Global Change and the World's Author(s): Bruno Messerli Source: Research and Development, 32(S1):S55-S63. 2012. Published By: International Mountain Society DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00118.S1 URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00118.S1

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BioOne sees sustainable scholarly publishing as an inherently collaborative enterprise connecting authors, nonprofit publishers, academic institutions, research libraries, and research funders in the common goal of maximizing access to critical research. Mountain Research and Development (MRD) Supplement Issue An international, peer-reviewed open access journal Policy: Beyond Perth 2010 published by the International Mountain Society (IMS) www.mrd-journal.org

Global Change and the World’s Mountains Where Are We Coming From, and Where Are We Going To?

Bruno Messerli [email protected] Institute of , University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 12, 3012 Bern, Switzerland

Open access article: please credit the authors and the full source.

The of mountain research is projects, covering the world’s main In the same year, the Club of most fascinating. Three names for 3 ecosystems. Among them, Project 6 Rome published The Limits to Growth centuries may give an idea of the was entitled ‘‘Impact of Human (Meadows et al 1972). Provoking both growing knowledge about the world’s Activities on Mountain Ecosystems.’’ criticisms and endorsements mountains: Horace Be´ne´dict de In 1973, a small group of experts met worldwide, this book offered a Saussure, who climbed and studied the in Salzburg, Austria, and under the description of the risks and limits of Mont Blanc in 1787; Alexander von auspices of several outstanding exponential growth in demography, Humboldt, ever investigating the strategic thinkers of UNESCO economy, and technology that was environment during his attempt to created a research concept for this interesting at a time when the idea of ascend the Chimborazo in 1802; and mountain project. In the years that sustainability had not yet become Carl Troll, who founded the International followed, the project provided a common knowledge. A look at global Geographical Union’s Commission on great stimulus to overcome the large population statistics can serve to High-altitude Geoecology in 1968. gap between the natural and the illustrate the book’s relevance: Awareness of the growing impact of social sciences and to develop according to the UN Population human activities on the environment led methods and models for inter- and Division, the world population to scientific and political initiatives at transdisciplinary approaches and increased from about 3.8 billion in the global level, beginning in the 1970s. collaborations (UNESCO 1973; 1972 to about 6.1 billion in 2000 The Perth conference in 2010 has Messerli and Messerli 2008). (United Nations 2011). offered an opportunity to both look back The United Nations (UN) These three global impulses on these developments and explore the Conference on the Human prompted a series of mountain future of the world’s mountains in a Environment held in June 1972 in initiatives. In 1974, for example, a time of rapidly growing ‘‘global change’’ Stockholm—the first conference of conference in Trento, Italy, explored problems and processes. the UN devoted entirely to ‘‘The Future of the Alps’’ (Stone environmental issues—mentioned 2002), while an international Keywords: Mountains; global change; and confirmed the MAB program workshop in Munich focused on ‘‘The fragile ecosystems; sustainable under various headings. Although no Development of Mountain development; Rio 1992; Rio 2012; specific reference to mountains was Environment: An Interdisciplinary science–policy dialogue. made, the recommendations in the Approach for a Future Strategy’’ final declaration were stimulating for (Mu¨ ller-Hohenstein 1974). This Reviewed by the Editors: subsequent mountain initiatives and global concept of mountain July 2011 conferences. They stated, for development envisioned selected example, that ‘‘scientific research and pilot projects in the developing Accepted: August 2011 development […], both national and world to establish demonstration multinational, must be promoted sites for environmentally sound […], especially in developing development. However, both the Three decisive impulses for the countries’’; ‘‘Cooperation through Trento and the Munich initiatives global environment and the multilateral or bilateral failed. The visions developed at the arrangements […] is essential to Stockholm conference concerning world’s mountains in the effectively control, prevent, reduce regional and global cooperation had early 1970s and eliminate adverse environmental not yet been understood. The only effects’’; ‘‘the free flow of up-to-date successful global mountain initiatives Founded in November 1971, the scientific information and transfer of were UNESCO’s MAB mountain worldwide program of the United experience must be supported and project, which began after 1973, and Nations Educational, Scientific, and assisted’’; and ‘‘the natural resources the ‘‘Highland–Lowland Interactive Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on of the […] must be safeguarded System Project’’ of the United Man and the Biosphere (MAB) at the for the benefit of present and future Nations University (UNU), which time consisted of 14 different generations’’ (United Nations 1972). began in 1978; they owed their

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success to the fact that they respected African Mountain Association and Ecoregion (CONDESAN) and the national borders and involved the Andean Mountain Association African Highlands Initiative (AHI) national scientific and political was preceded in both cases by 3 had a longer-term structure at their institutions and authorities in their to 4 years of serious scientific host institutions in the framework activities. fieldwork before it was possible of the Consultative Group on to organize an international International Agricultural Research Beginning in the 1980s: conference and offer an instructive (CGIAR), with different results: regional cooperation in science field excursion. This shows that most CONDESAN has now become a and policy of these regional initiatives were separate organization, whereas the more or less influenced by the AHI has ceased to exist. significant recommendations and The last two organizations listed The next decade began with a future- declaration of the 1972 UN in Table 1 are the Alpine and the oriented initiative. Mountain Research Conference on the Human Carpathian conventions. They are and Development, a quarterly journal Environment. based on political agreement founded in 1981 by Jack Ives, with A look at the different forms of between their member states as a strong support from Pauline Ives, organization adopted by the various secure base for transboundary and became the most important initiatives is most interesting, as they transdisciplinary cooperation in instrument of communication in the reveal the different scientific and mountain research and development. beginning of regional and global political ideas from which the New movements towards a mountain cooperation on mountain research initiatives emerged. ICIMOD is an convention have recently emerged in and development. intergovernmental organization, the Caucasus as well as southeastern Several initiatives for regional proposed by UNESCO and Europe, where cooperation began in cooperationonmountainsfollowed supported by Germany and 2011 based on the so-called ‘‘Dinaric in various regions of the world. Switzerland. It was fascinating to see Resolution.’’ Table 1 shows the main initiatives in numerous UN and other How important was the impact of the Himalaya, Africa, the , and international organizations the earlier regional initiatives on the Europe before and after the so- represented at the international 1992 Rio conference and its Agenda called ‘‘Earth Summit’’ in Rio de symposium and inauguration 21? Table 1 gives an indication of Janeiro in 1992. The dates listed in ceremony in 1983: UNESCO, the UN how many countries were informed the first column refer to the official Food and Agriculture Organization about the upcoming ‘‘Earth Summit’’ foundation of the various (FAO), the United Nations and took part in the preparatory organizations, but the related Environment Programme (UNEP), conferences, especially the third one initiatives began earlier, the UNU, the United Nations Children’s held in Geneva in October 1991. It majority dating back to the 1980s or Fund (UNICEF), the International was overwhelming to meet mountain 1970s. The International Centre for Union for Conservation of Nature friends there as scientific or political Integrated Mountain Development (IUCN), the World Bank, and many members of different national (ICIMOD) in Kathmandu, Nepal, others had come to send out a delegations, from Nepal, Ethiopia, provides an interesting example. positive signal and raise awareness of Peru, and many other countries; they Only 3 years after the UN Stockholm the world’s mountains (ICIMOD were spontaneously willing to conference, the first and conflictual 1984). The African and Andean intervene for a special mountain MAB conference on ‘‘Integrated mountain associations were science- chapter in Agenda 21. The first Ecological Research and Training and development-oriented initiatives for regional cooperation Needs in the Southern Asian organizations that had no on mountains were thus Mountain Systems, Particularly the permanent secretariat or fundamental in achieving a positive Hindu Kush–Himalayas’’ held in infrastructure due to a lack of funds. decision on a mountain chapter in 1975 in Nepal recommended They were the first to produce Agenda 21, and this success in establishing in Kathmandu a modern knowledge about mountains Geneva was by no way an ‘‘Regional Institute for Integrated in Africa and South America and intervention of Switzerland and the Mountain Development’’ (UNESCO inspired numerous personal UNU alone. Behind it stood a whole 1975). It would go beyond the scope relationships across national community of persons who were of this article to discuss all the borders. However, the lack of a willing to prove that the world’s political difficulties and strong organizational structure led mountains with their resources and negotiations that followed until the to a standstill after 5 or 6 ecosystem services have a significant official inauguration of ICIMOD in conferences (see Table 1). The role to play in the context of rapidly Kathmandu 8 years later, in 1983. Consortium for the Sustainable growing natural and human-induced Similarly, the foundation of the Development of the Andean ‘‘global environmental change.’’

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TABLE 1 The beginning of regional cooperation on mountains in science and policy.

Year Places Organizations Members, main activities

1983 Kathmandu ICIMOD: International Centre Member countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, for Integrated Mountain China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan Development

1986 Addis Abeba African Mountain Conferences: Ethiopia 1986, Morocco 1990, Kenya 1993, Association Madagascar 1997, Lesotho 2000, Tanzania 2002

1991 Santiago Andean Mountain Conferences: Chile 1991, Bolivia 1995, Ecuador 1998, Association Venezuela 2001, Argentina 2004

1992 Lima CONDESAN: Consortium for 175 members, including NGOs, universities, international the Sustainable research centers, and others; hosted by the International Development of the Andean Potato Center (CIP) until 2009, now independent Ecoregion

1995 Nairobi AHI: African Highlands Member countries: Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Madagascar, Initiative, East Africa Ethiopia; hosted by the International Centre for Research in Ecoregional Program Agroforestry (ICRAF); AHI has ceased to exist

2000 Bishkek UCA: University of Central Member Countries: Tajikistan, Kyrgyz Republic, Kazakhstan Asia (Aga Khan Development Network)

Conventions

1991 Salzburg Alpine Convention, entered Member countries: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, into force in 1995 Liechtenstein, Switzerland, and the European Union

Later: Slovenia 1993 and Monaco 1994

2001 Kiev Carpathian Convention, Member countries: Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, entered into force in 2006 Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Ukraine

Beginning in the 1990s: The 1992 United Nations Research Programme (WCRP), the global cooperation in science Conference on Environment and International Geosphere-Biosphere and policy Development (UNCED) in Rio de Programme (IGBP), the international Janeiro was not only a continuation program on biodiversity science of the 1972 UN Conference on the (DIVERSITAS), and the International The 1990s began with a high-level Human Environment in Stockholm, Human Dimensions Programme on scientific conference in Vienna in but—more importantly—also the Global Environmental Change November 1991, organized by the beginning of a new way of thinking (IHDP)—started out with no special International Council of Scientific about global problems and global attention given to mountains. Unions (ICSU). The aim of this cooperation. A look at when and Indeed, it was only several years after conference on ‘‘An Agenda of where the world’s mountains the Rio conference that mountains Science for Environment and featured on the global scientific were given their due place in these Development Into the 21st Century’’ agenda (Table 2) indicates that research programs. was to prepare the necessary UNESCO and UNU understood the In the years following Rio, the scientific knowledge for the significance of mountains and their world’s mountains gained a new upcoming ‘‘Earth Summit’’ in Rio. resources long before the Rio significance based on Chapter 13 in Mountains found only a marginal conference. The World Glacier Agenda 21, entitled ‘‘Managing mention, in recommendation 40: Monitoring Service (WGMS) was also Fragile Ecosystems: Sustainable ‘‘Attention should be paid to founded years before the Rio Mountain Development’’ (United integrated regional studies of conference and independently of it, Nations 1992), but also owing to the vulnerability in fragile ecosystems in cooperation with the World strong mountain intervention 5 years (e.g. in mountains) or where Climate Research Programme later at the 1997 UN Special Session environmental degradation threatens (WCRP). By contrast, the four major of the General Assembly ‘‘to Review human well-being and capacity to global programs on the and Appraise the Implementation of respond’’ (ICSU 1992: 10). environment—the World Climate Agenda 21,’’ backed up by the

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TABLE 2 The world’s mountains on the global scientific agenda.

Year Place Program Comments, key references

1991 Vienna ICSU (International Council An Agenda of Science for Environment and Development into of Scientific Unions): the 21st Century (ICSU 1992) Conference in preparation of Rio 1992

Mountain contributions to global programs

1971 Paris MAB: UNESCO Man and the Project 6: Impact of Human Activities on Mountain Biosphere program Ecosystems (UNESCO 1973)

Concept of Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO 1974)

1978 Tokyo UNU: United Nations Project on Highland–Lowland Interactive Systems University

1980 Geneva WCRP: World Climate World Meteorological Organization (WMO) , ICSU, Research Programme Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO

1986 Stockholm IGBP: International Global Change and Mountain Regions: The Mountain Geosphere-Biosphere Research Initiative (Becker and Bugmann 2001) Programme

1991 Paris DIVERSITAS: International UNESCO and International Union of Biological Sciences Programme on Biodiversity (IUBS) Science

1996 Bonn IHDP: International Human Global Change and Mountain Regions: The Mountain Dimensions Programme on Research Initiative (Becker and Bugmann 2001) Global Environmental Change

2001 Paris ESSP: Earth System Science DIVERSITAS, IGBP, IHDP, WCRP Partnership

Specific global programs on mountains

1974 Paris MAB: Mountain Biosphere More than half of the 580 designated biosphere reserves Reserves are in mountains

1986 Zurich WGMS: World Glacier UNEP, UNESCO, ICSU, WCRP Monitoring Service

2000 Vienna GLORIA: Global Observation Today more than 91 target regions on all continents Research Initiative in Alpine (Grabherr et al 2010; updated according to GLORIA website) Environments

2000 Basel GMBA: Global Mountain Cross-cutting network of DIVERSITAS; Mountain Biodiversity: Biodiversity Assessment A Global Assessment (Ko¨rner and Spehn 2002)

2001 Bern MRI: Mountain Research Global Change and Mountain Regions: An Overview of Initiative Current Knowledge (Huber et al 2005) publication of the science-oriented Year of Mountains (FAO 2000). From had begun in the context of Rio and volume Mountains of the World: A Global 1998 to 2002, policy-oriented Agenda 21 (Mountain Agenda 1992, Priority (Messerli and Ives 1997) and brochures were published each year 1997). The so called ‘‘Bishkek the policy-oriented brochure for the annual meetings of the United Mountain Summit,’’ the final Mountains of the World: Challenges for the Nations Commission on Sustainable conference of the International Year 21st Century (Mountain Agenda 1997). Development (UNCSD) (Mountain of Mountains in 2002, was an Astonishingly, only 1 year later, in Agenda 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002), impressive testimony to a strong 1998, the UN General Assembly well adapted to the Commission’s support for the world’s mountains— proclaimed 2002 as the International agenda and continuing the series that very often even based on specific

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TABLE 3 The world’s mountains on the global political agenda.

Year Place Event Comments, key references

1992 Rio de Janeiro United Nations Conference on Agenda 21, Chapter 13, Managing Fragile Environment and Development Ecosystems: Sustainable Mountain Development (UNCED) (United Nations 1992)

The State of the World’s Mountains (Stone 1992)

United Nations Framework Important role of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Convention on Climate Change Change (IPCC) founded in 1988 (UNFCCC)

United Nations Convention on Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Biological Diversity (UNCBD) Ecosystem Services (IPBES) established in 2011

1995 Lima Founding of the Mountain Forum Several host institutions; currently hosted by (MF) CONDESAN

1997 New York United Nations Special Session of Mountains of the World: A Global Priority (Messerli the General Assembly to Review and Ives 1997) and Appraise the Implementation of Agenda 21

1998 New York United Nations General Assembly Inauguration of IYM on 11 December 2001; 11 53rd Session, Resolution 53/24 on December officially designated International the International Year of Mountains Mountain Day from 2003 onwards (IYM) 2002

2000 New York Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Volume 1, Chapter 24, ‘‘Mountain Systems’’ (Ko¨rner and Ohsawa 2005)

2002 Rome Watershed Management and Conferences in all continents for policy and science Sustainable Mountain Development Global conference on ‘‘Water Resources for the Future’’ in 2003 (FAO 2006)

2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable United Nations Rio+10 conference; founding of the Development (WSSD) Mountain Partnership

2002 Bishkek Bishkek Global Mountain Summit Rio+10 Bishkek Conference (Royal Swedish Academy (BGMS) of Sciences 2002; Price et al 2004)

2002 New York International Year of Mountains Engagement of mountain science and policy for and in these 4 UN International Years 2003 International Year of Freshwater

2010 International Year of Biodiversity

2011 International Year of Forests

1998 to New York 8 Mountain resolutions of the UN ‘‘Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Sustainable 2010 General Assembly Mountain Development’’ (Agenda 21, Chapter 13) mountain projects—from FAO, Alpine Environments (GLORIA), the connection between the two. Several UNESCO, UNEP, the United Nations Global Mountain Biodiversity global political initiatives depended Development Programme (UNDP), Assessment (GMBA), and the on science for their success. For UNICEF, the World Bank, and many Mountain Research Initiative (MRI)— example, ‘‘the Millennium Ecosystem other international and national were launched at the turn of the Assessment was called for by UN governmental and nongovernmental millennium in recognition of this Secretary-General Kofi Annan in institutions and organizations. new significance of the world’s 2000 in his report to the UN General The younger of the global mountains. A comparison of the Assembly’’ (Watson 2005: xiii), leading programs specifically devoted to appearance of mountains on the to the commissioning of a specific mountains (Table 2)—the Global scientific (Table 2) and the political assessment of mountain ecosystems Observation Research Initiative in (Table 3) agendas reveals a strong (Ko¨ rner and Ohsawa 2005). FAO’s

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FIGURE 1 Positioning sustainable mountain development (1992–2012) within a conceptual framework for discussing management of fragile ecosystems.

program on Watershed Management Rio conference and Agenda 21. A international years, and conventions, and Sustainable Mountain decade after Rio, however, the two all more or less related to the world’s Development was a similar case; it was UN conventions on climate change mountains. In this connection it must launched in the International Year of and on biodiversity became much be acknowledged that the Swiss Mountains 2002 to assess existing more important to the advancement Agency for Development and knowledge and future trends in of mountain issues than the original Cooperation (SDC), and partly also the watershed management under the text of the mountain chapter in Swiss National Science Foundation headline of ‘‘Preparing for the next Agenda 21, because of the growing (SNSF), advised and supported all generation of watershed management significance of ‘‘climate change’’ for mountain interventions and initiatives programmes and projects: Water mountain water resources and of shown in Tables 2 and 3, from the resources for the future,’’ and ‘‘biodiversity’’ and ‘‘ecosystem foundation of ICIMOD in 1983 to that involved political authorities and services’’ for both mountain and of the African and Andean mountain competent scientific institutions in all lowland populations (see also associations in 1986 and 1991, to the continents (FAO 2006). Figure 1). international conferences in Geneva The list of political mountain Table 3 showcases an impressive in 1991, Rio in 1992, New York in 1997, initiatives in Table 3 begins with the series of UN conferences, resolutions, and Johannesburg and Bishkek in

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2002, the International Year of in Perth, Scotland, the Centre for conceptual framework for discussing Mountains 2002, but also the founda- Development and Environment of the management of fragile ecosystems; it tion of the Mountain Forum in 1995 University of Bern, Switzerland, and has been given the same title as the and the Mountain Partnership in 2002 Makerere University, Uganda; several mountain chapter in Agenda 21. The at the Johannesburg conference. As other sessions will be addressing three boxes in the upper part of the two thirds of Switzerland’s territory mountain issues as well. Overall, the figure show the traditional conceptual consist of mountains, mountains and conference is intended to explore new framework for research and mountain people have always played a partnerships and pathways towards development in mountain areas. They fundamental role in Swiss policy and global sustainability. Special attention are connected to the box representing science. Mountains have historically will also be paid to the inclusion of the highland–lowland interactions in the become an important source of iden- social sciences, as well as to regional lower part of the figure, which lists tity for the Swiss population. It is environmental change as a major issue several important strategic topics for understandable, therefore, that early requiring regional and decadal the upcoming London and Rio Swiss foreign aid to the developing prediction and advanced observation conferences and beyond. The three world went to mountain countries systems (ICSU 2010). boxes in the upper part represent such as Nepal, Peru, Rwanda, and The second major event scheduled natural (left) and human (right) others. This engagement led to a fasci- for 2012 is the United Nations driving forces, connected by nating policy of international scientific Conference on Sustainable mountain ecosystems (middle) as a dialogue, which determined the Development (UNCSD), also known as reflection of natural and human successful way to Rio 1992 and beyond. ‘‘Rio+20,’’ to be held—once again—in impacts. The components of these Rio de Janeiro, on 20–22 June 2012. It boxes represent the possible The year 2012 and will focus on two themes: ‘‘Green combinations of natural and human- its significance for the economy in the context of sustainable induced environmental changes world’s mountains development and poverty on local, national, and regional eradication’’ and ‘‘Institutional scales, stimulating inter- and framework for sustainable transdisciplinary research, although The global UN conferences in development.’’ The second theme is a disciplinary studies will remain highly Stockholm in 1972, Rio in 1992, and continuation of the 2002 Rio+10 significant. All these natural and Johannesburg in 2002 had enormous conference in Johannesburg, also human components must be adapted impacts, not only on the known as the ‘‘World Summit on to the special situation of each development of scientific and ’’ (WSSD). mountain system. Two things, political ‘‘global change programs,’’ The first theme focuses on a new however, are of overriding interest: but also on a wide range of mountain development, which makes it harder well-functioning regional initiatives at the regional, national, to grasp. Among the numerous draft cooperation and a solid knowledge and local levels. This indicates that papers one finds explanations that base in times of global change. Every 2012, with two important global underline the following aspects: a mountain system needs one or several events, might again have a green economy and economic growth, knowledge centers to ensure fundamental effect on the entire clean technology, renewable energy, continuous exchange of data and decade and beyond. and conservation, but also water observations from the regional to the Thefirstofthetwomajoreventsis resources, food production, forests, global and from the global to the the ‘‘Planet under Pressure’’ scientific tourism, transport, building, and regional levels (Messerli 2006). conference, scheduled for 26–29 March others. The detailed conference Upscaling and downscaling of 2012 in London. Unlike the 1991 program is not yet available, but there scientific knowledge and Vienna conference, it is organized not will certainly be ample possibilities development experiences is most by ICSU alone, but jointly with the four for strategic interventions concerning important, and this requires a well- global research programs on global mountain research and development functioning communication system. change. The 4-day conference will (see the box on highland–lowland cover the following topics: ‘‘State of the interactions in Figure 1). planet,’’ ‘‘Options and opportunities,’’ An efficient regional and ‘‘Challenges to progress,’’ and ‘‘Ways global communication system ahead: A vision for 2050 and beyond.’’ Regional cooperation and is fundamental One session will be devoted specifically a solid knowledge base for tomountains:‘‘Mountainsasarenasfor sustainable development Over the last decade, the flood of adaptation to global change,’’ chaired mountain information has increased by representatives of UNESCO, the Figure 1 positions sustainable to a level that is no longer manageable. MRI, the Centre for Mountain Studies mountain development within a Mountain Forum, Mountain

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Partnership, regional mountain ecosystem services,’’ and ‘‘Recreation, preservation of mountain cultural centers, and specific mountain conservation, and protected areas.’’ as a treasure for future programs (Tables 2 and 3) are In line with recent recommendations generations. Today, many of these producing newsletters, newsflashes, by the IHDP, it would be fascinating landscapes are endangered—by press releases, reviews, if some results could be expressed as poverty, emigration, and overuse of announcements, and other monetary values (IHDP 2011). This natural resources in the developing communications with no coordination would have an enormous effect on world, and by urbanization and between them. One global voice and political authorities in particular and tourism with its winter and summer many regional and thematic voices are on mountain policy in general. activities in the developed world. The urgently needed. Messages of global For example, it would be top right box representing the significance from regional centers or interesting to calculate the value of human components raises not only specific mountain programs should be agricultural production by irrigation the many difficult questions related carefully selected and disseminated by in different lowland areas around the to long-term sustainable one single global voice, even if overlaps Himalaya. Combining these results development but also issues of cannotalwaysbeavoided.FAO,asthe with precipitation and discharge security in connection with poverty, lead agency for mountain issues within data, we could calculate the specific food shortages, conflicts, and even the United Nations that prepares mountain contribution compared to warfare. General Assembly mountain precipitation and discharge in the All these reflections come resolutions based on biennial reports lowlands. If mountain resources together in the bottom box to the Secretary-General, should also made it possible to enlarge irrigation representing highland–lowland coordinate global communication on areas and increase production in the interactions. The strategic focus mountain issues. At the same time, lowlands, what would the monetary issues listed here cannot be discussed however, every region, every scientific value of the additional production in detail in the context of this article, program, and every mountain be, and what would this mean for but it is important to emphasize once organization must have the freedom to food security? Another interesting more the significance of regional and create its own communication system. question is that of the additional transboundary cooperation at the The biennial FAO reports could value contributed by mountain areas interface of science and policy (see function as a summary of processes in terms of clean energy production also IHDP 2011), especially in a time and progress in science and policy and its significance for urbanization of climate change and potentially related to ecology and economy, and industrialization. Focusing on increasing frequency of extreme adaptation to climate change, and these questions also raises the issue of events. The scientific knowledge natural resources in the different compensation: careful management about climate change in the monsoon mountain regions, as a basis for of mountain ecosystems, clean water, belt in particular and in the tropical- rethinking the long-term strategy for sufficient forest cover, high subtropical zone in general is not yet research and sustainable development biodiversity, protection against satisfactory, and the existing in the world’s mountains. extreme events, and similar services knowledge gaps harbor many can no longer remain the sole uncertainties for sustainable Some strategic ideas for responsibility of poor mountain mountain development. Rio+20 and beyond populations. A dialogue between Understanding resilience is not easy, science and policy is the necessary and the definition of adaptation and In Figure 1, each box ends with one basis for a changing mountain policy mitigation measures is demanding or two keywords followed by question and for a new understanding of (Figure 1). Finally, taking into marks. These keywords indicate some mountain resources. Let us not account mountain resources such as strategic ideas for Rio+20 and forget the UN Population Office’s ‘‘water towers,’’ biodiversity treasures, beyond. For example, ‘‘Value of projection that the combined unique places for recreation and natural resources?’’ points to the populations of China and India will conservation, and many others, we need for more research on the value reach about 3 billion people by are confronted with the problem of of mountain resources, especially to 2050—the same number that compensation and well-being of the adjacent lowland populations and constituted the entire world mountain populations. Highland– their land use, and in the context of population in 1965. What does this lowland interactions cannot be a urbanization and industrialization imply with regard to the significance one-way process in favor of lowland processes. This could be of special of mountain resources for lowland populations (UNECE and Water interest for the three strategic issues populations in the second half of the Convention 2007), and lowland– of ‘‘Water for a growing population, 21st century? highland compensation needs to be for food production, and for The top middle box in Figure 1 considered as an important topic in renewable energy,’’ ‘‘Biodiversity and raises the question of long-term mountain policy. Without such a

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compensation mechanism, it will not Messerli B. 2006. Keynote address—Securing Mu¨ller-Hohenstein K, editor. 1974. International sustainable livelihoods in the Hindu Kush— Workshop on the Development of Mountain be possible to achieve sustainable Himalayas: Directions for future research, Environment: An Interdisciplinary Approach mountain development and the well- development and cooperation. In: Gyamtsho P, for a Future Strategy, 8–12 December 1974, being of mountain people. editor. Securing Sustainable Livelihoods in the Munich, Final Report. Munich, Germany: German Hindu Kush–Himalaya: Directions for Future Foundation for International Development. Research Development and Cooperation. Price MF, Jansky L, Iatsenia AA, editors. 2004. REFERENCES Proceedings of the ICIMOD 21st Anniversary Key Issues for Mountain Areas. Tokyo, Japan: Symposium, held 5–6 December 2004, in United Nations University Press. Kathmandu, Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: ICIMOD, Becker A, Bugmann H. 2001. 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