! Working Paper Series!! Marginalized+Coastal+Communities+and+Struggles+for+Social+Innovation+in+India+and+China:+ Towards+a+Micro;Geopolitics+of+Environmental+Sustainability+in+the+Era+of+Climate+Change++ + + + + + +++Sanjay+Chaturvedi+ Introduction+ Social' innovations' are' ..and' ought' to' be—“innovations' that' are' social' in' both' their' ends' and' means”1'be'they'in'the'form'of'ideas,'movements'or'outcomes.'Social'innovations'are'expected' able' to' meet' social' needs,' create' new' social' relationships' and' collaborations'both'within'and' across'national'boundaries.'What'are'the'spaces,'sites'and'scales'where'one'should'be'looking' for' social' innovation' for' sustainable' environments' in' a' globalizing' world?' One' of' the' key' assumptions' behinds' this' study' is' that' in' the' era' of' climate' change' and' ‘scarcities’,' social' struggles'demanding'livelihood'security,'environmental'sustainability'and'climate'justice'at'the' grass'roots'levels'in'the'Global'South'do'qualify'as'instances'of'bottom.up'social'innovation.'In' other'words,'the'micro'geopolitics'of'resistance'against'emerging'market'driven'architecture'of' domination'and'homogenizing'climate'change'narrative,'using'innovative'strategies,'demand' and'deserve'the'attention'of'those'interested'in'the'theory'and'practices'of'social'innovation.'' ' It' is' a' truism' that' climate' is' changing' globally' with' far' reaching' adverse' consequences,' especially'for'the'poor'and'the'marginalized.2'But'climate'is'not'the'only'thing'that'is'changing' in' the' world' today.3'The' neoliberal' globalization' and' fossil' fuel' driven' models' of' economic' growth,' at' the' service' of' ‘carboniferous' capitalism’4,' have' caused' multiscalar' socio.economic,' and' ecological' transformations' at' a' pace' hitherto' unanticipated.' We' are' also' a' witness' to' steadily'rising'socio.ecological'protests'in'different'parts'of'the'world,'especially'Global'South,' demanding'livelihood'security'and'social'justice.'It'is'least'surprising'therefore'that'for'a'vast' majority'of'humanity'climate'change'is'neither'a'radical'departure'from,'nor'a'dramatic'rupture' of,'past'practices'associated'with'state.centric'geopolitics'of'domination'and'pursuit'for'primacy' 1" " and'profit'in'international'geopolitical'economy.'The'fear'shared'by'many'that'dominant'post. structural,' post.political' discourses' of' climate' change' are' hand' in' glove' with' the' relentless' pursuit' for' ‘green' profits’' by' neo.liberal' market' in' the' ‘new' carbon' economy’' is' neither' completely'out'of'place'nor'out'rightly'unjustified.5'Nor'is'the'geography'of'hope'generated'and' sustained'by'the'micro.geopolitics'of'resistance'against'the'undermining'of'livelihood'security' of'marginalized'communities'entirely'misplaced.'' ' Both' China' and' India' as' the' two' most' populous,' fast' growing' economies' with' ecological' irrationalities' deeply' entrenched' in' their' models' of' ‘development’' and' formidable' environmental' problems' present' themselves' as' ideal' critical' social' science' laboratories' to' approach' and' address' the' problems' and' prospects' of' realizing' ‘sustainable' environments’' (some' analysts' would' prefer' the' term' ‘environmental' security’)' through' ‘social' innovations’.' The' problems' and' prospects' of' social' innovation' for' sustainable' environments' in' these' two' countries'are'closely'tied'to'the'nature,'scope'and'outcome'of'complex'interplay'between'the' subaltern' views' of,' and' social' struggles' for' environmental' sustainability' and' the' top.down' state.centric' national' action' plans' for' mitigating' climate' change.' Whereas' the' former' are' anchored'in'historically'approached'ethnical.normative'notions'such'‘ecological'debt’,'the'latter' draw'upon'the'principle'of'‘common'but'differentiated'responsibility’'and'per.capita'‘ecological' footprint’.'No'less'important'is'the'intervention'by'climate'change'metanarrative'and'associated' discourses'of'‘global'climate'governance’'and'‘carbon'economy’,'which'aim'at'coopting'both'the' local'and'the'national'scales,'though'not'without'inviting'resistance,'especially'at'the'grassroots.'' ' 'China' and' India' remain' at' core' of' highly' contentious' interplay' between' the' ethical' and' the' geopolitical'dimensions'of'climate'change'and'thereby'central'to'the'prospects'of'international' climate' diplomacy' aimed' at' putting' in' place' some' kind' of' a' ' ‘global’' governance' of' ‘global’' warming.' Concerned' over' the' prospects' of' Global' North' imposing' legally' binding' limits' on' their' ‘development’' induced' carbon' emissions;' the' two' ‘Asian' giants’' have' so' far' taken' a' common'stand'in'international'climate'negotiations.'Both'continue'to'adhere'to'the'principle'of' ‘common'but'differentiated'responsibility’6:'a'diluted'form'of'‘polluter'pays'principle’'guiding' 2" " various' international' environmental' agreements.' Both' fear' that' their' developmental' imperatives'and'energy'security,'especially'in'the'context'of'the'ongoing'‘revolution'of'rising' social' expectations’,' will' be' seriously' undermined' in' case' the' Kyoto' Protocol' were' to' be' abandoned'and'displaced'by'a'new'legally'binding'climate'regime.'And'both'insist'that'their' per'capita'emissions'are'much'lower'than'those'of'the'United'States'or'EU'member'states.'' ' Aware'at'the'same'time'of'wideranging'domestic'as'well'as'international'implications'of'climate' change' ..' ecological,' ethical' and' socio.political..' both' China' and' India,' as' stated' above,' have' nevertheless' responded' to' climate' change' through' their' respective' national' action' plans' and' nascent'‘climate'bureaucracies’.'Despite'a'pronounced'adherence'to'the'principle'of'‘common' but'differentiated'responsibility’7'(which'according'to'some'critical'perspectives'implies'‘hiding' behind'the'poor’)'both'China'and'India'have'been'participating'in'market.driven'mechanisms' for' climate' mitigation' such' as' the' Clean' Development' Mechanisms' (CDMs)' or' simply' put' carbon' trading;' a' puzzle' worth' exploring.' What' also' demands' scrutiny' is' the' geographical' scope'of'their'national'policies'and'action'plans'since'one'can'sense'a'continental'bias'in'them' and'relative'neglect'of'and'coastal'marine'environments'in'general'and'costal'communities'in' particular.''' ' Nature, Scope and Structure of the Study As the collaborative research by the ICI Third Cohort fellows progressed under a meticulously worked out plan, ably assisted by travels and several rounds of debate and dialogue, I became aware of the limited and limiting nature of various arguments that emphasize the futility of India- China ‘comparisons’. The two neighboring Asian civilizations are often approached and analyzed by some fellow political scientists for example in terms of a long list of profound differences and sharp contrasts in terms of state-centric notions of political culture and political system and not without some justification of course. But once the analytical focus is liberated from the ‘territorial trap’8 and deployed to address the predominant concerns of market economy (e.g. consumer culture and consumption practices shared by fast bourgeoning middles classes) on 3" " the one hand, and assertions of marginalized communities (e.g. cancer villages, social struggles and mass protests), on the other, a rather different picture emerges with its own set of puzzles. Shashi Tharoor has recently argued that, “…aside from the fact that both countries occupy a vast landmass called ‘Asia’, they have very little in common. It’s also that the two countries are already at very different stages of development…it’s also that the two countries’ systems are totally dissimilar.”9 Acknowledging serious environmental pollution and growing inequalities in China and citing the examples of dams and displacements Tharoor further remarks that, “when China built the Three Gorges Dam, it created a 660-kilometre-long reservoir that necessitated the displacement of a staggering 2 million people, all accomplished in fifteen years without a fuss in the interest of generating electricity; when India embarked on the Narmada Dam project, aiming to bring irrigation, drinking water and power to millions, it had to spend thirty-nine years (so far) fighting environmental groups, human rights activists, and advocates for the displaced all the way to the Supreme Court, which still being thwarted in the streets by the protesters from non- governmental organizations like the Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save Narmada Movement). That is how it should be: India is a fractious democracy, China is not.” Whereas Tharoor would describe India as a ‘fractious democracy’, XI Chen10 would call contemporary China ‘contentious authoritarianism’ in the context of ever rising collective social protests or ‘collective petitioning’ since the early 1990s. Chen argues that, “the transition from a planned economy to market economy has brought about two important changes in the political system: first, the linkages between ordinary people and the Party-state have shifted from the unit system model to the government-citizen model; and second divisions and functional differentiations among state agencies have substantially increased.”11 Furthermore, “these two changes have pushed the state to develop a new strategic repertoire, which combines preventive repression, expedient concessions, practical persuasion, and procrastination…such a repertoire of state strategies has actually