DOCSLIB.ORG

Darwinian Discomfort: Terror Management Implications for Belief in Science Meleah B

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Darwinian Discomfort: Terror Management Implications for Belief in Science Meleah B Darwinian Discomfort: Terror Management Implications for Belief in Science Meleah B. Marquis & Ronald W. Wright, Ph.D. Southern Nazarene University Introduction Results Discussion Terror Management Theory (TMT) suggests that Religiosity Moderates Quest and Belief in Science Conclusion discomfort is associated with reminders of animality and SF and GF religious orientations interact the body (Goldenberg, Morris, & Boyd, 2019; Vail, ● Soenke, & Waggoner, 2019), creating a dynamic in which differently with potential worldview religious worldviews assist in ameliorating. Research also threats suggests that across both religious and non-religious DTS QS ●General belief in science is perceived as a persons, there remains an uncertainty about the ability of worldview threat for SF Christians evolutionary science to explain the origins of humanity DTS 1 and human consciousness (Elsdon-Baker, Leicht, Mason- ●Darwinian Evolutionary Theory and animal Wilkes, Preece, & Piggott, 2017). QS -.504** 1 similarity are also perceived as a worldview Religious Orientations (Van Tongeren, Hook, Davis, & BSS -.366** .301** threat for SF Christians Johnson, 2016) ●GF Christians do not feel as threatened by Security-Focused (SF) science Existential consolation that is focused on certainty and Implications optimism. Pro: High psychological well-being; Con: Increased intolerance and hostility toward outgroups or Study 1 ●Are there correlates of SF and GF rival worldviews. functioning across all worldviews? Growth-Focused (GF) Future Directions Correlation of Linguistic Inquiry Word Count Categories and Main Variables Faith with existential questions about evil and pain. Pro: Examine differences between SF and GF Increased tolerance and openness toward outgroups or ● rival worldviews; Con: Decreased psychological well- DTS QS BSS Christians with a mortality salience prime being. Emotional Tone -.257** .162* .129 to assess for bolstering of worldview in a Hypotheses: mortality threat Study 1 Six Letter -.160* .115 .173* ●DTS and BSS will be negatively correlated ●QS and BSS will be positively correlated Comparisons .155* -.088 -.057 ●Higher DTS scores will be related to more negative emotional words with Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory Positive Emotion -.224** .139 .191** Study 2 Literature Cited ●Animal similarity essay will be graded lower than the Negative Emotion .204** -.156* -.181* Batson, C. D., & Schoenrade, P. A. (1991). Measuring religion as quest: 1) human uniqueness essay. validity concerns. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 30(4), 416- ●High Quest will display no differences for grades Cognitive Processes -.197** .075 .166* 429. across conditions. Beck, R. (2006). Defensive versus existential religion: Is religious Certainty -.332** .081 .275** defensiveness predictive of worldview defense? Journal of Psychology & Theology, 34(2), 143-153. Elsdon-Baker, F., Leicht, C., Mason-Wilkes, W., Preece, E., & Piggott, L. Body -.190** .108 -.018 (2017). Summary report of preliminary findings for a survey of public perspectives on evolution and the relationship between evolutionary Risk .178* -.113 -.139 science and religion. Available at: https://sciencereligionspectrum.org/wp- content/uploads/2017/09/SRESYouGov-survey-preliminary-findings- Method 5.9.17.pdf. Farias, M., Newheiser, A.-K., Kahane, G., & De Toledo, Z. (2013). Scientific Study 1 Tests of Between-Subjects faith: Belief in science increases in the face of stress and existential Participants (N =186) Effects anxiety. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 1210–1213. ANOVA for Grade by Essay Condition Study 2 Goldenberg, J.L. (2012). A body of terror: Denial of death and the creaturely M = 28.06 years; 67% female; 92% Caucasian; 74% Dependent Variable: What body. In P.R. Shaver & M. Mikulincer (Eds), Meaning, mortality, and attend religious services at least once per week grade would you give the choice: The social psychology of existential concerns (pp. 93-110). author? Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Measures: Goldenberg, J. L., Morris, K. L., & Boyd, P. (2019). Terror management is for Quest Scale (QS; Batson & Schoenrade, 1991) Source Type III df Mean F Sig. Partial the birds and the bees: An existential perspective on the threat Sum of Square Eta associated with human corporeality. In C. Routledge & M. Vess (Eds.), Defensive Theology Scale (DTS; Beck, 2006) Handbook of terror management theory (p. 227–242). Elsevier Belief in Science Scale (BSS) Squares Squared Academic Press. Goldenberg, J. L., Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Kluck, B., & First seven words that come to mind when thinking Condition 34.406 1 34.406 6.34 .014 .069 Cornwell, R. (2001). I am not an animal: Mortality salience, disgust, and about Darwinian Evolutionary Theory 4 the denial of human creatureliness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Study 2 General, 130, 427-435. Within Groups 460.973 85 5.423 Jong, J., & Halberstadt, J. (2016). Death anxiety and religious belief: an Participants (N =87) existential psychology of religion. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. Total 495.379 86 M = 28.28 years; 64% female; 75% Caucasian; 77% Van Tongeren, D. R., Davis, D. E., Hook, J. N., & Johnson, K. A. (2016). Security a. R Squared = .069 versus growth: Existential tradeoffs of various religious perspectives. attend religious services at least once per week Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 8(1), 77–88. Procedures (Adjusted R Squared = .059) Participants were randomly assigned to read either an essay on animal and human similarities or human Acknowledgments uniqueness. After reading, both groups were asked Funded by a grant given by Building the Two Cultures of to give a letter grade for the author. All participants Science and the Humanities II, a project run by immediately completed the Existential Death Anxiety Scholarship and Christianity in Oxford, the UK subsidiary Scale (Jong & Halberstadt, 2016), the Defensive of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities, with Theology Scale, and the Quest Scale. funding by Templeton Religion Trust and The Blankemeyer Foundation..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Suicide Attitudes and Terror Management Theory
    University of Kentucky UKnowledge Theses and Dissertations--Social Work College of Social Work 2019 SUICIDE ATTITUDES AND TERROR MANAGEMENT THEORY Athena Kheibari University of Kentucky, [email protected] Author ORCID Identifier: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1084-0738 Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.13023/etd.2019.297 Right click to open a feedback form in a new tab to let us know how this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Kheibari, Athena, "SUICIDE ATTITUDES AND TERROR MANAGEMENT THEORY" (2019). Theses and Dissertations--Social Work. 26. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/csw_etds/26 This Doctoral Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Social Work at UKnowledge. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations--Social Work by an authorized administrator of UKnowledge. For more information, please contact [email protected]. STUDENT AGREEMENT: I represent that my thesis or dissertation and abstract are my original work. Proper attribution has been given to all outside sources. I understand that I am solely responsible for obtaining any needed copyright permissions. I have obtained needed written permission statement(s) from the owner(s) of each third-party copyrighted matter to be included in my work, allowing electronic distribution (if such use is not permitted by the fair use doctrine) which will be submitted to UKnowledge as Additional File. I hereby grant to The University of Kentucky and its agents the irrevocable, non-exclusive, and royalty-free license to archive and make accessible my work in whole or in part in all forms of media, now or hereafter known.
    [Show full text]
  • Fpuscholarworks
    FPUScholarWorks Spiritual and religious implications of terror management theory: recommendations for church leaders in times of disaster and loss. Author(s): David B. Rose & Helmine Bigler. Source: Pacific Journal 7 (2012): 40-61. Publisher: Fresno Pacific University. Stable URL: http://hdl.handle.net/11418/534 FPUScholarWorks is an online repository for creative and scholarly works and other resources created by members of the Fresno Pacific University community. FPUScholarWorks makes these resources freely available on the Web and assures their preservation for the future. Pacifi c Journal Spiritual and Religious Implications of Terror Management Theory: Recommendations for Church Leaders in Times of Disaster and Loss DAVID B. ROSE AND HELMINE BIGLER At times, churches can be powerful centers of renewal and comfort. But at other times, churches can behave in ways that are cruel and destructive, especially to those who are different from ourselves, those on the margins of society (Harris, Erbes, & Engdahl, 2008). In this paper, we propose to examine one factor that may contribute to that inconsistent behavior: fear, particularly fear of death. After refl ecting on several national church meetings, one writer stated, Fear wraps its paralyzing grip around us. Fear of foes does not sit silent. It mobilizes to lash out . against all those people causing all these problems. And like the farm worker yanking both, weeds and wheat out of the ground, a reckless band of fear-inspired warriors destroys God’s harvest. (Lancaster, 2006, p.2). After a review social psychological research (summarized below), we be- lieve that much of the destructive fear described by Lancaster is explained by what researchers named “Terror Management Theory.” Terror Management Theory Terror management theory was originally developed using social psycho- logical research methods to test the assumptions of existential psychology.
    [Show full text]
  • Terror Management Theory: a Theoretical Perspective on Orgination, Maintenance, and Research
    Modern Psychological Studies Volume 20 Number 1 Article 8 2014 Terror management theory: A theoretical perspective on orgination, maintenance, and research Robert B. Arrowood Tusculum College J. Brian Pope Tusculum College Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.utc.edu/mps Part of the Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Arrowood, Robert B. and Pope, J. Brian (2014) "Terror management theory: A theoretical perspective on orgination, maintenance, and research," Modern Psychological Studies: Vol. 20 : No. 1 , Article 8. Available at: https://scholar.utc.edu/mps/vol20/iss1/8 This articles is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals, Magazines, and Newsletters at UTC Scholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Modern Psychological Studies by an authorized editor of UTC Scholar. For more information, please contact [email protected]. MPS I Terror Management Theory I Arrowood & Pope I 87-95 Terror Management Theory: A Theoretical Perspective on Origination, Maintenance, and Research Robert B. Arrowood and J. Brian Pope Tusculum College Abstract Research suggests that humans engage in several worldview defense mechanisms to shield against the terror associated with an awareness of mortality (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986). To mitigate anxiety, people strongly adhere to their cultural worldviews that allow them to boost their self-esteem. This self-esteem fosters a sense of immortality because the world is considered a 'just" place that will not harm someone that is living in adherence to cultural guidelines (Rosenblatt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, & Lyon, 1989). This paper provides a theoretical background for Terror Management Theory including its philosophical origination, the primary tenets of the theory, and the experimental methods used to manipulate death awareness.
    [Show full text]
  • Death Anxiety and Religion
    Journal Pre-proof Death anxiety and religion Jonathan Jong PII: S2352-250X(20)30149-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.004 Reference: COPSYC 1065 To appear in: Current Opinion in Psychology Please cite this article as: Jong J, Death anxiety and religion, Current Opinion in Psychology (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.004 This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2020 Published by Elsevier. Death anxiety and religion Jonathan Jong Address Centre for Trust, Peace, and Social Relations Cheetah Rd, Coventry CV1 2TL Corresponding author: Jong, Jonathan ([email protected]) Highlights - The linear relationship between death anxiety and religious belief is inconsistent and probably averages around zero. - There is some—albeit limited and culturally specific—evidence for a quadratic relationship between death anxiety and religion, such that extremely religious and irreligious individuals report lower death anxiety than others. - Experiences with and proximity to death do not consistently predict religious belief. - Reminders of death probably temporarily strengthen religious belief among believers, but not nonbelievers.
    [Show full text]
  • Fleeing the Body: a Terror Management Perspective on the Problem of Human Corporeality
    Personality and Social Psychology Review Copyright © 2000 by 2000, Vol. 4, No. 3, 200–218 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Fleeing the Body: A Terror Management Perspective on the Problem of Human Corporeality Jamie L. Goldenberg and Tom Pyszczynski Department of Psychology University of Colorado at Colorado Springs Jeff Greenberg Department of Psychology University of Arizona Sheldon Solomon Department of Psychology Brooklyn College From the perspective of terror management theory, the human body is problematic be- cause it serves as a perpetual reminder of the inevitability of death. Human beings con- front this problem through the development of cultural worldviews that imbue real- ity—and the body as part of that reality—with abstract symbolic meaning. This fanciful flight from death is in turn the psychological impetus for distancing from other animals and the need to regulate behaviors that remind us of our physical nature. This analysis is applied to questions concerning why people are embarrassed and disgusted by their bodies’ functions; why sex is such a common source of problems, difficulties, regula- tions, and ritualizations; why sex tends to be associated with romantic love; and why cultures value physical attractiveness and objectify women. This article then briefly considers implications of this analysis for understanding psychological problems re- lated to the physical body and cultural variations in the need to separate oneself from the natural world. When the woman saw that the fruit of the tree was good some portion of the male or female genitalia, or plastic for food and pleasing to the eye, and also desirable for surgery to change the shape of one’s nose or the size of gaining wisdom, she took some and ate it.
    [Show full text]
  • Terror Management Vs
    Terror Management vs. Meaning Management © Paul T. P. Wong Overview • Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’ Stage Theory of Grief • Ernest Becker’s Denial of Death • Terror Management Theory (TMT) • Challenges of TMT • Wong’s Meaning-Management Theory (MMT) Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, MD (1926-2004) • A Swiss American psychiatrist • A pioneer in near-death studies • The author of the ground- breaking book On Death and Dying (1969), • Developed the theory of the five stages of grief Elisabeth Kübler-Ross's Theory of Stages of Grief Terror Management focuses on Denial, whereas Meaning Management focuses on Acceptance. Ernest Becker: The Denial of Death Do you think that all human behaviors are motivated by fear and denial of the terror of death as hypothesized by Terror Management Theory? Existential anxiety is an existential given, but terror management theory is based on unconscious defense mechanisms against this anxiety rather than a rational decision to work towards death acceptance. Terror Management Theory hypothesizes human beings unconsciously defend themselves in two ways: (a) faith in an internalized cultural worldview, and (b) self-esteem, which is attained by living up to the standards of value prescribed by one’s worldview. Terror Management • Unconscious defense mechanisms against the terror of death • Cultural worldview defense mechanism • Self-esteem defense mechanism • No longer adequate in the face of impending death Terror Management (cont.) • Need to accept our personal mortality • Need to connect with the continuity of life • Need for symbolic immortality Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon’s (2002) Terror management Theory (TMT) Resort to Manage or deny anger and violence subconscious terror Cognitive construction of immortality Questions for TMT How do you account for the following kind of self-destructive behaviors in terms of terror management theory? 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Does Atheism Hold the Answers? 1
    Does Atheism Hold the Answers? 1 Does Atheism Hold the Answers? Testing the Effect of Mortality Salience over a Range of Religiosity Caitlin Leigh Supervisor: Liberty Eaton Co-Supervisor: Christopher Du Plooy Department of Psychology, PSY4000W University of Cape Town October 2009 Word Count: 7 244 Does Atheism Hold the Answers? 2 ABSTRACT Terror Management Theory examines human beings’ reactions to an inherent fear of their own inescapable immortality; worldview defence being found to be the standard anxiety buffer displayed as a response to death anxiety. Given that religious and non-religious people differ greatly in their chosen worldviews, which either answer existential worries or consider them unanswerable respectively, it posits that existential anxiety will elicit different responses from people of differing levels of religiosity. For the purpose of this study, levels of religiosity were split along intrinsic and extrinsic lines and the groupings were then compared. The hypotheses presented suggested that firstly, the mortality salience conditioning would produce death anxiety within the participants who would then respond with the anxiety buffer of being dogmatic about their belief systems. The second hypothesis stated that participants with low levels of intrinsic religiosity would display lower levels of dogmatism after the morality salience conditioning which would imply that mortality salience has less of an effect on them. This was hypothesised on the basis that non-religious people have chosen to accept a worldview that does not attempt to subdue feelings of meaningless and insignificance experienced as symptoms of being conscious of one’s finite mortality. The results confirmed the first hypothesis that people do respond to death anxiety by taking a dogmatic approach to their belief systems.
    [Show full text]
  • Did Human Reality Denial Breach the Evolutionary Psychological Barrier
    Did Human Reality Denial Breach the Evolutionary Psychological Barrier of Mortality Salience? A Theory that Can Explain Unusual Features of the Origin and Fate of Our Species Ajit Varki “We now know that the human animal is characterized by two great fears that other animals are protected from: the fear of life and the fear of death.” —Ernest Becker “A being who knows that he will die arose from ancestors who did not know.” —Theodosius Dobzhansky “The human race is the only one that knows it must die, and it knows this only through its experience.” —Voltaire The yaksha asked: “What is the greatest surprise?” Yudhisthira replied: “People die every day, making us aware that men are mortal. Yet we live, work, play, plan, etc., as if assuming we are immortal. What is more surprising than that?” —The Mahabharata Abstract Some aspects of human cognition and behavior appear unusual or exaggerated relative to those of other intelligent, warm-blooded, long-lived social species––including certain mammals (cetaceans, elephants, and great apes) and birds (corvids and passerines). One collection of such related features is our remark- able ability for ignoring or denying reality in the face of clear facts, a high capacity for self-deception and false beliefs, overarching optimism bias, and irrational risk- taking behavior (herein collectively called “reality denial”). Such traits should be maladaptive for reproductive success when they frst appear as consistent features in A. Varki (*) Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2019 109 T.
    [Show full text]
  • Evidence for Terror Management Theory II: the Effects of Mortality Salience on Reactions to Those Who Threaten Or Bolster the Cultural Worldview
    Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 1990 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1990, Vol. 58, No. 2, 308-318 0022-3514/90/S00.75 Evidence for Terror Management Theory II: The Effects of Mortality Salience on Reactions to Those Who Threaten or Bolster the Cultural Worldview Jeff Greenberg Tom Pyszczynski University of Arizona University of Colorado, Colorado Springs Sheldon Solomon Abram Rosenblatt Skidmore College University of Arizona Mitchell Veeder Shari Kirkland University of Colorado, Colorado Springs University of Arizona Deborah Lyon University of Arizona Three experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis, derived from terror management theory, that reminding people of their mortality increases attraction to those who consensually validate their beliefs and decreases attraction to those who threaten their beliefs. In Study 1, subjects with a Chris- tian religious background were asked to form impressions of Christian and Jewish target persons. Before doing so, mortality was made salient to half of the subjects. In support of predictions, mortal- ity salience led to more positive evaluations of the in-group member (the Christian) and more nega- tive evaluations of the out-group member (the Jew). In Study 2, mortality salience led to especially negative evaluations of an attitudinally dissimilar other, but only among subjects high in authoritari- anism. In Study 3, mortality salience led to especially positive reactions to someone who directly praised subjects' cultural worldviews and especially negative
    [Show full text]
  • Phobias and Death: a Terror Management View of BII Phobia and Arachnophobia
    Phobias and Death: A Terror Management View of BII Phobia and Arachnophobia Julianna Hauri, Class of 2018 Terror Management Theory (TMT) is a theory that argues that a person’s most fundamental need is the promise that they will live on after death (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986). According to TMT, self-esteem is an internal measure of how well we believe we are living up to the standards of our culture, and therefore how likely we will “live on” after death as part of something greater than ourselves (Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Solomon, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004). Following this logic, when people are unable to believe they will achieve life after death, they experience great anxiety and fears— which, when chronic, can develop into mental illnesses (Arndt, Routledge, Cox, & Goldenberg, 2005). We sought to test this hypothesis with regards to arachnophobia and blood-injection-injury (BII) phobia. According to TMT, people with mental illnesses fail (or are unable) to use self esteem to protect against anxiety (Arndt et al., 2005). Therefore, we studied differences in reported disgust and fear in people based on their spider and/or BII fears. Disgust and fear have been shown to be linked to both arachnophobia and BII phobia (Tolin, Lohr, Sawchuk, & Lee, 1997), and they are both found to increase after a person is made to think about death, known as mortality salience (MS) (Goldenberg et al., 2001; Lambert et al., 2014.) To examine these differences, we had participants report their spider and BII fears; then, half were made to think about their own death (MS prime) while the other half thought about a neutral topic, watching television (TV prime.) Next, participants took an alleged intelligence test, after which participants were randomly told either that they were highly intelligent, or simply thanked for their time and given no further information.
    [Show full text]
  • An Investigation of Social Identity and Terror Management Processes in Online News
    Identity and Death Threats: An Investigation of Social Identity and Terror Management Processes in Online News Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Mao Houamoua Vang-Corne, M.A. Graduate Program in Communication The Ohio State University 2016 Dissertation Committee: Jesse Fox, Advisor Lanier Holt Nancy Rhodes Zheng Joyce Wang Copyright by Mao Houamoua Vang-Corne 2016 Abstract When people experience reminders of their mortality, anxiety heightens. This, in turn, can increase worldview defenses such as outgroup derogation. In this experiment, White participants (N = 190) read an online news story that presented a death threat (death threat, non-death threat) and identity threat (White threat, Black threat, race-neutral threat) manipulation. Following exposure to the experimental manipulation, participants completed measures of anxiety, specific self-esteem, and worldview defense. A multicategorical moderation supported the integration of specific self-esteem in social identity processes. The findings from moderated mediation analyses support previous terror management research (Greenberg et al., 1997): When exposure to a death threat has not been sufficiently suppressed, anxiety from the threat can manifest in worldview defenses. Results demonstrate that specific self-esteem buffers anxiety elicited from threats unrelated to racial identity. Implications include identity processes by which the effects of threat can be mitigated. ii To kuv txiv, Wang Xing Houamoua Vang, kuv niam, Xiong Lee Vang, and my husband, Joseph Corne. iii Acknowledgments This document could not have been written without my advisor, Dr. Jesse Fox, whom I love and fear, just a little.
    [Show full text]
  • A TERROR MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE on POLARIZATION in AMERICA by ALEX DARRELL BA, Skidmore College, 2011 A
    POLITICAL DIVIDE: A TERROR MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE ON POLARIZATION IN AMERICA by ALEX DARRELL B.A., Skidmore College, 2011 A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Colorado Colorado Springs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Psychology 2016 This thesis for the Master of Arts degree by Alex Darrell has been approved for the Department of Psychology by Tom Pyszczynski Lori James Mike Kisley 5/25/2016 Date ii Darrell, Alex (M.A., Psychology) Political Divide: A Terror Management Perspective on Polarization in America Thesis directed by Professor Tom Pyszczynski According to Terror Management Theory politics represent a unique aspect of one’s cultural worldview. The current study hypothesized that derogation by politically dissimilar others would represent an existential threat. Death-thought accessibility (DTA) as well as relative identification, blind patriotism, and constructive patriotism were all measured. It was additionally hypothesized that DTA would remain high even after some participants were given the chance to affirm their cultural worldview (e.g., America) if the country is truly in a state of deep polarization. Results did not confirm the main hypotheses but did find dispositional differences between liberals and conservatives which replicated previous work. Limitations and theoretical considerations are examined. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................1
    [Show full text]