De Re Metallica, 4, 2005 pp. 19-28 ©Sociedad Espa–ola para la Defensa del Patrimonio Geol—gico y Minero ISSN: 1577-9033

HISTORIC MAPS USED IN NEW GEOLOGICAL AND ENGINEERING EVALUATION OF THE SANTA BçRBARA MINE, HUANCAVELICA DISTRICT, PERò

J.M. Wise1 and J. FŽraud2

1Department of Geological Sciences. University of Reno. Reno, Nevada, USA [email protected] 2Service Ressources MinŽrales. BRGM. B.P. 6009. 45060-Orleans cedex 2, France [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The famous Santa B‡rbara mine of the Huancavelica mercury district, central Perœ, is briefly described for geology and mining history. Examination of historic underground maps from the 18th century and new surface geological mapping demonstrates that the of the Santa B‡rbara mine was controlled by a major north-south oriented fault. The alteration assemblage accompanying the is described, and timing relations given to show the deposit formed at about 7 million years ago. The historic maps are compared to the major underground mine collapses, production, and interplay of mine administration with politics between Huancavelica, , and Madrid. In particular, features of a 1742 map and a French-drafted mine map from approximately the later part of the 18th century are discussed in terms of mine development. We also present a brief update of mining activities and production during the 20th century. Discussion of mine cultural features preserved today illustrate the Huancavelica district as being one of the worldÕs more important historic mining camps.

KEYWORDS: mercury, Huancavelica, Santa B‡rbara mine, 18th century maps, 20th century mining development.

RESUMEN

La famosa mina de Santa B‡rbara (Distrito del mercurio de Huancavelica, zona central de Perœ) se describe brevemente en este art’culo a travŽs de su geolog’a y de su historia minera. El examen de mapas hist—ricos del siglo XVIII y su comparaci—n con el nuevo mapa geol—gico del lugar, demuestra que el mineral de la mina de Santa B‡r- bara est‡ ligado a una falla de orientaci—n Norte-Sur. TambiŽn se describe la alteraci—n del encajante que acom- pa–a al mercurio. Por otra parte, se puede llegar a afirmar que el dep—sito se form— hace unos 7 millones de a–os. Asimismo, se comparan los mapas hist—ricos, considerando los derrumbes, producci—n, interacci—n y administraci—n de la mina subterr‡nea y su influencia en la pol’tica entre Huancavelica, Lima y Madrid. Se presenta tambiŽn una breve actualizaci—n de las actividades y producci—n de la mina durante el siglo XX.

PALABRAS CLAVES: mercurio, Huancavelica, mina de Santa B‡rbara, mapas de siglo XVIII, desarrollo de la mina en el siglo XX.

INTRODUCTION which lies 3,700 m above sea level. During its period, the mine was perhaps one of the most sinister examples The Huancavelica district contains the largest recorded of human exploitation and disastrous mining mercury deposit of the New World and is classified as catastrophes. Most historical accounts about the 4th largest deposit world-wide with a total Huancavelica have focused on the succession of power, production exceeding one and a half million flasks politics, and economics or production of the mining (52,000 tons) extracted during 450 years of activity. The institution (Whitaker, 1941; Lohmann Villena, 1949; old mines are located 245 km east-southeast of Lima in Fisher, 1977; PuchŽ Riart, 1994; Pati–o Paœl Ortiz, the Cordillera Occidental of the (Fig. 1), and 2001). Extracting information on the mine development south of the picturesque colonial city of Huancavelica, phases, mine technology (e.g., Molina Martinez, 1992),

De Re Metallica 4 mayo 2005 2» Žpoca 19 Fig. 1. Location map showing cultural features at the Santa Bárbara mine. Point A marks the approximate location of the original El Brocal portal to the mine that later was destroyed by the open pit. UTM coordinates are zone 11 of the 1956 Perú provisional grid.

mineralogy of the rich , surveying, and geology and in turn were intruded by a stock of dacite dated at remains an ongoing challenge. A short description of the 16 Ma and by post-mineral dacite dike dated at 3.3 ± 0.3 geology is given, followed by highlights of the mine Ma (McKee and Noble, 1982; McKee et al., 1986). development. We present descriptions and comparisons Mercury mineralization in the district was controlled by between four underground mine maps: dated from the Santa B‡rbara fault, including that the historical 1643, 1742, 1795, and a fourth late 18th century, but Santa B‡rbara mine. The examination of the 1795 mine undated, French map made between the 1742 and 1795. map by Don Pedro Subiela (copy in Lima, archives of Finally, additional activities in the district during the BROCAL) reveals that the mercury ore body (540 m long 19th and 20th centuries are summarized. by 100 m wide) lies parallel to and along the hangingwall of the fault (Fig. 2). The Santa B‡rbara fault, a steeply westward-dipping fault with GEOLOGY subhorizontal striations, is clearly exposed in the east high-wall of the Chayllatacana open pit. The Huancavelica mercury district is 10 km long The mercury ore occurs as replacement bodies in north-south, and is hosted by Mesozoic and Tertiary fault breccias (Fig. 3A) and makes fillings in openings sedimentary rocks (the later locally interstratified with along east-west and northeast striking fractures. Ore is Miocene basalt). The mercury deposits are within this composed mainly of cinnabar, and it is associated with a structurally complex section, forming replacement little native mercury, realgar, orpiment, arsenopyrite, bodies that preferentially occur in quartz sandstone of marcasite, galena, barite and silica, as well as the lower Cretaceous Goyllarisquizga Formation and in hydrocarbons (Umlauff, 1904; Yates et al., 1951; Noble overlying limestones of the Chulec Formation. and Vidal, 1990). In hand specimen, marcasite Mineralization was mainly controlled by north-south commonly forms rims about nodules of cinnabar. Within subvertical faults which truncate the Miocene section the open-pit iron sulfide is the most common mineral

20 De Re Metallica 4 mayo 2005 2» Žpoca Fig. 2. East-west geologic cross section looking toward the north; no vertical exaggeration. Units Jp = Jurassic Pucará Group, Kcha = Cretaceous Chayllatacana Formation, Kg = Cretaceous Goyllarisquizga Formation, the main host unit, and Kch = Cretaceous Chulec Formation. present, and may volumetrically be several times that colonists in 1564. In 1571, it was acquired by the Crown of all the cinnabar. Deposit scale alteration patterns of Spain which actively exploited it until 1821, date of have not been detailed due to removal of the main ore the independence of Perœ. Silver ores of Perœ, , body and poor access, but at present the best estimate Chile and Mexico were treated by amalgamation using would have an iron sulfide shell surrounding the mercury produced from Huancavelica. This was an cinnabar deposit. The Goyllarisquizga Formation is fairly especially important source of mercury for the periods rich in fossil plant fragments (Fig. 3B), including fossil when production stopped at the AlmadŽn mine because wood, which implies the hydrocarbon component of the of fire or a collapse. Along with AlmadŽn, Huancavelica alteration mineral assemblage was locally derived or was the principal support of the Spanish capacity for remobilized. Arsenic minerals are more common 4 km to silver production, and each of the two mines qualified the south at the mine workings of Yanamina. Several for many years as the "crown jewel." Huancavelica was accounts, including description by Alexander von of particular importance to reduce the cost of Humboldt, indicate that arsenic and iron sulfides were transporting mercury to the New World from AlmadŽn. greater in the lower levels of the Santa B‡rbara mine Although balancing the supply of mercury to the many (Hawley, 1868; Becker, 1888; Yates et al., 1951). At the camps was a constant issue, one in which surface, the main deposit generally has gold below 80 Huancavelica often figured prominently (Lang, 1968). ppb (Noble and Vidal, 1990). In addition to the exploited The viceroy of Perœ was responsible to insure smooth fractures, several zones of hydrothermal intrusive operation of the mine. However, the system was breccias, containing barite and some hydrocarbons, indurated with graft, which in part led to several major though not containing mercury, suggest that they are mining catastrophes and halting of production. The related to the mineralizing system. The anomalous gold- successive viceroys used two styles of mine bearing breccia of Balcompata, located 900 m to the administration. First, management of the mine was northwest, has adularia dated at 7.1 and 7.6 Ma (Wise entrusted to a local governor at Huancavelica, and et al., 2004). Coarse-grained barite along fractures is second, production was sub-contracted to a self- the most pervasive mineral in the district. It even managed guild of miners. In either case, before 1790 the locally lines joint surfaces in the 6.8 Ma Sacsamarca mine operated more by conscription than by slavery. In dacite dome located 1.5 km to the west of Santa contrast to AlmadŽn, a qualified expert never managed B‡rbara. Furthermore, the mineralization at the Santa B‡rbara mine, with perhaps the exception of Huancavelica appears to have both temporal and spatial governor Ger—nimo de Sola y Fuente (1736-1748). Most relation to the Tinllaclla copper mineralized high-level assigned governors did not remain in position for more diorite stocks (Meza et al., 2000), dated between 5 and than two to five years. The administrators realizing 7 Ma, which are located 6 km to the northwest, their incompetence could only focus on rapid production indicating a regional zonation of metals. These for immediate gains. In general, they did not consider relationships further suggest that the mercury deposits development of infrastructure or search for new of the Huancavelica district were a product of high-level reserves since only their successors would benefit from magmatism such as shallow magma chambers (<2 km it. Similarly, the guild of the miners, Gremio de Mineros, depth), stocks, dikes, and eruption of volcanic domes. mainly worked to decrease its debt and expenditure, and did not maintain the mine infrastructure (Lohmann Villena, 1949). MINE HISTORY One of the more important events in the mine development was the construction of the Socav—n de Before 1532 the mercury deposit already had limited BelŽn (the Bethlehem tunnel), providing a second major use by the Incas. It was rediscovered by the Spanish access point to the workings and improving ventilation.

De Re Metallica 4 mayo 2005 2» Žpoca 21 Fig. 3. Photographs from the Santa Bárbara mine area. A. Marcasite cemented brecciated quartz sandstone from the ore zone in the Chayllatacana open pit, adjacent to the decline that may be part of the Calle Real. B. Hand sample photograph of the Goyllarisquizga Formation sandstone, sample from east highwall of the pit, bearing abundant plant fragments (dark areas); sample is 5 cm long. C. Portal of the Belén tunnel. D. View northward into the Chayllatacana open pit, which has removed the upper-part of the historic underground mine. E. View of the Santa Bárbara church. F. Photograph of rotary ovens in the BROCAL plant. The facility still has power, and the watchman turned on the ovens to demonstrate that they remain functional.

The BelŽn tunnel was started in 1601, and it took 41 1643-1644 and shows that the Calle Real, the main years to complete at a cost of about one million pesos tunnel running through the mine, extended a similar (Fig. 3C). To put this expense into perspective, the length and depth as illustrated in a later map done in yearly income of the Huancavelica governor during this 1742. It also shows to the north of the BelŽn tunnel period was about 3,000 pesos (Lohmann Villena, 1949). collapsed ground that was called La Ruina- a feature not The 560-m long tunnel also provided another escape illustrated in the 1742 map, but then shown in a later route. Today the mine galleries are all collapsed, except French-drafted map. This map also illustrates the plans for the first 100 m of the Royal tunnel of Our Lady of of Vasconellos to execute a systematic excavation of ore BelŽn, which preserves a large stone pediment on which through rectangular stopes and pillars, a methodology is carved the royal coat of arms from Castille and Leon. that was not adopted by subsequent governors. In the map called Planta de la Mina Guancabalica y The technological advances at Huancavelica were de sus labores by Constantino de Vasconcellos, certainly overshadowed by the many major underground reproduced in Plate VIII of Lohmann Villena (1949), the collapses in the Santa B‡rbara mine, including the Santo BelŽn tunnel is shown along with the workings of the Domingo de Cochapata (located in the bottom of mine, Ojaldrado gallery. This map probably dates from about probably the Cochapata de Sola gallery, >100 miners

22 De Re Metallica 4 mayo 2005 2» Žpoca Fig. 4. Comparison between historic maps of the Santa Bárbara mine, see text for description. killed, Hawley, 1868), Capillita, Oyo Negro, 1639 presently stored in Madrid, housed by Minas de AlmadŽn Ojaldrado, 1640 Surtina and/or Concepcion area y Arrayanes S.A. Lohmann Villena (1949) gave a black collapse, 1681 San Jacinto affecting the Santa Juana and white reduced reproduction of the map, and it was and Pampacruz galleries, the Brocal Santa Rita, and reprinted in color at a small scale by Hernandez (1999). 1786 Marroqu’n (located on the Santa Rita workings, A map scale is shown in the lower left corner, but the Hawley, 1868). Many of these collapses have been units are not specifically stated (varas are used in other attributed to the removal of pillars containing high- figures reported in the map legend). If varas were used, grade ore that previous governors had wisely left as it makes the map distance between the main portal and support (Pearce, 1999). This was especially the case for the BelŽn tunnel about 120 percent greater than a later the 1786 Marroqu’n collapse, which killed more than 200 French-illustrated map (Fig. 4). Part of the increased miners. Major collapses directly resulted in the deaths length of the 1742 map as compared to the French map of nearly 500 miners. However, other failures in mine (described below) may be from simply measuring design or engineering may also have contributed to the inclined tunnels without calculating the correct disasters. Examination of historic maps, combined with horizontal distance in plan. The total length of the descriptions, is one method to reconstruct the location galleries represented in the 1742 map is about 230 m. In and effect of these major collapses that deserves addition, the workings appear to be spread out as if the further attention. artist wished to convey the names of places instead of preserving the shape of the galleries. If this is the case, 1742 SANTA BçRBARA MAP the scale is only approximate and map is more diagrammatic. The map legend is in Spanish, giving The 1742 map called ÒLa Real Mina de Azogue de some statistics on the number of workers and HuancavelicaÓ was drawn by Juan Estevan de Oliva y production for each gallery. Jofre during the mine administration of governor Don The galleries and stopes in the 1742 map are Ger—nimo de Sola y Fuente. This 45 by 60 cm map is distributed in a north-south direction, generally

De Re Metallica 4 mayo 2005 2» Žpoca 23 following the orientation of the host sandstone beds. parts of the mine and remaining pillars (some pillars The shape of the galleries suggest irregular ore zones, were also apparently mined); many of these walls are many of which may connect into branches of the Santa probably illustrated in the below discussed French mine Barbara fault. The map has no vertical control, map. It would be interesting to know if Ulloa had access elevations are only represented by the order of tunnels to the 1742 map, kept it as a working plan to show new (higher tunnels blocking out or breaking the lines of galleries and schedule new works. Such updates could lower tunnels and galleries). Various historic mine potentially point to the necessity of making a new map. descriptions indicate that the ore body plunges and becomes deeper towards the south (e.g., Lohmann THE 18TH CENTURY FRENCH SANTA BçRBARA MAP Villena, 1949). The 1742 map does not indicate the location of the A French-drafted ink and watercolor on paper, 1681 San Jacinto collapse. The BelŽn tunnel is shown measuring 35 by 94 cm, map called ÒPlan de la Mine de linking with the main underground workings. More GvancavalicaÓ is shown generalized in Figure 4. The importantly, the San Javier tunnel, completed in 1732 original map is located in Recueil 70, carte no 103 at the (Pearce, 1999), is marked as joining with Plaza de Service Historique de la Marine, Vincennes, near Paris. Rosario- neither of these features are represented in the The map was also reproduced in black and white and at French map. Also, the 1742 map indicates very little a much reduced scale by Lohmann Villena (1949, his development had occurred at that time to the south of Plate VII). The map illustrates southward advances in the BelŽn tunnel (Fig. 4). The gallery called Ojaldrado, the mine, and gives important details on the mine located somewhat beneath and south of the BelŽn support. The legend is in French with the text in large tunnel, may be the area that collapsed in 1639; the paragraphs along the borders of the map, describing the French map shows rubble in this area. The legend of the mine workings. The author and exact date of the map 1742 map contains the following (translated) passage remain unknown. However, the map clearly depicts a that tells of the mine reinforcement: large-scale collapse at the center of the mine that is simply labeled ÒLa Grande Ruine.Ó This collapse appears ÒThe main street was built again of wood in the to have destroyed the 1742 galleries between San Bruno way practiced in the AlmadŽn [mine] by direction to San Pablo de Sola, placing the age of the map as after of D. Miguel de Moya with his partner D. Juan 1742. The map shows extensive workings to the south of Mayoral in the government of Sor Dor Don the BelŽn tunnel, also indicating that it was from a later Geronimo de Sola and Fuente.Ó time. The mine was extended by more or less straight tunnels; two parallel drifts (labeled as veins) with During Sola y FuenteÕs term as governor the entire several cross cuts and intervening rectangular pillars. length of Calle Real was framed with wood at a cost of These workings may reflect Sola y FuenteÕs claim of 25,000 pesos (Hawley, 1868). Huancavelica lies well rediscovering the Veta Madre. The more linear pattern above the tree line and constantly presented problems may also be from reinitiated earlier plans by for supplying fuel to the mercury ovens. Mostly dried Vasconcellos, or represent mineralized breccia along grass called Ichu fired the furnaces. Wood used in the the Santa Barbara fault. The total length of the mine is mine was transported probably greater than 30-40 km. marked at about 400 m. This length is less than that A graph showing the amount of timber consumed by indicated on the 1795 map by Don Pedro Subiela. These year, perhaps including other mine development costs, observations date the French map between 1742 and may mirror the overall form of production through time. 1795, and are consistent with the museum curatorÕs However, this approach may highlight additional analysis of the map being made in the 18th century as expenses following collapses, driving of access tunnels, based on materials and style. Correlating the major exploration, and ventilation shafts. The very fact that collapse shown in map may provide the best way to the 1742 map was made probably reflects Sola y further determine the date. FuenteÕs longer than usual residency at Huancavelica The French map shows remarkable detail, (12 years) and thereby increased awareness for distinguishing stairs and ladders, declines, and using documentation and planning of the mine. shading to indicate ground supported by timber, From 1758 to 1763 Antonio de Ulloa was the only masonry walls, pillars or palisades, and possibly other governor besides Sola y Fuente who tried to unconsolidated back-fill from recently excavated seriously reform the Huancavelica operation. He gave galleries. Mottled shading marks the collapsed stopes. constructive orders, but intrigues of the Lima court soon The location of the 1681 San Jacinto collapse is marked had him reassigned to a post outside of Perœ (Navarro on the northern side of the mine, which was re-mined Abrinnes, 1997). Part of his contribution to the mine and stabilized (Hawley, 1868). In this region, the development was a program of masonry work to support location called Las Animas is recorded on both maps.

24 De Re Metallica 4 mayo 2005 2» Žpoca The two maps also have in common the gallery called the geotechnical parameter of stand-up time. Any San Ojaldrado. The BelŽn tunnel is shown at two underground excavation will remain open for only a different angles or trends. On the 1742 map the Calle de certain period of time, depending on the rock mass Salvatierra makes a second link between the BelŽn strength and the ground support methods employed. tunnel and older workings on the Brocal ore body. This Clearly the long duration of the Santa B‡rbara mine tunnel was mostly destroyed by the La Grande Ruine combined with the limited masonry and timber used for shown on the French map; three points in the legend ground support was not enough to mediate the stand-up make reference to preserved sections or parts of this time. Policy from Madrid or locally organized in the tunnel. This observation implies La Grande Ruine was a Miners Guild simply could not stop the inevitable roof major new collapse since the 1742 map. The French failures. It is also worth noting that the scale of the map has the curious omission of the San Javier portal; collapses are well beyond the simple process of likewise it does not label the Plaza de Rosario, and the raveling. The size of the collapses suggests the presence S. Juan, S. Christo, and la Lamina galleries. These may of some weakness, such as a low-angle fault or dipping have collapsed, or the respective entrances blocked by formation contact along which large portions failed. masonry. Some of the illustrated staircases suggest that Mine design in this scenario requires careful geologic the deepest part of the mine was below and south of the mapping, a practice that had yet to be developed. The BelŽn tunnel. By the middle to late part of the true tragedy of Santa B‡rbara is instead that miners and eighteenth century the general deplorable state of the government continued to exploit the workings even mine and ground support methods were recorded in the after the first major collapse in 1681. lower left corner of the map, part of which is translated After the last disastrous 1786 collapse there was a below (see Wise and FŽraud, 2005 for the original sharp reduction in production, effectively triggering the French text): 1790-1292 mine examination by the Baron Nordenflicht mission of German engineers (Fisher, 1977), which ÒAlthough the Gvancavalica mine causes huge provided recommendations on new furnaces and expenditures because of its consumption of wood restoration of the mine, however, the viceroy of Perœ support as well as the raise of masonry walls for ignored the information. During this period, a mine map supporting the ground, it was and it still is a dated 1795, made by Don Pedro Subiela, shows a source of great income. Since this single mine has distinct V-shape to the northern part of the galleries, yielded mercury long time to both kingdoms of and a total length of the deposit at 540 m. This feature Perœ and Mexico, and since it proved incredibly is not illustrated in the French map. Furthermore, the rich, it was always kept in production. It is nearly 1795 map indicates additional mining to the south of the incredible to see that this mountain which has BelŽn tunnel, greatly expanding the ore body. Mercury nearly a 4 (?) leagues extent is supported only by production following the 1786 collapse was from newly the beams, timber, and palisades; and itÕs true discovered underground ore bodies 2 km to the north of that when a violent earthquake occurs, some parts Huancavelica, at a place called Sillacasa (Fig. 5). These of the mine collapses without missing to kill lots of mines were recently relocated in the year 2000 by the Indians, because only Indians work there; that first author during geologic mapping of the district, and nonetheless rarely occurs. This mine has all the shown to lie along the Santa B‡rbara fault. officers necessary, and even more than necessary Production after the 1821 Independence of Perœ was so much as it would be important to revise it for sporadic, despite the few short periods of recovery. This the service of the king. The mine is nonetheless was probably largely due to unstable politics, and two ruled by a superintendent who owns alone the major invasions by Chile in 1838-39 and in 1879-83. leadership and management, who often is an Production between 1836 until 1900 was well below ignoramus or a rascal, which the Council of Indies 1000 flasks per year (Fig. 5). In 1862 Antonio Raimondi, should seriously consider when assigning such an a prominent geographer of Perœ, visited the mine and important office who must be entrusted to a man explored part of the main access portal (Raimondi, of great economy, and faith, because there is no 1876). However, all the workings were abandoned and other charge in the whole kingdom where it is air quality in the mine was very poor. most possible to rob the king. The Viceroy of Perœ annually delivers the money needed for the works.Ó 20TH CENTURY MINE ACTIVITY

Apart from management issues being attributed to From 1917 to 1946, an industrialist, Eulogio the root source of massive mine failures, a fundamental Fernandini, resumed underground work at Santa aspect of underground engineering was compromised, B‡rbara. In 1917 the BelŽn tunnel was reopened, once

De Re Metallica 4 mayo 2005 2» Žpoca 25 Fig. 5. Production chart modified after Yates et al. (1951).

again exposing the underground workings, but unstable B‡rbara, then access the ore body through an incline ground prevented production. About 60 tons, carrying (Gastelumendi, 1938). About 50 tons of ore was mercury between 1.5 to 2 percent, were mined. His extracted and processed, but the renovation attempt main project was to drive the 1,180 m long Fernandini was soon abandoned due to very poor ground conditions. tunnel (Fig. 6), constructed between 1918 and 1926, Gastelumendi illustrated the planned new access beneath the historic underground workings of Santa tunnels and design of proposed open pit using the 1795 map as a guide to the shape of the underground ore body. His map combined with GPS survey of the relocated mine portals suggest that the earlier maps only give about 30% of the mercury mineralization. There may be some scale problems in both of these works, but at least matching the tunnel portals with the distances reported by A.G. Gastelumendi gave consistent results, and the footprint of the underground mineralization extends about the same distance as the spotty occurrences from shallow surface mines (Fig. 6). Perhaps several of the 18th century maps underestimated the extent of the mine by not including areas that were previously mined and then collapsed. The larger size of the underground ore body was also directly confirmed in GastelumendiÕs (1938) report that described the distance along the tunnels where Colonial disturbed ground and masonry was encountered. Several satellite ore bodies were mined during this period, including one located 2.2 km to the northeast of the Santa B‡rbara mine called ÒQuebrada de los EspinosÓ where a small retort was built. However, most of the district was abandoned by 1950 at the time of the detailed geological investigation of Robert Yates, Dean Kent and Jaime Fernandez Concha. The most important work was from 1968 (?) to 1975 when BROCAL mined the district from the Chayllatacana open pit (Fig3D). This open pit, centered on the collapsed ground, consumed the original portal of El Brocal to the Santa B‡rbara mine. The pit floor lies at 4,340-m elevation, which is about 100 m above the level of the BelŽn tunnel. In the pit floor is a south-directed steep decline that may be part of the original tunnel called the Calle Real. Fig. 6. Plan view of the Santa Bárbara mine showing major ore bodies and tunnels. GPS Alteration in the pit generally follows the north-south survey of mine portals, description of underground tunnels by Gastelumendi (1938), and direction of the vertical dipping sandstone beds, and the 1795 map of underground workings by Don Pedro Subiela were combined to locate near the pit floor reaches a width of about 60 m. Ore the extent of underground mercury mineralization. Underground mineralization lies in the grades were between 2 to 3 percent, however, the mine hangingwall to the Santa Bárbara fault, and is footwall to the Botija fault.

26 De Re Metallica 4 mayo 2005 2» Žpoca was forced to close due to the drastic drop in the price access to the 1742 map and comments; and to the of mercury during the early 1970s. The highwalls of the Service Historique de la Marine in Paris and in particular pit show no evidence of disturbance by Colonial to Contre-Amiral Alain Bellot and Dr. Alain Morgat. Dr. galleries. Either the galleries at the upper part of the Kendall Brown clarified aspects of the Nordenflicht mine were relatively small, or the majority of the mission and mapping by Don Pedro Subiela. Compa–’a de underground workings lie beneath the pit. Near the Minas Buenaventura S.A.A. supported the first authorÕs Santa B‡rbara pueblo, (Fig. 3E) a wonder of colonial geologic research of the district, and represents the style nearly 500 years old, complete with one of the continued interest of Alberto Benavides-Quintana in the oldest churches in Perœ, a foundry was built and history and geology of the region. 5 equipped with two horizontal revolving kilns (Fig. 3F). Ore was transported from the open pit to the processing REFERENCES plant by a tram with cable cars. Currently, the only Becker, G.F. 1888. Geology of the quicksilver deposits of the production of mercury is artisanal and illegal. There are Pacific Slope: with an atlas. United States Geological Survey several primitive retorts for the extraction of cinnabar, monograph, 486 pp. yielding about 40 kg of mercury per month. The Santa Fisher, J.R. 1977. Silver mines and silver miners in colonial B‡rbara fault, which has never been explored by Perœ, 1776-1824. 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The new approach of historical map S.A., Imprime: Gr‡ficas Arias Montano, S.A. 28 pp. comparison confirms this appraisal and yields new Lang, M.F. 1968. New SpainÕs mining depression and the supply of quicksilver from Peru 1600-1700. Hispanic American His- geological, engineering, and technical explanations for torical Review, 98, 633-641. the mine. All mines have intrinsic characteristics that Lohmann Villena, G. 1949. Las minas de Huancavelica en los strongly contribute to the economics and production, siglos XVI y XVII. Publicaciones de la Escuela de Estudios His- such as ore form, grade, recovery, and capital costs of pano-Americanos, Sevilla, 50, 465 pp. extraction. This also includes even more subtle McKee, E.H. and Noble, D.C. 1982. Miocene volcanism and deformation in the western Cordillera and high plateaus of expenses and economics for exploration, mine design, south-central Peru. Geological Society of America Bulletin, and timing of extraction. To date, the total cost of 93, 657-662. mining at Huancavelica has never been estimated. It McKee, E.H., Noble, D.C. and Vidal, C. 1986. Timing of volcanic certainly would not have been economic if workers and hydrothermal activity, Huancavelica mercury mining health and safety had to be provided for; so in many district, Peru. Economic Geology, 81, 489-492. Meza, J., Camero, D. and Ochoa, J. 2000. Importancia minera ways the mine was subsidized in human lives and by del lineamiento estructural Julcani-Tinyaclla region Huan- extension so was the entire Colonial Spanish silver cavelica-Perœ. Sociedad Geol—gica del Perœ, X Congreso production. While remaining far from an economic Peruano de Geolog’a, Lima, Julio 19-22, Volumen de Pre- understanding of the actual mine, examination of sentaciones, 237, 83. historic maps provides another facet in delimiting the Molina Martinez, M. 1992. Tecina y laboreo en Huancavelica. In, Justina Sarabia Viejo, M., Arenas Frutos, I. [et al.], Europa size of the ore body, mining methods employed, and e IberoamŽrica: cinco siglos de intercambios: actas / IX design failures leading to some of the worst mining Congreso Internacional de Historia de AmŽrica, Sevilla: Aso- disasters of the New World. Additional clues remain to ciaci—n de Historiadores Latinoamericanistas Europeos: Con- be pieced together to reconstruct a better sejer’a de Cultura y Medio Ambiente (Junta de Andaluc’a), understanding of the mine development, in particular, 2, 395-405. Navarro Abrinnes, M.C. 1997. La mina mercurio de Huancavel- details on the geology of this inaccessible world-class ica (Perœ): entre los intentos de reforma de Antonio de Ulloa ore deposit. y el continuismo de Carlos de Beranger (1758-1767). Scripta Nova, Revista Electronica de Geografia y Ceinces Sociales, Universidad de Barcelona, [ISSN 1138-9788], No. 4, 1 de ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS junio. Noble, D.C. and Vidal, C.E. 1990. Association of silver with mercury, aresenic, antimony, and carbonaceous material at Great thanks are indebted to Minas de AlmadŽn and the Huancavelica district, Peru. Economic Geology, 85, in particular to Dr. çngel Hern‡ndez who provided 1645-1650.

De Re Metallica 4 mayo 2005 2» Žpoca 27 Pati–o Paœl Ortiz, M. 2001. Huancavelica colonial: apuntes Umlauff, A.F. 1904. El cinabrio de Huancavelica. Cuerpo Inge- hist—ricos de la ciudad minera m‡s importante del virrey- nieros del Perœ, Boletin 7, 62 pp. nato peruano. Lima: Huancavelica, 2001 (Lima: Imprima Whitaker, A.P. 1941. The Huancavelica mercury mine; a contri- Asociados), 397 pp. bution to the history of the Bourbon renaissance in the Span- Pearce, A.J. 1999. Huancavelica 1700-1759: Administrative ish Empire. Greenwood Press, Westport, Conneticutt, 150 pp. reform of the mercury industry in early Bourbon Peru. His- Original edition was Harvard historical monograph No. 16. panic American Historical Review, 79, 669-702. Wise, J. and FŽraud, J. 2005/in press. Huancavelica. In FŽraud PuchŽ Riart, O. 1994. Influencia de la legislacion minera, del J. ed., Le mercure. GŽochronique, 93. laboreo, asi como del desarrollo tŽcnico y econ—mico, en el Wise, J.M., Noble, D.C., Vidal, C.E. and Gustafson, L.B. 2004. estado y producci—n de las minas de Huancavelica, durante Geology and structural control of the Huancavelica mercury sus primeros tiempos. In Manuel Castillo Martos ed., district, central Peru. Geological Society of America, Mineraria y metalurgia. Munoz Moya y Montraveta ed., abstracts with programs, Cordilleran section, 36, 22. Sevilla-Bogota, 437-482. Yates, R.G., Kent, D.F. and Fern‡ndez Concha, J. 1951. Geolo- Raimondi, A. 1876. El Perœ: Tomo II. Historia de la geografia gy of the Huancavelica quicksilver district, Peru. U.S. Geo- del Perœ. Lima, por J. Enrique del Campo, 475 pp. logical Survey Bulletin 975-A, 59 pp.

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