'Change'Governance'After'Bali.’'Global+Environmental+Politics'8(3):'p.3.' 189''Tilt,'B.'(2010)'The+Struggle+for+Sustainability+in+Rural+China:+Environmental+Values+and+Civil+Society,'New' York:'Columbia'University'Press:'' ' 190'Ibid.'' 191'Tilt,'B.'(2010)'The+Struggle+for+Sustainability+in+Rural+China:+Environmental+Values+and+Civil+Society,'New' York:'Columbia'University'Press:'156.' 192"Ibid.'' 193'Ibid.'p.'157.'' 194'Cited'in'Murthy,' S.' (1987)' Mahatma+Gandhi+and+Leo+Tolstoy,' Long' Beach:' Long' Beach' Publications:' p.' 189.'' 195'I'gratefully'recall'and'acknowledge'here'the'powerful'intervention'made'by'Dr.'Lily'Ling'of'The'New' School,' New' York,' on' ‘decolonization' of' mind’' during' Q' &' A' of' session' 3' of' the' ICI' Conference,' Environment' in' India' and' China,' held' on' 1' December' 1,' 2012.' ' Her' critical' scholarship' and' relentless' search'for'‘multiple'worlds’'in'international'relations'is'a'major'source'of'inspiration'for'this'study.'"

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