A Literature Review June 2013

Great Australian ECOSYSTEM STUDY Bight Physical processes, biodiversity and ecology of the Great Australian Bight region: A LITERATURE REVIEW JUNE 2013

Paul Rogers1 Barry Bruce2 Simon Goldsworthy1 John Middleton1 Tim Ward1 Sean Connell3 David Griffin2 Anthony Richardson2 Paul van Ruth1 David Currie1 Nick Hardman-Mountford2 Andrew Ross2 Alan Williams2 Campbell Davies2 Alex Ivey1 Jason Tanner1 Karen Evans2 Rudy Kloser2 Jock Young2 Bronwyn Gillanders3

1 South Australian Research and Development Institute 2 Wealth from Oceans National Research Flagship, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research 3 University of Adelaide Contents & executive Summary only

Great Australian Bight Ecosystem Study

Physical processes, biodiversity and ecology of the Great Australian Bight region: a literature review

Primary authors: Paul Rogers1, Tim Ward1,a, Paul van Ruth1, Alan Williams2 Contributing authors (alphabetically): Barry Bruce2, Sean Connell3, David Currie1, Campbell Davies2, Karen Evans2, Bronwyn Gillanders3, Simon Goldsworthy1, David Griffin2, Nick Hardman‐Mountford2, Alex Ivey1, Rudy Kloser2, John Middleton1, Anthony Richardson2, Andrew Ross2, Jason Tanner1 and Jock Young2

1South Australian Research and Development Institute 2Wealth from Oceans National Research Flagship, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research 3University of Adelaide a Corresponding author: [email protected]

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National Library of Australia Cataloguing‐in‐Publication entry Author: Rogers, Paul J., author. Title: Physical processes, biodiversity and ecology of the Great Australian Bight region : a literature review / Paul Rogers, Tim Ward, Paul van Ruth, Alan Williams ; contributing authors, Barry Bruce [and fifteen others]. ISBN: 9781486300976 (ebook : pdf) Notes: Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects: Ecology‐‐Great Australian Bight (W.A. and S. Aust.) Biodiversity‐‐Great Australian Bight (W.A. and S. Aust.) Geomorphology‐‐Great Australian Bight (W.A. and S. Aust.) Meteorology‐‐Great Australian Bight (W.A. and S. Aust.) Oceanography‐‐Great Australian Bight (W.A. and S. Aust.) Great Australian Bight (W.A. and S. Aust.) Other Authors/Contributors: Ward T.M., (author) van Ruth P. D., (author) Williams A, (author) Bruce B. D., (author) CSIRO, (issuing body) Dewey Number: 577.0994 Citation Rogers P.J., Ward T.M., van Ruth P. D., Williams A, Bruce B. D., Connell, S. D., Currie D. R., Davies C. R., Evans K, Gillanders B. M., Goldsworthy S. D., Griffin D. A., Hardman‐Mountford N.J., Ivey A. R., Kloser R.J., Middleton J. K., Richardson A. E., Ross A, Tanner J. E., and Young J. (2013). Physical processes, biodiversity and ecology of the Great Australian Bight region: a literature review. CSIRO, Australia.

MISA: Marine Innovation Southern Australia, an initiative of the South Australian Government, is a partnership between the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI), Flinders University, The University of Adelaide, the South Australian Museum and the SA seafood industry. Copyright and disclaimer © 2013 CSIRO To the extent permitted by law, all rights are reserved and no part of this publication covered by copyright may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means except with the written permission of CSIRO. Important disclaimer CSIRO advises that the information contained in this publication comprises general statements based on scientific research. The reader is advised and needs to be aware that such information may be incomplete or unable to be used in any specific situation. No reliance or actions must therefore be made on that information without seeking prior expert professional, scientific and technical advice. To the extent permitted by law, CSIRO (including its employees and consultants) excludes all liability to any person for any consequences, including but not limited to all losses, damages, costs, expenses and any other compensation, arising directly or indirectly from using this publication (in part or in whole) and any information or material contained in it. Cover design: Louise Bell (CSIRO)

Contents & executive Summary only Table of Contents

Table of Contents ...... i List of Figures ...... iii List of Tables ...... viii Executive Summary ...... ix Acknowledgements ...... xxvii 1 General Introduction ...... 1 1.1 The Great Australian Bight ...... 1 1.2 Impetus for this review ...... 2 1.3 Purpose, scope and limitations of this review ...... 4 1.4 Relevant Reviews and Reports ...... 5 2 Regional Geomorphology ...... 6 2.1 Shape and composition of the seabed ...... 6 2.2 Continental Shelf ...... 6 2.3 Continental Slope ...... 7 2.4 Continental Rise and Abyssal Plain ...... 8 3 Meteorology and Oceanography ...... 9 3.1 Meteorology ...... 9 3.2 Flinders Current ...... 12 3.3 Leeuwin Current ...... 14 3.4 Coastal Currents ...... 15 3.5 Mesoscale Eddies ...... 16 3.5 Cross‐shelf exchange ...... 18 3.6 Upwelling ...... 19 3.7 Downwelling ...... 21 3.8 El‐Nino ‐ La Nina Effects (ENSO) ...... 25 3.9 Surface Waves and Tides ...... 26 3.10 Discussion of Connectivity ...... 28 3.11 Knowledge Gaps ...... 31 3.12 Research Needs ...... 31 3.13 Key Data Sets ...... 32 3.14 Key References: ...... 34 4 Pelagic Ecology ...... 35 4.1 Background ...... 35

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4.2 Plankton dynamics and lower food web structure ...... 36 4.3 Ichthyoplankton ...... 47 4.4 Micronekton ...... 48 4.5 Higher trophic relationships ...... 50 4.6 Gaps in Knowledge ...... 51 4.7 Research needs ...... 52 4.8 Key datasets ...... 54 4.9 Key references ...... 55 5 Ecology of Iconic Species and Apex Predators ...... 56 5.1 Introduction ...... 56 5.2 Seabirds and marine raptors ...... 57 5.3 Pinnipeds ...... 64 5.4 Cetaceans ...... 74 5.5 Sharks ...... 84 5.6 Large pelagic teleosts ...... 95 5.7 Gaps in Knowledge ...... 102 5.8 Research needs ...... 103 5.9 Key Datasets ...... 105 5.10 Key References ...... 109 6 Benthic Ecology ...... 116 6.1 General patterns of benthic biodiversity ...... 116 6.2 Inshore Waters ...... 118 6.3 Continental Shelf ...... 129 6.4 Continental Slope ...... 144 6.5 Abyssal Plain ...... 152 6.6 Gaps in Knowledge ...... 153 6.7 Research Needs ...... 154 6.8 Key Datasets ...... 156 6.9 Key References ...... 158 7 Discussion and Synthesis ...... 159 7.1 Benefit of an integrated ecological research program ...... 159 7.2 Research priorities ...... 160 7.3 Concluding remarks ...... 161 8 References ...... 162

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Bathymetry in the Great Australian Bight. Grey = coastline, orange shows continental shelf where depths ≤200 m, light orange shows shelf break and slope where depths =200–1000 m, green graduating to dark blue shows oceanic waters where depths range from 1000–5000 m (Australian bathymetry and topography grid 250 m, Geoscience Australia)...... x

Figure 1.1 The Great Australian Bight showing the bathymetry of southern Australia and some of the locations mentioned in the text. The Great Australian Bight Marine Park and the Benthic Protection Zone is shown in lime green and the area permitted for oil and gas exploration by BP is shown in yellow. Grey = coastline. The orange layer shows continental shelf where depths ≤200 m, light orange shows the shelf break and continental shelf slope where depths =200–1000 m, green graduating to dark blue shows oceanic waters where depths range from 1000–5000 m (Australian bathymetry and topography grid 250 m, Geoscience Australia). The blue line represents the 1000 m isobath and the sky blue line represents the 2000 m isobath...... 1

Figure 1.2 Satellite telemetry data for four apex predators: shortfin mako (light blue), New Zealand fur seal (yellow), Australian sea lion (sky blue) and short‐tailed shearwater (pink). The figure demonstrates the importance of the GAB to a range of resident and migratory apex predator species (source SARDI unpublished data)...... 2

Figure 1.3 Commonwealth and State marine protected areas of the GAB...... 3

Figure 2.1 Bathymetry in the Great Australian Bight. Grey = coastline, orange shows continental shelf where depths ≤200 m, light orange shows shelf break and slope where depths =200–1000 m, green graduating to dark blue shows oceanic waters where depths range from 1000–5000 m (Australian bathymetry and topography grid 250 m, Geoscience Australia)...... 7

Figure 3.1 The Mean Sea Level Pressure (units hPa) for Australia for the 26 January 2012. The winds for the South Australian region are directed to the north‐west...... 9

Figure 3.2 The February average of wind stress obtained from Trenberth et al. (1989). The vector indicated has a magnitude of 0.1 Pa and the contours of wind stress with magnitudes of 0.025 Pa and 0.05 Pa are indicated (from Middleton and Platov 2003)...... 10

Figure 3.3 The Mean Sea Level Pressure (units hPa) for Australia for the 22 September 2011. The winds for the S.A. region are directed to the east...... 11

Figure e3.4 Th wind mean wind stress field for winter. A legend vector of 0.05 Pa is indicated (Middleton and Cirano 2002)...... 12

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Figure 3.5 Upper Panel: A schematic of some key circulation features for winter, including the Leeuwin Current (LC), Leeuwin Under Current (LUC), Flinders Current (FC) and Coastal Current (CC). Water is downwelled throughout and a dense salty outflow from the Gulfs. Lower Panel: Summer circulation and upwelling occurs off Kangaroo Island and the Bonney Coast. Shelf edge downwelling may occur in the western GAB...... 13

Figure 3.6 Cross‐shelf CTD sections obtained during June 1987 by Cresswell and Peterson (1993). Station numbers 38‐46 are indicated at the top of the plot. The bottom panel contains the geostrophic velocities calculated assuming a level of no motion at 1000 m...... 14

Figure 3.7 The wind mean wind stress field for summer. A legend vector of 0.05 Pa is indicated (Middleton and Cirano 2002)...... 15

Figure 3.8 A SST image for August 2011. Warm water associated with the Leeuwin Current enters in the western GAB. Surface sea level height (altimeter data) is indicated by the white contours. The surface geostrophic velocities are also shown with a legend arrow of 0.5 m.s‐1. The magenta arrow heads denote surface drifter positions at 12 h intervals. The cyan line denotes the 200 m isobath and shelf edge (source: oceancurrent.imos.org.au)...... 15

Figure 3.9 Annual cycle of Sea Surface Height (SSH) anomaly inferred from altimeter and coastal sea level data by Ridgway and Condie (2004).e Th vertical side bar gives height in meters...... 16

Figure 3.10. A SST image for 26 January 2012. Warm (22 oC) water associated with heating in the shallow region of the N.W. GAB is illustrated along with cold (16 oC) upwelled water off the Eyre Peninsula: temperature scale shown. Surface sea level height (altimeter data) is indicated by the white contours. The surface geostrophic velocities are also shown with a legend arrow of 0.5 m.s‐1. The magenta arrow heads and circles denote surface drifter positions and the location of ARGO floats. The cyan line denotes the 200 m isobath and shelf edge (source: oceancurrent.imos.org.au)...... 17

Figure 3.11 Bottom‐surface salinity differential (units psu) for July 1994. The symbol CM indicates the locations of two moored current meters...... 18

Figure 3.12 The Mean Sea Level Pressure (units hPa) for Australia for the 26 January 2012. The winds for the South Australian region are directed to the north‐west...... 19

Figure 3.13. A SST image for 28 January 2012. Warm (23 oC) water associated with heating in the shallow Gulfs is shown along with cool (14‐18 oC) upwelled water off the Bonney Coast, Kangaroo Island and the Eyre Peninsula: temperature scale shown. Surface sea level height (altimeter data) is indicated by the white contours. The surface geostrophic velocities are also shown with a legend arrow of 0.5 m.s‐ 1. The magenta vectors correspond to HF RADAR daily‐averaged currents with a legend arrow of 0.5 m.s‐

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1 shown. The magenta arrow heads denote surface drifter positions. The cyan line denotes the 200 m isobath and shelf edge (source oceancurrent.imos.org.au)...... 20

Figure 3.14 A MODIS chlorophyll image for 28 January 2012. Higher levels of chlorophyll are found off the Bonney Coast and the Eyre Peninsula. Surface sea level height (altimeter data) is indicated by the white contours. The surface geostrophic velocities are also shown with a legend arrow of 0.5 m.s‐1. The magenta lines correspond to HF RADAR daily averaged currents with a legend arrow of 0.5 m.s‐1 shown. The magenta arrow heads denote surface drifter positions. The cyan line denotes the 200 m isobath and shelf edge (source oceancurrent.imos.org.au)...... 21

Figure 3.15 The depth‐averaged velocity from the numerical model of Middleton and Platov (2003) as driven by summer mean winds. A vector length of 2 cm.s‐1 is indicated along with some major current systems...... 22

Figure 3.16 Numerical simulation of shelf break downwelling looking to the east in the mid‐GAB (Middleton and Platov 2003) a) Top Panel: The cross‐shelf velocity field illustrating the convergence of Sverdrup transports and downwelling over the shelf break. (200 m) The length of the legend vector arrow indicates 1cm.s‐1 in the horizontal and 1 mm.s‐1 in the vertical. d) Bottom Panel: The alongshore velocity field (shaded), is positive to the east, units cm.s‐1...... 23

Figure 3.17 Numerical simulation of shelf break downwelling looking to the east in the mid‐GAB) Top panel: The initial density field at day 7.5 (interval 0.05 kg/m3) adopted by Middleton and Platov (2003). b) Bottom panel: The density field at day 87.5 illustrating the shelf break downwelling of isopycnals...... 24

Figure 3.18 A schematic of the cross‐shelf distribution of sediment for the eastern and western GAB (upper panel) and mid‐GAB (lower panel). From James and Bone (2011)...... 25

Figure 3.19 Climatological 90th percentile wave height (see key) and direction (arrow heads) for February (upper panel) and September (lower panel), from Hemer and Griffin (2010). For other months and percentiles, see http://www.marine.csiro.au/~griffin/ORE/wave_height/index.html...... 27

Figure 3.20 Trajectories of model larvae recruiting to (top panel) or hatched in (lower panel) the GAB region of the Southern Rock Lobster species range. Results for other year‐classes and regions are available at http://www.marine.csiro.au/~griffin/FRDC2002‐007/e116tracks/index.htm...... 29

Figure 4.1 Global ocean provinces based on the analyses of Hardman‐Mountford et al. (2008) (colour plot) and Longhurst (1997) (black lines). Yellow = high chlorophyll biome, green = high‐intermediate chlorophyll biomes [source: R. Brewin, unpublished map modified from Longhurst 1997 and Hardman‐ Mountford et al. 2008]...... 36

Figure 4.2 Climatological chlorophyll a values for the months of January (summer) and July (winter), calculated from visible spectrum radiometry measured from satellite by the Sea viewing Wide Field‐of‐ v

Contents & executive Summary only view Sensor (SeaWiFS) using the NASA climatological product. SeaWiFS mission period was Sep 1997‐ Dec 2010 [Source: NASA Giovanni, Acker and Leptoukh 2007]...... 37

Figure 4.3 Seasonal time series of climatological mean chlorophyll‐a in the GAB, averaged over the domain of Figure 4.2. Error bars represent 1 standard deviation [Source: NASA Giovanni, Acker and Leptoukh 2007]...... 38

Figure 4.4 The average contribution of different phytoplankton size classes as a fraction of chlorophyll‐a concentration for the south‐east quadrant of the globe, showing Australian waters, estimated from SeaWiFS satellite data using the algorithm of Hirata et) al. (2011 [source: T. Hirata, unpublished map, produced using data from Hirata et al. (2011)]...... 38

Figure 4.5 Primary production maps for Australian and adjacent waters during January and October 2005. Orange = 100‐250 mg C m‐2 d‐1 green = 250‐500 mg C m‐2 d‐1 [Source: Australian Ocean Data Node (AODN), Local: AODN:4063fbf0‐56f3‐4c0d‐96b2‐5ab293de9097 http://www.marine.csiro.au/marq/edd_search.Browse_Citation?txtSession=8156]...... 39

Figure 4.6 Maps of plankton abundance from the Continuous Plankton Recorder survey. Diatoms (top), dinoflagellates (middle) and copepods (bottom)...... 40

Figure 4.7 Distribution of the large cold‐water copepod Calanus australis (top) and the cladoceran Penilia avirostris (bottom). Red is presence and grey is absence (source: CSIRO unpublished data)...... 41

Figure 4.8 Spatial variation in daily integral primary productivity in the eastern GAB in February/March 2005 (top) and 2006 (bottom). Reproduced from van Ruth et al. (2010a)...... 45

Figure 5.1 Spatial distribution of A. crested terns; B. little penguins and C. short‐tailed shearwaters in the Great Australian Bight and adjacent gulf waters (SARDI, unpublished data)...... 60

Figure 5.2 Location of ASL and New Zealand fur seal breeding colonies in the GAB (SARDI, unpublished data)...... 66

Figure 5.3 Modelled distribution of estimated foraging effort (derived from satellite tag deployments and demographic models) for ASLs from 17 breeding colonies (green circles). The gradient from red to light blue colours indicates areas from highest to lowest foraging effort. Bathymetry lines are indicated from light to dark blue and represent 100, 200, 500, 1000 and 2000 m depths (from Goldsworthy et al. 2010b)...... 67

Figure 5.4 Temperature depth profiles (n>16,000) obtained from CTD satellite tags attached to male ASLs in the eastern GAB across the period 2009–2012 (SARDI, unpublished data)...... 67

Figure 5.5 Satellite telemetry tracks from female AFS from four breeding colonies in Bass Strait (Arnold and Kirkwood 2007)...... 70

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Figure 5.6 Distribution of blue whale sightings in the Bonney Upwelling and eastern GAB (from Gill et al. 2011)...... 76

Figure 5.7 Proposed seasonal migration of SRW calving in Australian waters. Shading indicates the summer foraging grounds (from Burnell (2001))...... 78

Figure 5.8 Track of a female white shark (3.3 m total length) tagged at North Neptune Island at liberty 31 March–18 October 2004. Taken from Bruce et al. (2006)...... 87

Figure 5.9 Distribution of blue shark catches in Commonwealth managed fisheries in the GAB. Data are not standardised for effort (CSIRO unpublished data)...... 88

Figure 5.10 State space model fit of satellite tracking data (yellow line) for a 2.4 m male blue shark tagged off the shelf slope in the GAB in 2008. Red symbols show area restricted searching classified locations, grey symbols show uncertain locations, and white symbols show transit locations (P. Rogers unpublished data)...... 89

Figure 5.11 Distribution of shortfin mako catches in Commonwealth managed fisheries in the GAB. Data are unstandardized for effort (CSIRO unpublished data)...... 90

Figure 5.12 Satellite locations derived from ten juvenile shortfin makos tagged in the GAB between 2008 and 2010 (P. Rogers et al. unpublished data)...... 91

Figure 5.13 Distribution of thresher shark catches in Commonwealth managed fisheries in the GAB region. Data are unstandardized for effort (CSIRO unpublished data)...... 92

Figure 5.14 Generalised migratory patterns of age 0‐1 (top panel) and 2–5 year old SBT (from Basson et al. 2012)...... 98

Figure 5.15 Habitat preference maps for juvenile SBT (2–4 yr) classified as in a resident state based on sea surface temperature and chlorophyll projected over oceanographic conditions in the Indian Ocean and Tasman Sea during (a) summer (January–May) and (b) winter (August–November). A habitat preference of 1 is represented by a blue contour line. White areas reflect missing oceanographic data or covariate values outside of the preference curve. Relative levels of residency (black dots) are shown for winter only as during summer they are predominantly located in the GAB and occlude habitat preferences in this region (source: CSIRO)...... 99

Figure 5.16 Distribution of fisheries for western Australian salmon in WA and SA (from Cappo et al. 2000)...... 101

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Table 3.1 Typical values of the south‐easterly components of the mean and standard deviation (S. Dev.) of the wind stress: units Pascals. The similar statistic is presented in brackets but for the corresponding wind speed in m.s‐1: 10 m. s‐1 = 36 km.hr‐1. A positive mean is directed to the south‐east along the shelf. The maximum wind stress most likely to be experienced in any year is also given and was inferred from Trenberth et al. (1989). The heat fluxes are from the NCAR/NCEP (Kalnay et al. 1996) climatology for the GABe whil those in brackets are for Head of Bight (Herzfeld 1997)...... 11

Table 3.2 Wave climatology for the mid GAB as inferred from Caires et al. (2005) including the significant wave height HS, period T, phase speed c, wavelength λ. The surface and bottom water velocities are denoted by Uo and Ub, the (Stokes) drift velocity by Ud. The standard deviations (σ) of HS and T are also presented: units meters. Note the significant wave height is the average height of the top 33% of wave maxima averaged over a month...... 28

Table 5.1 Iconic species and apex predators recognized as occurring in the GAB and their status listing under The Action Plan for Australian Cetaceans, the Australian Commonwealth Government EPBC Act (1999), and the IUCN Red List. EN: endangered; V: vulnerable: IK: insufficiently known/data deficient; LC: least concern; NCA (a): no category assigned because of insufficient information; NCA (b): no category assigned but possibly secure; NCA(c): no category assigned but probably secure; NL: not listed, recently described/recognised species...... 111

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Scope and context for literature review 1. The marine ecosystems of the Great Australian Bight (GAB) have global conservation significance and support valuable fishing, aquaculture and ecotourism industries. The GAB is presently a focus for deepwater oil and gas exploration. 2. In January 2011, BP was awarded four exploration permits in the Ceduna sub‐basin of the GAB about 300 km south west of Ceduna. The “Science Plan to Support [oil and gas] Exploration in the Great Australian Bight”, recently endorsed by BP, recognises that during oil and gas exploration in the GAB, and before production begins, there is a need to comprehensively assess the region’s conservation values and enhance the current understanding of its key ecological elements and processes. 3. The Science Plan includes seven themes. This literature review is directly relevant to four of those themes: Oceanography; Pelagic Ecosystems and Environmental Drivers; Ecology of Iconic Species and Apex Predators; and Benthic Ecology. 4. This literature review synthesises existing ecological information relevant to BP’s oil and gas exploration program in the GAB. Specifically, the review:  summarises current knowledge of physical, biological and ecological processes in the GAB;  identifies key references, major data sets and critical knowledge gaps; and  outlines the research that is needed to enhance current knowledge of ecosystem structure and function and identifies the key elements of the Integrated “Science Plan” that has been developed.

Regional Geomorphology 5. The GAB is the dominant geographical feature of Australia’s southern coastline. The crescent‐shaped continental shelf of the GAB covers an area of almost 150,000 km2. It is ~260 km wide near the central Head of Bight and narrower (~80 km wide) at its western and eastern extents. 6. Rainfall in the GAB is low and there are no rivers, so the supply of terrigenous sediments to the marine ecosystem is low. As a consequence, the shelf bedforms are largely biogenic and form part of the world’s largest expanse of temperate carbonate sediments. 7. The continental shelf slope consists of two marginal terraces; the Ceduna Terrace in the east and the Eyre Terrace in the west. Broad shallow valleys dissect the gently sloping seabed and form a dendritic tributary system that feeds submarine canyons on the lower slope. Numerous canyons incise the narrow continental slope to the east and west of the GAB. The sediments of the continental slope are characterised by muddy foraminiferal, spicule and pteropod oozes and may contain large quantities of skeletal organic remains derived from the shelf. 8. A wide continental rise flanks the foot of the slope and extends towards the abyssal plain. The seabed is soft and muddy and the surficial sediments are characterised by foraminiferal and coccolith oozes.

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Meteorology and Oceanography 9. During summer, coastal waters of the GAB are subject to intense heating. Large high pressure systems typically dominate the meteorology during summer and drive an anti‐cyclonic wind stress field that is punctuated by occasional passages of cold fronts that lead to westerly winds and localised cooling. During winter, the high pressure systems migrate to the north allowing for greater passage of cold fronts near the coast and zonal eastward winds. 10. During winter, the Leeuwin Current (LC) and local winds act to drive eastward‐flowing shelf currents within the GAB; these average up to 20–30 cm.s‐1 and are about twice that at the shelf‐edge in the core of the LC. The eastward flow of the LC is stable much of the time, but occasionally becomes unstable with seaward meanders moving at speeds in the vicinity of 100 cm.s‐1. 11. Coastal (shelf) currents associated with the intense Coastal‐Trapped Wave field (6–20 day band) are of the order of 25–30 cm.s‐1 and can peak at 80–90 cm.s‐1. Winter winds and cooling also lead to downwelling to depths of 200 m or more and the formation of dense coastal water in the GAB. 12. Uniquely, the long, zonal shelf along southern Australia is also subject to an equator‐ward Sverdrup transport that, theoretically, gives rise to the westward Flinders Current (FC). The FC is strongest near the 600 m isobath where the current speeds can reach 20 cm.s‐1 in the western GAB and the bottom boundary layer is upwelling‐favourable. 13. The FC appears to be intermittent in space and time possibly because of the ubiquitous meso‐scale eddies that can be important to the slope circulation. The FC and warm core slope eddies may also be

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important in connecting the deep slope (> 600 m depth) to the shelf through bottom boundary layer and canyon upwelling. 14. During summer, weak coastal currents (< 10 cm.s‐1) flow to the north‐west and southward topographic Sverdrup transport in the mid‐GAB result in downwelling to depths of 250 m. Thus, the mid‐GAB is a region that experiences downwelling all year round. 15. In the eastern GAB, upwelling‐favourable winds can lead to deep upwelling events off Kangaroo Island that occur ~2 to 4 times each summer. This nutrient‐rich upwelled water supports the unique ecosystems of the eastern GAB. 16. Increasing evidence suggests that El Nino and La Nina events (of 4–7 year period) can have a major impact on the vertical structure of the water column whereby the thermocline may be raised and lowered by up to 150 m, leading to enhanced up‐ and down‐welling. 17. The very large surface waves in the region may be important to bottom scouring, sediment transport and through non‐linear interactions be important in modifying shelf currents.

Pelagic Ecology 18. Investigations of plankton dynamics and lower food web structure have focussed on the eastern GAB region. Little to no information is available for the western or central GAB. 19. Spatial and temporal patterns in plankton dynamics and food web structure in the eastern GAB are driven by variations in meteorology and oceanography, specifically upwelling/downwelling. 20. The highest rates of primary productivity in the eastern GAB occur in summer/autumn and are associated with nutrient enrichment through upwelling. Offshore areas of the eastern GAB have low rates of primary productivity, while mid‐shelf and coastal waters have intermediate productivities. Higher rates of primary productivity occur at sites off the south western Eyre Peninsula, south western Kangaroo Island, and Cape Adieu and are comparable to rates measured in the highly productive upwelling systems off Africa and Chilè. 21. Winter productivity throughout the GAB is low due to deep mixing arising after long periods of downwelling favourable winds, the absence of micro‐nutrient enrichment due to suppression of upwelling associated with the Flinders Current and the lower irradiances and shorter day lengths. 22. Recent reviews of the micronekton in the GAB have highlighted the general lack of knowledge with little to no research conducted in the central GAB. 23. The assemblage of small pelagic fishes that occurs in the GAB is relatively diverse compared to other ecosystems, with at least ten species belonging to six families regarded as common in the region. The Australian sardine has been studied intensively and its life history and population size/dynamics are relatively well understood. 24. No synoptic independent surveys of mesopelagic organisms have been conducted on the shelf and slope in the central GAB and their significance to the food web is unknown. However, their roles may be similar to those in continental slope waters off Tasmania. xi

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Iconic Species and Apex Predators 25. The GAB supports the largest densities of marine mammals, seabirds, sharks and large pelagic fishes of any shelf ecosystem in Australia. Australian sea lions, New Zealand fur seals, common and bottlenose dolphins, white sharks, shortfin makos and little penguins are found ine th GAB all year round; seasonal aggregations of albatrosses, petrels, pygmy blue whales, southern right whales, and southern bluefin tuna visit the region for feeding and/or breeding. 26. These large marine species occur across the southern gulfs, continental shelf, and slope and their distribution patterns appear to be associated with key oceanographic and bathymetric features. For example, feeding aggregations of pygmy blue whales are associated with seasonal upwelling and krill swarms on the continental shelf and near the shelf break (200 m depth) in the eastern GAB, while southern right whales calve in the coastal embayments and inner shelf areas of the central and western GAB. 27. The key oceanographic processes that underpin prey production, and hence the distribution, population structure, foraging locations, movements and migratory patterns of apex predators in the GAB, are poorly understood. 28. Measures of abundances are available for only a few species of marine predators; processes driving patterns of temporal variability are largely unknown. Parameters that could be monitored cost‐ effectively to identify trends in population status have not been identified for most species. 29. There is a need to establish baseline indices relating to the behavioural responses of marine predators, especially southern bluefin tuna, to anthropogenic activities ‐ especially noise.

Benthic Ecology 30. The GAB has a diverse range of benthic habitats ranging from coastal sandy intertidal beaches and fringing rocky reefs to deepwater seamounts and muddy abyssal plains. Many shallow and deep areas are incompletely mapped or mapped only at a coarse‐scale spatial resolution. 31. There is a paucity of information and dearth of sampling for most benthic assemblages and seabed habitats. Knowledge is particularly sparse for the infaunal, epifaunal and demersal fish communities of deeper offshore waters beyond the shelf break (> 200 m depth). The composition, distribution and trophic significance of the region’s benthos remain largely undescribed. 32. Where sampling has occurred on the continental shelf and slope, benthic habitats appear to support an extraordinarily high diversity of marine organisms with high endemicity. 33. The discovery in 2011 of a small volcanic seamount inside the Benthic Protection Zone (BPZ) of the GAB Marine Park emphasises the potential knowledge gaps for seabed habitats and communities. This feature was undocumented when the BPZ was proclaimed in 1998. Such features often support unique and genetically isolated fauna that may have high conservation value.

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Research priorities and implementation 34. Four of the themes identified in the “Science Plan to Support [oil and gas] Exploration in the Great Australian Bight” will address the ecological knowledge gaps identified in this review. Knowledge obtained through each of the themes will be integrated to develop conceptual and quantitative models of ecosystem function that will be used for ongoing refinement of research priorities, risk assessment and the development of tools and protocols to support potential future ecological monitoring. 35. The Oceanography Theme is a foundational and underpinning theme that will support activities in other themes. It will analyse ocean observations and ocean models to produce the best available representation of the circulation and connectivity within the GAB, taking account of the uncertainties of the underlying observing and modelling systems. It will provide information on ocean flows that connect the deep, off‐shelf regions to the shelf and coastal regions; physical drivers (upwelling, downwelling, mixed‐layer thickness, etc.) of the dynamics of various trophic levels (from bacteria to iconic species and apex predators); and determination of bottom stresses on the benthos and effects on transport of matter and benthic diversity. Oceanographic information will also be a critical element of any future incident response planning. 36. The Pelagic Ecosystem and Environmental Drivers Theme will provide baseline information on the community structure, dynamics, biodiversity and endemism of pelagic fauna, variously for microbes, plankton and micronekton (small fishes, crustaceans and squid). It will assess variation in primary and secondary productivity and food web structure in relation to physical drivers, including currents, turbidity, irradiance, stratification, nutrient concentrations and turbulence. Together with identification of key trophic pathways, this information will inform assessments of distributions of key species and apex predators in the GAB. The theme will also develop tools and protocols for monitoring ecological indicators of the pelagic system. 37. The Ecology of Iconic Species and Apex Predators Theme will provide baseline information on the distribution and abundance of key iconic species (whales, sea lions and dolphins) and apex predators (southern bluefin tuna and pelagic sharks). The distribution, movement and behaviour of these groups will be studied and movement and habitat models developed. The potential for noise from oil and gas exploration activities to impact wild and farmed southern bluefin tuna will be assessed. 38. The Benthic Biodiversity Theme will quantify spatial patterns in the physical environment, and composition and abundance of benthic fauna in BP leases and adjacent continental slope areas of the GAB to provide baseline metrics relevant to monitoring the potential future impacts of oil and gas exploration on benthic communities. It will identify the requirements for future ecological monitoring enabling the ability to detect and quantify ecological impacts from oil and gas exploration on benthic communities of the GAB Marine Park. It will also use new molecular methods to improve the scope, quantification and cost‐effectiveness of benthic monitoring.

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Concluding remarks 39. This review provides evidence that the GAB is a marine region of global ecological significance. Its prospectivity for oil and gas resources is currently being assessed by BP. The review and synthesis of ecological knowledge provide a sound basis for identifying the critical ecological knowledge gaps that will need to be addressed before oil and gas production begins in the GAB. The findings of this review support the integrated approach to addressing these knowledge gaps identified in the “Science Plan to Support [oil and gas] Exploration in the Great Australian Bight” that will be implemented by a consortium of researchers from agencies across southern Australia with support from BP.

Key References and Data Sets Meteorology and Oceanography: Key References Bruce BD, Griffin D. and Bradford R. (2007). Larval transport and recruitment processes of southern rock lobster: Final report to FRDC, Project 2002/2007, 2105pp. Cresswell GR. and Griffin DA. (2004). The Leeuwin Current, eddies and sub‐Antarctic waters off south‐ western Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 55: 267–276. Hemer MA. and Griffin DA. (2010). The wave energy resource along Australia's southern margin. Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy 2: 043108 doi:043110.041063/043101.3464753. Kaempf J. (2007). On the magnitude of upwelling fluxes in submarine canyons. Continental Shelf Research 27: 2211–2223. Kaempf J. (2010). On preconditioning of coastal upwelling in the eastern Great Australian Bight. Journal of Geophysical Research 115: C12071. Middleton JF. and Platov G. (2003). The mean summertime circulation along Australia's southern shelves: A numerical study. Journal of Physical Oceanography 33(11): 2270–2287. Middleton JF. and Bye JAT. (2007). A review of the shelf slope circulation along Australia's southern shelves: Cape Leeuwin to Portland. Progress in Oceanography 75: 1–41. Petrusevics PM, Bye JAT, Fahlbusch V, Hammat J, Tippins DR. and van Wijk E. (2009). High salinity winter outflow from a mega inverse‐estuary—the Great Australian Bight. Continental Shelf Research 29: 371–380. Middleton J. F., Arthur, C., van Ruth, P., Ward, T., McClean, J., Maltrud, M., Gill, P., Levings, A. and Middleton, S. (2007). El Nino effects and upwelling along Australia’s southern shelves. Journal of Physical Oceanography 37: 2458–2477. Schodlok MP. and Tomczak M. (1997). Deep sections through the South Australian Basin and across the Australian‐Antarctic Discordance. Geophys. Res. Letters, 24, 2781–2784.

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Meteorology and Oceanography: Key Data Sets

Remote Altimetry, sea surface Ongoing Global NASA (http://poet.jpl.nasa.gov/; sensing temperature, surface http://gdata1.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/daac‐ fluorescence, ocean bin/G3/gui.cgi?instance_id=ocean month) colour Meteorological data, Ongoing, Global NOAA climatological data, >1945 (http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/reanaly current speed and sis/reanalysis.shtml; direction http://polar.ncep.noaa.gov/waves/index2.sht ml; http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd//data/reanaly sis/reanalysis.shtml; http://www.ecmwf.int/research/era/do/get/ era‐interim) CTD Temperature, salinity, Monthly, EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo IMOS (http://imos.org.au/emii.html) oxygen saturation, ongoing Island to Eyre turbidity and since 2008 Peninsula (34–36°S, fluorescence 135–137°E) Moorings Temperature, salinity, Monthly, EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo IMOS (http://imos.org.au/emii.html) (ADCP, CTD) oxygen saturation, ongoing Island to Eyre turbidity, since 2008 Peninsula (34–36°S, fluorescence, current 135–137°E) speed and direction Glider Temperature, salinity, Monthly, EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo IMOS (http://imos.org.au/emii.html) oxygen saturation, ongoing Island to Eyre turbidity, fluorescence since 2008 Peninsula (34–36°S, 135‐137°E) HF Radar Wind, currents, waves Monthly, EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo IMOS (http://imos.org.au/emii.html) ongoing Island to Eyre since 2009 Peninsula (34–36°S, 135–137°E) CTD Temperature, salinity, Weekly, Australian region CSIRO fluorescence, macro ongoing (http://www.marine.csiro.au/~dunn/cars200 nutrient >1960 9/) concentrations, climatological data

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Live Wave height and Ongoing Cape Du Couedic, Bureau of Meteorology telemetry direction since 2000 Kangaroo Island

ADCP Current speed and Nov 2001 – Mid GAB, ~1400 m Woodside Petroleum direction May 2002 depth ([email protected])***

ADCP Current speed and Apr – Oct Portland, Victoria, SANTOS ([email protected])*** direction 2004 ~1400 m depth

Analysis Tools and Ocean models: 1) Graphics archive: (combined SST, Altimeter, drifter, HF RADAR data) – http://oceancurrent.imos.org.au/ 2) Bluelink Ocean Model (CSIRO, BoM, RN) ‐ http://www.marine.csiro.au/ofam1/ 3) South Australian Regional Ocean Model (SARDI, [email protected])

SWAN (Simulating WAves Nearshore) ‐ http://www.wldelft.nl/soft/swan/

Pelagic Ecology: Key References Goldsworthy SD, Page B, Rogers PJ. and Ward TM. (2011) "Establishing ecosystem based management for the South Australian Sardine Fishery: developing ecological performance indicators and reference points to assess the need for ecological allocations." Final Report to the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, SARDI Research Report Series #529. McClatchie S. and Young J. (2006) "South‐west Marine Region: Ecosystems and Key species Groups ‐ Part 2: Key Species Groups. Mesopelagic fish". National Oceans Office. Pp 144‐158. http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/mbp/publications/south‐west/pubs/sw‐ecosystems‐ part142.pdf. van Dongen‐Vogels V, Seymour JR, Middleton M, Seuront L. and Mitchell JG. (2011). Influence of local physical events on picophytoplankton spatial and temporal dynamics in South Australian continental shelf waters. Journal of Plankton Research, 33(12), 1825–1841. van Dongen‐Vogels V, Seymour JR, Middleton JF, Mitchell JG, and Seuront L. (2012). Shifts in picophytoplankton community structure influenced by changing upwelling conditions. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 109: 81–90. van Ruth PD. (2009) Spatial and temporal variation in primary and secondary productivity in the eastern Great Australian Bight. PhD thesis, the University of Adelaide, 192pp. http://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/handle/2440/53290 van Ruth PD, Ganf GG. and Ward TM. (2010a) Hot‐spots of primary productivity: An alternative interpretation to conventional upwelling models. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 90: 142–158. van Ruth PD., Ganf GG. and Ward TM. (2010b) The influence of mixing on primary productivity: A unique application of classical critical depth theory. Progress in Oceanography 85: 224–235. van Ruth PD., and Ward TM. (2009) Meso‐zooplankton abundance, distribution and community composition in the eastern Great Australian Bight. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 133: 274–294. xvi

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Ward TM, McLeay LJ, Dimmlich WF, Rogers PJ, McClatchie SAM, Matthews R, Kaempf J, and van Ruth PD. (2006a). "Pelagic ecology of a northern boundary current system: effects of upwelling on the production and distribution of sardine (Sardinops sagax), anchovy (Engraulis australis) and southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) in the Great Australian Bight, Fisheries Oceanography 15 (3): 191–207.

Pelagic Ecology: Key Data Sets

Collection Parameters Temporal Spatial coverage/site Number of Holding institution method measured/collected coverage (lat/long) samples CTD Temperature, salinity, Feb/Mar each EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo >2000 SARDI oxygen saturation, year, 1998– Island to Head of Bight turbidity, fluorescence, 2012 (32–35°S, 131–137°E) irradiance Vertical tow Macro‐zooplankton and Feb/Mar each EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo >2000 SARDI (350 µm ichthyoplankton biomass year, 1998– Island to Head of Bight mesh bongo and abundance 2012 (32–35°S, 131–137°E) net) Niskin bottle Macro nutrient Feb/Mar each EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo >200 SARDI concentrations, year, 2004– Island to Head of Bight extracted chlorophyll a 2006 (32–35°S, 131–137°E) concentrations, phytoplankton abundance data Vertical tow Macro‐zooplankton Feb/Mar each EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo >60 SARDI (150 µm year, 2004– Island to Head of Bight mesh net) 2006 (32–35°S, 131–137°E) Moorings Temperature, salinity, Monthly, EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo IMOS (http://imos.org.au/emii.html) (ADCP, CTD) oxygen saturation, ongoing since Island to Eyre Peninsula turbidity, fluorescence, 2008 (34–36°S, 135–137°E) current speed and direction Glider Temperature, salinity, Monthly, EGAB Shelf, Kangaroo IMOS (http://imos.org.au/emii.html) oxygen saturation, ongoing since Island to Eyre Peninsula turbidity, fluorescence 2008 (34–36°S, 135–137°E) CTD Temperature, salinity, Weekly, Australian region CSIRO fluorescence, macro ongoing >1960 (http://www.marine.csiro.au/~dunn nutrient concentrations, /cars2009/) climatological data Remote Altimetry, sea surface Ongoing Global NASA (http://poet.jpl.nasa.gov/; sensing temperature, surface http://gdata1.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/daac fluorescence, ocean ‐bin/G3/gui.cgi?instance_id=ocean colour month) Simrad EK500 Acoustic data, and 1998–2012 GAB CSIRO and EK60 pelagic net and optical tows for zooplankton and micronekton biomass

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Iconic Species and Apex Predators: Key References Arnould JPY and Kirkwood R. (2007). Habitat selection by female Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Systems 17: S53–S67. Bannister JL, Kemper CM. and Warneke RM. (1996). The Action Plan for Australian Cetaceans. Australian Nature Conservation Agency. Basson M, Hobday AJ, Eveson JP. and Patterson TA. (2012). Spatial interactions among juvenile bluefin tuna at the global scale: a large‐scale archival tag experiment. Final report 2003/002 to the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation. Baylis AMM, Page B. and Goldsworthy SD. (2008). Effect of seasonal changes in upwelling activity on the foraging locations of a wide‐ranging central‐place forager, the New Zealand fur seal. Canadian Journal of Zoology 86: 774–789. Bestley S, Patterson TA, Hindell MA. and Gunn JS. (2008). Feeding ecology of wild migratory tunas revealed by archival tag records of visceral warming. Journal of Animal Ecology 77: 1223–1233. Bruce BD. and Bradford RW. (2012). Spatial dynamics and habitat preferences of juvenile white sharks in eastern Australia. Pages 225‐253 in M. Domeier (ed). Global perspectives on the biology and life history of the great white shark. CRC Press, Boca Raton. Burnell SR. (2001). Aspects of the reproductive biology, movements and site fidelity of right whales off Australia. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 2 (special issue): 89–102. Cappo M, Walters CJ. and Lenanton RC. (2000). Estimation of rates of migration, exploitation and survival using tag recovery data for western Australian “salmon” (Arripus truttaceus: Arripidae: Percoidei). Fisheries Research 44: 207–217. Dennis TE, Detmar A, Brooks AV, and Dennis HM. (2011). Distribution and status of white‐bellied sea‐eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster, and eastern osprey, Pandion cristatus, populations in South Australia. The South Australian Ornithological Association 37: 1–16. Einoder LD, Page B, Goldsworthy SD, De Little S. and Bradshaw CJA. (2011). Exploitation of distant Antarctic waters and close neritic waters by short‐tailed shearwaters breeding in South Australia. Austral Ecology 36: 461–475. Evans K. (2008). Sperm whales. Life in southern Australian waters. VDM Verlag, Saarbrücken. Gill PC, Morrice MG, Page B, Pirzl R, Levings AH and Coyne M. (2011). Blue whale habitat selection and within‐season distribution in a regional upwelling system off southern Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 421: 243–263. Goldsworthy SD, Page B, Rogers PJ, Bulman C, Wiebkin A, McLeay LJ, Einoder L, Alastair M.M. Baylis AMM, Braley M, Caines R, Daly K, Huveneers C, Peters K, Lowther AD, and Ward TM. (2013). Trophodynamics of the eastern Great Australian Bight ecosystem: ecological change associated with the growth of

Australia’s largest fishery. Ecological Modelling 255, 38– 57.

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Kemper C, Bossley M and Shaughnessy P. 2008. Marine mammals of Gulf St Vincent, Investigator Strait and Backstairs Passage. Pages 339‐352 in SA Shepherd, S Bryars, I Kirkegaard, P Harbison and JT Jennings (eds). Natural History of Gulf St Vincent. Royal Society of South Australia. Last PR, and Stevens JD. 2009. Sharks and rays of Australia. CSIRO publishing, Canberra. 644 pp. Lowther AD, Harcourt RG, Hamer D and Goldsworthy SD. 2011. Creatures of habit: foraging habitat fidelity of adult female Australian sea lions. Marine Ecology Progress Series 443: 249‐263 McLeay LJ, Page B, Goldsworthy SD, Paton DC, Teixeira C, Burch PT., Ward T. (2010). Foraging behaviour and habitat use of a short‐ranging seabird, the crested tern. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 411: 271‐ 83. Patterson TA, Evans K, Carter TI. and Gunn JS. 2008. Movement and behaviour of large southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) in the Australian region determined using pop‐up satellite archival tags. Fisheries Oceanography 17: 352‐367. Rogers PJ, Huveneers C, Page B and Goldsworthy SG. 2009. A quantitative comparison of the diets of sympatric pelagic sharks in gulf and shelf ecosystems off southern Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science 69: 1382‐1393. Shaughnessy PD, Goldsworthy SD, Hamer DJ, Page B and McIntosh RR. (2011). Australian sea lions Neophoca cinerea at colonies in South Australia: distribution and abundance, 2004 to 2008. Endangered Species Research, 13: 87‐98.

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Iconic Species and Apex Predators: Key Data Sets Collection Tag type: parameters Species2 Temporal Spatial coverage (lat/long)3 Number of samples Holding institution method1 measured/collected coverage Satellite tags: PTT/GPS ARGOS/GPS locations ASL 2003–2012 EGAB and CGAB 250 SARDI NZFS 2001–2008 EGAB 64 SARDI STSW 2005–2007 EGAB and CGAB 22 SARDI CT 2006–2007 GSV 22 SARDI LP 2004–2006 EGAB and CGAB 85 SARDI WS 2000–2006 GAB 7 CSIRO BS 2008 GAB–Indian Ocean 1 SARDI CTD‐SRDL Location, depth, ASL 2007–2012 18 SARDI EGAB and CGAB temperature, salinity SPOT Position, external temp WS 2000–2006 GAB 3 CSIRO SFM 2009–2012 Indian Ocean–Coral Sea 6 SARDI SPLASH Position, depth, external SFM 2009–2012 Indian Ocean–Coral Sea 4 SARDI temp Mk 10A Position, depth, light, SFM 2009–2012 11 SARDI Indian Ocean–Coral Sea external temp Archival tags: PSAT Light, depth, external WS 2006–2011 GAB 4 CSIRO temp SFM 2009 GAB to Indian Ocean 1 SARDI SS 2012 GAB 10 SARDI BW 2011–2012 GSV–GAB 3 SARDI DS 2010 SG–Indian Ocean 3 SARDI SBT 1999–2010 16 CSIRO Indian Ocean to Tasman Sea

Internal TDR Light, depth, WS 2006–2010 GAB 5 CSIRO internal/external temp SS 1996–2010 GAB – Tasman Sea 9 CSIRO SBT 1996–2012 Indian Ocean ‐Tasman Sea 191 CSIRO

External TDR Depth, external temp ASL 2004–2012 EGAB and CGAB 68 SARDI NZFS 2011–2005 EGAB 79 SARDI LP 2004 EGAB 12 SARDI

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Acoustic tags: Point position, presence WS 2009–2012 GAB 145 CSIRO, SARDI data DS 2008–2012 GSV 7 SARDI BW 2008–2012 GSV 29 SARDI SBT 2001–2012 WGAB, CGAB 135 CSIRO Conventional tags: Point positions, growth, WS 2000–2012 GAB 9 CSIRO natural and fishing mortality GS 1990–2000 GAB 4 CSIRO SBT 1959–2012 Indian Ocean–Tasman Sea 11722 CSIRO Aerial surveys: Spatial/temporal PBW 2002–2012 Eastern GAB–Bass Strait ~100 Blue whale study distribution, relative abundance indices SRW 1976–2012 Cape Leeuwin–Ceduna 19 WA Museum SRW 1991–1993 SA 3 SA Museum CD 2011 GSV, SG, Investigator Strait 2 Flinders University Range of cetacean species 2006–2010 EGAB 44 CSIRO SBT 1991–2012 CGAB 130 CSIRO Land based Photo‐ID, chick/pup SRW 1988–2011 EGAB,CGAB 25 yrs Skadia Pty Ltd, surveys: production estimates, nest individual counts researchers, DEWNR ASL 1970–2012 EGAB,CGAB >30 yrs SARDI, SAM,DEWNR NZFS 1988–2012 EGAB,CGAB 25 yrs SARDI, SAM,DEWNR WBSE 1988–2012 EGAB,CGAB >25 yrs TE Dennis O 1988–2012 EGAB,CGAB >25 yrs TE Dennis CT 1988–2012 EGAB,CGAB >25 yrs SARDI LP 1988–2012 EGAB,CGAB >25 yrs SARDI STSW 1988–2012 EGAB,CGAB >25 yrs SARDI FFSW 1988–2012 EGAB,CGAB >25 yrs SARDI WFSP 1988–2012 EGAB,CGAB >25 yrs SARDI Biological Tissue samples for PBW 1990–2012 EGAB Blue whale study Biopsies (genetics), scats sampling: genetics, aging and dietary

samples (scats, stomach

contents, stable isotopes) SW 1998 EGAB 47 (stomachs), 119 CSIRO, Flinders

(teeth), University CD 2007–2012 Gulfs, EGAB Genetics Flinders University BD 2007–2012 Gulfs, EGAB Genetics Flinders University xxi

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ASL 2003–2012 EGAB Genetics (1500), scats SARDI (500), stable isotopes (500), teeth (120) NZFS 1988–2012 EGAB Scats (550), teeth (414), SARDI

blood (156) LP 2003–2006 EGAB Stomach contents (743) SARDI CT 2003–2007 EGAB SARDI Stomach contents (1961)

STSW 2003–2006 EGAB Stomach contents (705) SARDI WS 1993–2012 GAB 89 (genetics) CSIRO 4580 (otoliths), 28276 SBT 1990–2012 GAB CSIRO, SARDI (genetics), stomach

contents (195) YTK 2003–2004 EGAB Stomach contents (42) SARDI AS 2005 EGAB Stomach contents (439) SARDI BW 2007–2010 EGAB Stomach contents (250) SARDI SFM 2007–2010 EGAB Stomach contents (52) SARDI DS 2007–2010 EGAB Stomach contents (49) SARDI SH 2007–2010 EGAB Stomach contents (39) SARDI Thr 2007–2010 EGAB Stomach contents (27) SARDI Fisheries logbook data: Commonwealth Species assemblages, Southern and Eastern 1955–2012 30–45°S 110–165°E ~500,000 AFMA, CSIRO waters catch rates, distributions Scalefish and Shark Range of shark and fish Fishery, Southern Bluefin species Tuna Fishery, Skipjack Fishery, GAB trawl fishery, Gillnet, hook and trap fishery, Japanese longline fishery SA Fisheries Species assemblages, Marine scalefish, Sardine, 1983–2012 SA State waters ~1,000,000 PIRSA‐ SARDI catch rates, distributions Prawn, Rock lobster, Abalone fisheries 1Tagging acronyms: pop‐up satellite archival tag (PSAT), time‐depth recorder (TDR), platform transmitting terminal (PPT), geographical positioning system (GPS), conductivity, temperature and depth – satellite relay data logger (CTD‐SRDL), smart positioning or temperature (SPOT), data collecting tag (SPLASH/Mk 10A). For conventional and archival tags, numbers given represent numbers of tags retrieved. 2Species abbreviations: WBSE: white‐bellied sea eagle; O: osprey; CT: crested tern; LP: little penguin; STSW: short‐tail shearwater; FFSW: flesh‐foot shearwater; WSFP: white‐faced storm petrel; ASL: Australian sea lion; NZFS: New Zealand fur seal; PBW: pygmy blue whale; SRW: southern right whale; SW: sperm whale; CD: common dolphin; BD: bottlenose dolphin; WS: white shark; BS: xxii

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Benthic Ecology: Key References Currie DR, Sorokin SJ and Ward TM (2009). Infaunal macroinvertebrate assemblages of the eastern Great Australian Bight: effectiveness of a marine protected area in representing the region’s benthic biodiversity. Marine and Freshwater Research 60: 459‐474. Edyvane KS (1995). Where forests meet the sea…mangroves in SA. South Australian Research and Development Institute. Adelaide, 44pp. Edyvane KS (1999b). Conserving marine biodiversity in South Australia. Part 2. Identification of areas of high conservation value in South Australia. SARDI. 281pp Grassle JF and Maciolek NJ (1992). Deep‐sea species richness: regional and local diversity estimates from quantitative bottom samples. American Naturalist. 139: 313‐341. James NP and Bone Y (2011). Neritic carbonate sediments in a temperate realm: southern Australia. Springer, New York. Kirkman H (1997). Seagrasses of Australia. Australia: State of the Environment Technical Paper Series (Estuaries and the Sea), Department of the Environment, Canberra. Rumbelow K, Speziali, A and Bloomfield A (2010). Working towards a Statewide inventory of estuaries: advancing the inventory of estuaries in five NRM regions of South Australia. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Adelaide. Thresher RE, Adkins J, Fallon SJ, Gowlett‐Holmes K, Althaus F, Williams A (2011). Extraordinarily high biomass benthic community on Southern Ocean seamounts. Nature ‐ Scientific Reports. 1: 1‐5. Ward TM, Sorokin SJ, Currie DR, Rogers PJ and McLeay LJ (2006b). Epifaunal assemblages of the eastern Great Australian Bight: effectiveness of a benthic protection zone in representing regional biodiversity. Continental Shelf Research. 26: 25‐40. Williams A, Koslow AJ and Last PR (2001). Diversity, density and community structure of the demersal fish fauna of the continental slope off Western Australia (20 to 35° S). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 212: 247‐263.

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Benthic Ecology: Key Data Sets

Collection method Parameters measured/collected Temporal coverage Spatial coverage/site (lat/long) Number of samples Holding institution

Epibenthic sled tow Invertebrate species richness and biomass April ‐ November 2002 EGAB Shelf and GAB Marine Park BPZ (32‐ 65 SARDI 35°S, 130‐135°E)

Bucket dredge Sediment composition and structure April ‐ November 2002 EGAB Shelf and GAB Marine Park BPZ (32‐ 65 SARDI 35°S, 130‐135°E)

Smith‐McIntyre grab Infaunal species richness and biomass, and October 2006 EGAB Shelf and GAB Marine Park BPZ (32‐ 65 SARDI sediment composition and structure 35°S, 130‐135°E)

CTD Water temperature, salinity, oxygen October 2006 EGAB Shelf and GAB Marine Park BPZ (32‐ 65 SARDI saturation, turbidity and total chlorophyll 35°S, 130‐135°E)

Epibenthic sled tow Invertebrate species richness and biomass October 2006 Inside and outside GAB Marine Park BPZ 40 SARDI (32‐34°S, 130‐131°E)

Towed video High‐definition imagery of seabed October 2006 Inside and outside GAB Marine Park BPZ 11 SARDI topography and epibenthic cover (32‐34°S, 130‐131°E)

Biosonics DT‐X Depth, bottom hardness and roughness October 2006 EGAB Shelf and GAB Marine Park BPZ (32‐ Continuous record SARDI echosounder with 2 split‐ 35°S, 130‐135°E) beam transducers (70 kHz and 200 kHz) Beam trawl Fish and invertebrate species richness and August 2010 Upper slope inside GAB Marine Park BPZ 3 SARDI biomass (33‐35°S, 130‐131°E)

CTD and Niskin rosette Conductivity, temperature, oxygen, PAR, August 2010 Upper slope inside GAB Marine Park BPZ 1 SARDI / ANU / CSIRO fluorescence, salinity, nutrients and isotopic (33.8022°S, 130.7043°E) signature

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Kongsberg‐Simrad EM300 Depth, bottom hardness and roughness August 2010 Upper slope inside GAB Marine Park BPZ Continuous record SARDI / CSIRO multi beam sonar (33‐35°S, 130‐131°E)

Smith‐McIntyre grab Infaunal species richness and biomass, and August 2010 Upper slope inside GAB Marine Park BPZ 3 SARDI sediment composition and structure (33‐35°S, 130‐131°E)

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Contents & executive Summary only Acknowledgements

The authors thank Louise Bell (CSIRO) and Jane Ham (SARDI) for graphic design, including the report cover, and Franzis Althaus for formatting and distribution of the report. Rod Lukatelich and Rochelle Smith (BP) provided advice on the scope of this review. Dr Charlie Huveneers (SARDI/Flinders University), Dr Luciana Moller (Flinder University) and Dr Rebecca Pirzl (Blue Whale Study) provided comments on sections of the report. Emma Brock and Mandee Theil (SARDI) assisted in the development of the reference database. The report was reviewed by Dr Andy Ross (CSIRO) and Professor Gavin Begg (SARDI) and approved for release by Dr David Smith (CSIRO).

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Great Australian ECOSYSTEM STUDY Bight