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Environmental Hydrogeology of Ramotswa South East District, Republic of Botswana

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Environmental Hydrogeology of Ramotswa South East District, Republic of Botswana Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe Environmental Hydrogeology of Ramotswa South East District, Republic of Botswana by Michael Staudt Edited by Dr. H. Vogel January 2003 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .........................................................................................................1 ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................................1 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................2 2 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY IN BOTSWANA ........................................................3 3 CLIMATE AND WATER AVAILABILITY IN BOTSWANA ...............................................5 4 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE IN THE PROJECT AREA ..............................................7 5 GEOLOGY IN THE PROJECT AREA .............................................................................10 6 HYDROGEOLOGY IN THE PROJECT AREA ..................................................................12 7 METHODS AND MATERIALS ....................................................................................13 8 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................15 8.1 Environmental hydrogeology maps .............................................................................15 8.2 Groundwater classification .........................................................................................18 8.3 Groundwater quality ..................................................................................................20 8.4 The case of nitrate .....................................................................................................27 9 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................34 10 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................35 11 APPENDICES .............................................................................................................37 I Borehole location map ...............................................................................................38 II Map of potential environmental hazards .....................................................................39 III Groundwater flow direction map ................................................................................40 IV Results of the chemical analyses of the main elements .................................................41 V Results of the chemical analyses of trace elements ......................................................44 VI Logs of selected sampled boreholes ...........................................................................48 i LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Botswana - administrative districts and location of the Ramotswa study area ............2 Figure 2: Physiographic regions and annual rainfall distribution in Botswana ............................4 Figure 3: Drainage basins in Botswana ..................................................................................5 Figure 4: Depth to groundwater in Botswana .........................................................................6 Figure 5: Consolidated water demand estimates (1990 to 2020) ............................................7 Figure 6: Mean monthly rainfall in Ramotswa (1959 to 1998) ................................................9 Figure 7: Mean annual rainfall in Ramotswa (1959 to 1998) ...................................................9 Figure 8: Geological map of the study area ............................................................................11 Figure 9: PIPER diagram ......................................................................................................18 Figure 10: Water reaction (pH) levels in the study area ............................................................20 Figure 11: Groundwater temperatures in the study area ............................................................21 Figure 12: Electrical conductivity in the study area ...................................................................21 Figure 13: O2 values in the study area .....................................................................................22 Figure 14: TDS values in the study area ...................................................................................23 Figure 15: HCO3 concentrations in the study area ...................................................................23 Figure 16: Sulfate concentrations in the study area ...................................................................24 Figure 17: Chloride concentrations in the study area ................................................................25 Figure 18: Sodium concentrations in the study area ..................................................................25 Figure 19: Magnesium concentrations in the study area ............................................................26 Figure 20: Sources and pathways of nitrogen in the environment ..............................................28 Figure 21: Nitrate levels in the study area ................................................................................29 Figure 22: The Ramotswa sewerage system ............................................................................31 Figure 23: Nitrate levels in selected boreholes in 1983 and in 2001 ..........................................32 Figure 24: Trend line for DWA well 4422 ...............................................................................33 Figure 25: Trend line for DWA well 4349 ...............................................................................33 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Landforms, geology, vegetation, and soils in the study area ......................................8 Table 2: Stratigraphy of the Transvaal supergroup in the Ramotswa area ...............................10 Table 3: Summary of aquifer and borehole statistics for the Ramostwa wellfield .....................13 Table 4: Legend of the borehole location map and status of the boreholes .............................16 Table 5: Typical point and area hazards ................................................................................17 Table 6: Groundwater classification according to FURTAK & LANGGUTH ..............................19 Table 7: Sanitation facilities by housing types in 1985 ............................................................30 Table 8: Sanitation facilities by households in 1991 ...............................................................30 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I extend a heartfelt thank you to my two supervisors, Dr. Horst Vogel and Prof. Dr. Klaus- Dieter Balke. Dr. Vogel’s practical help and guidance in Botswana, as well as his continued help and supervision, made this project and my experience a very positive one. I also like to thank Professor Balke for his supervision at the University of Tübingen (Germany) and for his offer to carry out this project. I thank my dear friend Benjamin Mafa for his hospitality in Botswana and the insights he gave me into the every-day life of his beautiful country. Special thanks go to Fredrick “Pine” Dithapo and Jerry Setlhomo, my field assistant and technician respectively. Without their help the project would not have been possible. Thank you so much, and all the best to you. I also thank the following persons for their help: Antje Wolff for her support in using the ArcView GIS software and for printing the maps at BGR HQ, Susanne David for her introduction into the soils of the Lobatse Estate, Susanne Stadler for converting the GeODin- software files into the PDF format and for sending off my literature to Freiburg, Dr. von Hoyer for his background information on the Ramotswa wellfield, Mrs. B.M. Ghandi at the SE district council for her useful information, Dr. Siewers for carrying out the chemical analyses of the groundwater samples at BGR HQ, the Hydrogeology Division at the DGS, in particular Thomas Kellner; the Chemistry Division at the DGS, in particular Teddy Ditsabatho, the Cartography Division at the DGS, the staff of the Geological Information Center at the DGS, Jason Hawley and Dave Baker from Africa Surveys Botswana (Pty) Ltd. for the GPS precision survey, Katharina Beger for her pre-Botswana information and advice, the drivers and workers of the DGS, and finally all people who contributed to this work in one way or another, in particular the inhabitants of Ramotswa and Taung (Ramotswa station). ABSTRACT Since its independence from Britain, Botswana has experienced enormous economic growth. When it gained independence in 1966 it was one of the poorest countries in the world. There were no programs in place to provide for education, health, telecommunication, roadway development, or water systems. The discovery of diamonds one year later changed everything and set into motion intense economic development that is still unabated. In fact, during the 1980s and 1990s, Botswana had one of the fastest growing economies in the world due to its mineral wealth. But Botswana also has its problems. The relationship between accelerated economic growth, a growing population (1,326,796 in 1991), and environmental limitations such as adverse climatic conditions, present a formidable challenge for sound water management. Hence, identifying those areas where groundwater has been, or is going to be, impacted upon by
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