Modern Psychological Studies

Volume 20 Number 1 Article 8

2014

Terror management theory: A theoretical perspective on orgination, maintenance, and research

Robert B. Arrowood Tusculum College

J. Brian Pope Tusculum College

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Recommended Citation Arrowood, Robert B. and Pope, J. Brian (2014) ": A theoretical perspective on orgination, maintenance, and research," Modern Psychological Studies: Vol. 20 : No. 1 , Article 8. Available at: https://scholar.utc.edu/mps/vol20/iss1/8

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Terror Management Theory: A Theoretical Perspective on Origination, Maintenance, and Research

Robert B. Arrowood and J. Brian Pope Tusculum College

Abstract

Research suggests that humans engage in several defense mechanisms to shield against the terror associated with an awareness of mortality (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986). To mitigate anxiety, people strongly adhere to their cultural that allow them to boost their self-esteem. This self-esteem fosters a sense of immortality because the world is considered a 'just" place that will not harm someone that is living in adherence to cultural guidelines (Rosenblatt, Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, & Lyon, 1989). This paper provides a theoretical background for Terror Management Theory including its philosophical origination, the primary tenets of the theory, and the experimental methods used to manipulate death awareness. Keywords: Terror Management Theory; ; Death Awareness; ; Cultural Defense Mechanisms; Shielding To illustrate this theory, consider the Introduction enduring tale of Romeo and Juliet. This example invokes themes of death that should When confronted with mortality, humans face the possibility of experiencing remind its audience about their own a significant amount of terror. Interestingly, mortality, an awareness that should cause many times, people are able to avoid this them to experience a significant amount of terror and actually enjoy the mortality terror. This terror is so powerful that it themes that are presented. Research into should almost paralyze those that are Terror Management Theory (TMT; unfortunate enough to experience it Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1986; (Greenberg et al., 1986). This would suggest Greenberg, Pyszczynski, Solomon, an important human drive to avoid all Rosenblatt, Veeder, Kirkland, & Lyon, instances of death and themes of mortality 1990; Solomon, Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, that would cause a sense of death awareness. 1991) suggests a possible explanation for An unusual phenomenon occurs, however. this perplexing phenomenon. Humans Not only does the audience avoid the terror engage in several cultural worldview associated with the death themes apparent in defense mechanisms when cognizant of their this form of media, but they actually enjoy own mortality in order to shield against the them. This is obvious from the frequent terror that is associated with it. More performances and readings of the specifically, people observe their Shakespearian masterpiece. This behavior is worldviews more strongly in order to give surprising considering that one might themselves a degree of self-purpose to anticipate audiences would find reminders combat the adverse effects that thoughts of of death off-putting. their own mortality have on their well-being (Solomon et al., 1991). This is only one example of TMT. Consider the events that followed the

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A MPS I Terror Management Theory I Arrowood & Pope I 87-95 terrorist attacks on America on September based primarily on whether or not we satisfy 11th, 2001. Not only was death broadcasted the cultural requirements for being good as worldwide via television, the Internet, etc., defined by each specific . By but many people experienced it first-hand increasing our self-esteem, we believe that with the loss of a relative or friend. This we are living a meaningful life that is tragedy should have caused a massive deemed culturally good. Due to this, we can outbreak of terror and hysteria, at least from ultimately "deny" mortality and the terror the American people. Although terror did that is associated with it. The denial of this occur, it was not the paralyzing terror that mortality allows us to deny our was expected. Surprisingly, Americans creatureliness (or our animalistic nature) and joined together and united under a powerful further allows us to separate ourselves from sense of patriotism and optimism. Even the social animals that do not possess culture more interesting is that this optimism was (Greenberg et al., 1986). not limited to judgments about the countries future. Both national and personal optimism Early Childhood and Later increased significantly (ABC News, Sept Development. These conceptions of the 2002). world are only strengthened by early childhood experiences. Children develop a Origination of the Theory sense of conditional love from their parents. So long as they are good children, they Research into TMT is based primarily on receive love and affection. When they are the works of (1962; 1973; bad, however, love is seemingly removed as 1975) in which a need for self-esteem allows they receive a punishment. This causes good us to think in self-reflective, symbolic, and feelings to be associated with a positive self- temporal thought. Although this is concept and terror to become associated evolutionarily adaptive, it also causes with a negative self-concept. Just as we deny several problems associated with this type of our mortality by believing that we are good, thought. For example, humans have the children avoid feelings of terror by acting ability to contemplate our purpose in life and trying to act in ways that are deemed and our reason for existing. Also, people can appropriate by their parents (Greenberg et surmise that the world is an uncontrollable al., 1986). place and that we could cease to exist at any time. More specifically, we can anticipate As the children develop, they realize that that we will ultimately die. their parents cannot always protect them. More specifically, they develop a sense of Shielding. In order to shield against the mortality, a mortality that even their parents terror that is associated with this idea of the cannot protect them or themselves from. In world, humans began to develop a sense of order to shield against the terror associated culture that allowed us to see the world as a with this, culture is then substituted because predictable place of permanence and order. it provides standards, values, and the Each culture also provides a way to surmise perception that the world is a just and good the creation of this "just" world and a way to place. In order to defend against existential achieve immortality by living a life that is terror, it is imperative that we believe that good and meaningful. This suggests the we are good. This can be accomplished importance for self-esteem. Being cultural through maximizing self-esteem. By animals, we can assign a value to ourselves believing that we are good, we diminish

88 MPS I Terror Management Theory I Arrowood & Pope 187-95 terror and gain a degree of immortality Memes are ideas, thoughts, tunes, etc. that because we live in a just world which we are passed on through the culture. Just as believe would never allow someone that is adaptive genes are weeded out through the doing good based on the cultural standards process of natural selection and then passed to cease to exist (Greenberg et al., 1986). down through reproduction, successful memes are passed to other people in the Evolutionary and Genetic Mechanisms culture. The "new" recipient of the chooses whether or not the meme is worthy The importance of evolutionary theory to be passed on to someone else. Those in the philosophical underpinnings of TMT memes that are passed on continue to thrive cannot be overstated. Darwin (1872/1998; and develop in the culture. Those memes 1874/1998) proposed that all humans are that are not passed on to other people products of . More importantly, eventually die out from the culture just as human emotions and behaviors are the nonadaptive genes should eventually be remaining emotions displayed by animals removed from the gene pool. Broadly that retained importance for the survival of speaking, memes are ideas, styles, creeds, the species. Current research has suggested etc. that are passed on throughout the culture that many psychological factors are and help to distinguish one culture from adaptations to the different circumstances another. Regardless of the debate as to (e.g. social, ecological) that are integral to whether the concept of a meme is the best human survival. The psychological framework of cultural transmission, the adaptations that form the substrate of the important aspect is that culture is human mind are present in-part due to transmitted. natural selection processes (Ploeger, van der Maas, & Raijmakers, 2008). Primarily, the Considering the importance of culture to genetic variations of psychological TMT, it is easy to make a connection functioning that promoted the survival of the between TMT and memes. Interestingly, to species were passed on to future our knowledge, these two concepts have generations. Individuals lacking these never been examined together. Memes are adaptive traits failed to reproduce and these one method that allows for the development nonadaptive traits were removed from the of culture. Several of these memes become human gene pool (Hergenhahn, 2005). important for shielding against the terror that is associated with becoming death aware. The Cultural Drama. Evolutionarily For example, Dawkins (1975) suggests that speaking, culture is still a relatively new and the concept of God is a meme phenomenon. Without its development, that has been passed down through oral, humans would not have a means to shield written, musical, and other such traditions. themselves from the terror that is associated When examined through TMT, it becomes with death awareness. Although it is apparent why this meme is successful. unlikely that culture was constructed solely Humans need a way to combat the adverse to combat death anxiety, a byproduct of its effects associated with death. The concept of development was this shielding ability. One religion and God allow people that believe possible component to the development of to achieve immortality by following the culture is the concept of Memes. Dawkins tenants that are deemed acceptable. By (1975) suggests that memes are non-genetic following the tenants, people boost their replicators that are important for evolution. self-esteem. This increased self-esteem

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causes a sense of immortality because the standards that are important to that culture. world is a just place (Greenberg et al., This evokes a strong feeling of self-esteem 1986). It is believed that God will not punish which is imperative to the suppression of those that do not disobey His terror (Goldenberg, McCoy, Pyszczynski, commandments. Aside from this, Greenberg, & Solomon, 2000). The Christianity provides literal immortality in emphasis that is placed on culture's ability the afterlife so long as people follow the to aid in terror suppression cannot be teachings of the religion. This literal and underestimated. It has been suggested that figurative immortality provides a buffer for humans created culture for the sole purpose the death anxiety that can become salient at of combating the terror associated with the any time. The anxiety buffering effects that animal instincts involved in self- the religion meme has is one cause for us to preservation because of our realization of keep it in the culture and pass it on to others. the external threats to survival. This allows a degree of immortality by placing each Refinement of the Theory person into a group that is more permanent than a single life and therefore more Current research in TMT suggests that meaningful. With this enhanced purpose, when faced with the potential anxiety that is humans are able to raise themselves above evoked by the realization of mortality, the existence of other animals that do not people desire to achieve a degree of self- engage in culture (Goldenberg, McCoy, esteem and self-value based largely in a Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, 1999). cultural context. As previously stated, the Conversely, our assertion is that death importance of cultural acceptance cannot be shielding was an unintended byproduct of over-emphasized when examining TMT. the development of culture. As culture People are compelled to conceptualize the evolved, the different ideas or memes also world as a place of justice in which bad served this duel role to suppress death outcomes cannot and will not affect good awareness thus allowing the different shields people. Most importantly, culture provides a critical to TMT. sense of immortality due to the symbolic importance that people place in aspects such Anxiety Buffers. Both men and women as religion and contributions that are deemed engage in several different worldview culturally acceptable (Rosenblatt, defenses that shield against death anxiety. Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, & Lyon, Although there are many defense 1989). mechanisms, all of them have a significant importance to the person's culture. Due to Other research has emphasized the the cultural significance, these defenses instinctive nature of self-preservation provide a means to boost self-esteem. It is inherent in combating the detrimental effects this self-esteem boost that defends against of mortality salience. Specifically, humans the terror associated with death (Greenberg use the same cognitive structures that et al., 1986). initially incited the terror to suppress these feelings. The conceptions of mortality and In-group/Out-group. In-group reality are evoked simultaneously and allow identification and in-group favoritism have the terror associated with death to decrease. been observed to greatly increase due to Thoughts of reality develop into culture and death awareness. This implies a strong instances in which one adhered to the desire to belong in the cultural context to

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shield against death anxiety. Also, people Goldenberg, 2010). Also, relationships are react very harshly to deviations from considered an important basis of protection. cultural norms further suggesting that This alternative may also suggest why culture is a powerful construct in TMT. This women, instead of men, experience more effect has been observed despite having thoughts about relationships when thinking extensive training in being impartial about death at least from an evolutionary (Rosenblatt et al., 1989; Greenberg et al., standpoint (Arndt et al., 2002). 1990). Interest in Sex. Research into TMT has Religion. Religion is an important found that interest in sex can either increase defense mechanism that shields against the or decrease, largely depending on whether terror associated with death awareness. It the sex is casual or romantic. Also, body not only provides its followers with a self-esteem (Goldenberg et al., 2000) is an cultural way to boost self-esteem by important determinant in sexual interest following the tenants, but it also provides after death awareness. literal immortality in the afterlife which acts as an anxiety buffer. After becoming death Casual Sex. Interest in casual sex has aware, religious people commonly been shown to decrease in response to death remember and cling to the theological awareness. The relationship that sexual foundations of the religion such as prayer, activity has with primal, human nature can fasting, etc. in order to shield against death account for the decreased desire to engage in anxiety (Bos, Doosje, Loseman, Laarhoven, sexual activity. Generally, the mind Veldhuizen, & Veldman, 2012). considers sex an activity that connects humans to their animalistic impulses. This Nationalism. Primarily, men have been connection to primitive humanity causes the observed to become more patriotic when terror associated with mortality salience to death aware under any circumstance. This manifest and the mind to attempt to combat can include several different forms of this anxiety (Goldenberg et al., 1999). Also, patriotism such as hanging a flag or readily as previously stated, thoughts of death can supporting the government. Women, prime religious ideology. In Christianity, for however, only show these types of thoughts instance, a major tenant is to suppress sexual after they have been primed to think about desire unless it is with a spouse. This their country before becoming death aware alternative explanation may explain the (Arndt, Greenberg, & Cook, 2002). This decrease in casual sex observed after effect has been observed heavily in the year becoming death aware (Arrowood, Garris, following the terrorist attacks of September Franklin, & Bussel, 2014). 11th, 2001. (ABC News, Sept 2002). Romantic Sex. Alternatively, interest in Relationships. Women have been romantic sex greatly increases in response to observed to think more about romantic death awareness. This is likely due to the relationships in order to shield against death romantic relationships that have already anxiety (Arndt et al., 2002). It is suggested formed (Birnbaum, Hirschberger, & that greater emotional connection and Goldenberg, 2010). Romantic sex only transcendence offered by the context of the occurs under the context of romantic love romantic relationship is what causes this which allows humans to ignore the type of thought (Birnbaum, Hirschberger, & unconscious connection that is made

91 MPS I Terror Management Theory I Arrowood & Pope 187-95 between the act of sex and creatureliness. Primarily, men experienced the increased Without this connection, it is unlikely that desire for children after being primed to the terror associated with death will manifest think about their death. Women were not (Goldenberg et al., 1999). Also, religious observed, however, to show this same trend ideology would exert the same influence as because of concerns about their career. The it does over casual sex (Arrowood et al., desire to have children is not the only aspect 2014). The experience of romantic love that is affected, however. The desired allows sex to become a uniquely human number of children also decreases when experience that is important to cultural primed to consider thoughts related to the worldviews (Goldenberg et al., 1999). women's mortality. This can be explained by the "negative" aspects that are associated Body Self-esteem. Certain personal with children. Women's careers are characteristics are integral to interest in sex observed to be affected more than men's while under the effects of mortality salience. careers when children are born. This Both men and women that have a high explanation was further supported by the degree of body esteem consider the physical finding that women that are not highly aspects involved with sex as highly alluring devoted to their careers have a significantly after being primed to consider their own higher desire for offspring than women that mortality. People with this enhanced body are devoted to their careers. esteem have a strong desire to engage in physical bodily activities; specifically sex. It Research is hypothesized that this is increasing their physical identification and effectively Primarily, research in TMT is heightening their self-esteem (Goldenberg et accomplished by making participants death al., 2000). aware and then measuring their responses on various psychological constructs such as Desire for Offspring. Having children patriotism (Arndt, Greenberg, & Cook, can instill meaning and value in life and 2002) and in-group/out-group (Rosenblatt et provide a sense of immortality because al., 1989; Greenberg et al., 1990). Several parents can pass on their belief systems and different ways to manipulate death ideals to their children (Baumeister, 1991). awareness have been found, each of which This suggests that after encountering death, provide certain benefits and limitations. whether in reality or imaginary, the desire to produce offspring is fostered and promoted Mortality Salience Measures because it reduces the anxiety that is instilled by thoughts of mortality (Fritsche, Subliminal Death Priming. In order to Jonas, Fischer, Koranyi, Berger, & unconsciously prime participants to think Fleischmann, 2006). This effect can be about death, participants are told to stare at a observed when examining the baby-boom fixation point on a computer screen. They following the terrorist attack on September are then briefly shown two words that are 11th, 2001. Natality was significantly higher related or unrelated and then have to in the months following this mortality determine whether or not they are related or salient event (CNN, May 2002). not. In between ten of the pairs, the death awareness manipulation condition will flash Findings by Wisman & Goldenberg the word "dead" at the computer screens (2005) support this assumption to a degree. fixation point. Participants that are in the

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control condition are shown the word "pain" priming is only effective in inducing delayed instead of "dead." These words are flashed effects. Generally, a five minute pause is quickly and do not allow for conscious needed in order to induce thoughts of death. recognition of the term (Arndt et al., 2002). It is suggested that during this five minutes, we are actively trying to suppress death The Projective Life Attitudes awareness. Eventually, this suppression Assessment. The Projective Life Attitudes becomes too costly on our cognitive Assessment is the most commonly used resources. In order to decrease the costs, we measure to manipulate mortality salience. In then adopt the worldview defense strategy order to prime death awareness, participants resulting in the increases in the defenses are required to write two short essays mentioned previously. Further, longer delay ("Please briefly describe the emotions that lengths have been reported to have larger the thought of your own death arouses in effect sizes (Martin & van den Bos, 2014). you" and "Jot down, as specifically as you In contrast, Subliminal Death Priming has can, what you think happens to YOU as you been observed to induce immediate effects physically die and once you are physically on world view defenses (Arndt et al., 2002). dead") The control condition uses the same questions, however, the term dental pain is Conclusion used instead of death (Vail III, Arndt, & Pope, 2011). In order to shield against the terror that is associated with death, humans engage in The Death Word Accessibility several worldview defense mechanisms Measure. The death word accessibility (Rosenblatt et al., 1989). These defense measure (Arndt, Greenberg, Solomon, mechanisms can manifest in many different Pyszczynski, & Simon, 1997) requires ways depending on what is important to the participants to view a list of twenty-five person and the culture that they identify with word fragments. Five of these words can be (e.g. religion, patriotism, relationships). It is completed with a neutral word or a death imperative that humans promote their self- related word. For example, the word esteem by adhering to cultural values in fragment "DE _ _" can be completed with order to avoid death anxiety because the the word "DEER" or "DEAD." Generally, world is considered a "just" place that will this manipulation is given after other not harm someone that is upholding the measures have been presented to observe values that are considered good by the how strong of an effect the original culture (Greenberg et al., 1986). By manipulation had. successfully utilizing our cultural defenses, we can use death to entertain people through Benefits and Qualifications of TMT our popular media as opposed to paralyzing Measures. Each measure has been shown to them with death anxiety and terror. effectively induce mortality salience in participants; however, they do not induce death awareness similarly. The Projective Life Attitudes Assessment (Vail III et al., 2011) and the Death Word Accessibility Measure (Arndt et al., 1997) both use explicit cues to prime participants to consider their mortality. This type of

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References Darwin, C. (1872/1998). The expression of emotions in man and animals. New Arndt, J., Greenberg, J., & Cook, A. (2002). York, New York: Oxford University Mortality salience and the spreading Press. activation of worldview-relevant constructs: Exploring the cognitive Darwin, C. (1874/1998). The descent of architecture of terror management. man. (2nd ed.). Amherst, New York: Journal of : Prometheus Books. General, 131, 307-324. Arndt, J., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Dawkins, R. (1975). The selfish gene. New Pyszczynski, T., & Simon, L. (1997). York: Oxford University Press. Suppression, accessibility of death- related thoughts, and cultural worldview Fritsche, I., Jonas, E., Fischer, P., Koranyi, defense: Exploring the psychodynamics N., Berger, N., & Fleischmann, B. of terror management. The Journal of (2007).Mortality salience and the desire Personality and , 73, for offspring. Journal of Experimental 5-18. Social Psychology, 43, 753-762. Arrowood, R., Garris, B., Franklin, M., & Bussel, J. (2014, March). Mortality Goldenberg, J., McCoy, S., Pyszczynski, T., salience and sexual interest: Death does Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (1999). not become her. Poster presented at the Death, sex, love, and : Why South Eastern Psychological Association is sex such a problem? The Journal of Conference, Nashville, Tennessee. Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1173-1187. Baumeister, R. F. (1991). The meanings of life. New York, New York: Guilford Goldenberg, J., McCoy, S., Pyszczynski, T., Press. Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (2000). The body as a source of self-esteem: The Becker, E. (1962). The birth and death of effect of mortality salience on meaning. New York, New York: Free identification with one's body, interest in Press. sex, and appearance monitoring. The Journal of Personality and Social Becker, E. (1973). . New Psychology, 79(1), 118-130. York, New York: Free Press. Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, Becker, E. (1975). Escape from evil. New S. (1986). The causes and consequences York, New York: Free Press. of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory. In R.F. Baumeister Birnbaum, G., Hirschberger, G., & (Ed.) Public Self and Private Self (p. 189 Goldenberg, J. (2010). Desire in the — 212). New York, New York: Springer- face of death: Terror management, Verlag. attachment, and sexual motivation. Personal Relationships, 18, 1-19.

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Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, Rosenblatt, A., Veeder, M., Kirkland, S., T (1991). A terror management theory of & Lyon, D. (1990). Evidence for terror social behavior: The psychological management theory II: The effects of functions of self-esteem and cultural mortality salience on reactions to those worldviews. Advances in Experimental who threaten or bolster the cultural Social Psychology, 24, 93-159. worldview. Journal of Personality and Vail III, K. E., Arndt, J., & Pope, J. B. Social Psychology, 58(2), 308-318. (2011, Jan.).Basic need satisfaction as a terror management strategy. Poster Hergenhahn, B. R. (2005). An introduction presented at the of Personality to the . Belmont, and Social Psychology Conference, San California: Wadsworth. Antonio, TX.

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