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An Army of the Willing: Fayette'nam, Soldier Dissent, And An Army of the Willing: Fayette’Nam, Soldier Dissent, and the Untold Story of the All‐ Volunteer Force by Scovill Wannamaker Currin Jr. Department of History Duke University Date: _______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Nancy MacLean, Supervisor ___________________________ Adriane Lentz‐Smith ___________________________ Dirk Bonker ___________________________ Sarah Deutsch Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2015 ABSTRACT An Army of the Willing: Fayette’Nam, Soldier Dissent, and the Untold Story of the All‐ Volunteer Force by Scovill Wannamaker Currin Jr. Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Nancy MacLean, Supervisor ___________________________ Adriane Lentz‐Smith ___________________________ Dirk Bonker ___________________________ Sarah Deutsch An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2015 Copyright by Scovill Wannamaker Currin Jr. 2015 Abstract Using Fort Bragg and Fayetteville, North Carolina, as a local case study, this dissertation examines the GI dissent movement during the Vietnam War and its profound impact on the ending of the draft and the establishment of the All‐Volunteer Force in 1973. I demonstrate that the US military consciously and methodically shifted from a conscripted force to the All‐Volunteer Force as a safeguard to ensure that dissent in the ranks never arose again as it had during the Vietnam War. This story speaks to profound questions regarding state power that are essential to making sense of our recent history. What becomes of government and military legitimacy when the soldier refuses to sanction or participate in the brutality of warfare? And perhaps more importantly, what happens to the foreign policy of a major power when soldiers no longer protest, and thereby hold in check, questionable military interventions? My dissertation strives to answer those questions by reintroducing the dissenting soldier into the narrative of the All‐Volunteer Force. iv Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... vi Introduction. “If My Soldiers Began to Think, Not One Would Remain in the Ranks”: G.I. Dissent and the All‐Volunteer Force ................................................................................... 1 Chapter One. “Our Voice is Our Weapon”: The Emergence of GI Dissent, 1965‐1968 .... 33 Chapter Two. “A Volunteer Army can be a Better Army”: The Rise of the All‐Volunteer Force, 1968‐1969 .......................................................................................................................... 88 Chapter Three. “Caution! Reading this Paper May be Hazardous to Your Discipline, Morale & Loyalty”: Fort Bragg and the Soldiers’ Antiwar Movement, 1969‐1971 .......... 142 Chapter Four. “They Can Have my Body for a Year, but They Canʹt Have my Mind”: The End of a War, the Draft, and G.I. Dissent, 1971‐1975 ................................................... 216 Conclusion. “This Prison Only Needs One Thing…Prisoners”: The Success of the All‐ Volunteer Force ......................................................................................................................... 306 References .................................................................................................................................. 312 Biography ................................................................................................................................... 322 v Acknowledgements First and foremost, I want to thank my wonderful family, for without them, I am nothing. I chose to write from home, usually when Tessa and Luke were at school or asleep, so I could spend as much time with them as possible. It was a great decision. Being married to a prospective PhD student is strenuous during the good days and a brutal nightmare on the bad, so to Lisa, thank you for holding our family together the past three years. I love you all more than you can imagine. Or as Luke would say, “I love you to Tatooine and back.” I have been blessed with the most generous, patient, and helpful dissertation committee on the planet. It was Nancy MacLean who recommended that I read Richard Moser’s The New Winter Soldiers, a history of the G.I. dissent during the Vietnam War. I was immediately captivated and instantly saw how these rebellious soldiers personified interests that had developed over my years of military service. Since that fateful day, she has done the heavy lifting of guiding me through this project with an energy and enthusiasm that is unparalleled. Adriane Lentz‐Smith, Dirk Bonker, and Sarah Deutsch took me under their wing and taught me to examine historical events and contingencies in new and profound ways. My first year essay proposals all read like current‐day public policy projects, certainly worthy of Pentagon study groups, but woefully vi inadequate for historical scholarship. If I’m worthy enough to call myself a historian, it is because of them. They say it takes a village, and I wouldn’t trade mine for anything. At the end of the day, writing a dissertation is a lonely experience, ultimately just you, your writing tool of choice, and your thoughts. But I’ve been so fortunate to have a group of colleagues to help beat back that isolation. To my original cohort, the 701 Warriors, I thank you for being patient with the new guy who seemed completely baffled by Foucault, Gramsci, and Agamben. To Alisha, Brad, Mandy, Tom, Jess, Josh, Anna, Claire, Anna, Janice, Stephanie, Joe, and Ajay, I’m honored to call you my “biological cohort.” I wish you all the best! They say that a traumatic, shared experience forges camaraderie like nothing else. To my dear friends Meggan, Will, Tiffany, Yuridia, and David, you wonderful band of brothers and sisters who slugged through prelim season with me, I will forever treasure your friendship. Those cohort dinners became the greatest way to beat back the frustration and despair of that long season. So what if folks passed us evil looks, or even asked to move tables; we had earned the right to be as loud as we wanted! You all are going to be huge successes, but as talented as you are professionally, you’re even better friends. And finally I would like to publicly thank the brave soldiers who stared prison, dishonorable discharges, threats of reduced pay and poor assignments, and brutal intimidation square in the face and said, “No, I won’t fight. I won’t support a war I don’t vii believe in, a war that was misguided from the very beginning.” All wars, no matter how foolishly they are entered or carelessly fought, produce heroes. Those that fought back against military and political leaders who seemed to think nothing of needlessly spilling their blood are also heroes of the Vietnam War, and they deserve to be recognized as such. Today’s military members could learn a great deal from them. viii Introduction. “If My Soldiers Began to Think, Not One Would Remain in the Ranks”: G.I. Dissent and the All- Volunteer Force1 In 1949, the US Secretary of Defense announced the creation of Armed Forces Day, a commemoration designed as an “educational program for civilians” in which the US military would demonstrate its state‐of‐the‐art equipment to the civilian population they were tasked to defend.2 On Armed Forces Day in 1970, with the war in Vietnam raging 8,000 miles away, the residents of Fayetteville, North Carolina, were in no mood to be educated. After marching through the downtown streets, 3,000 civilian antiwar protestors, including actress Jane Fonda, rallied in Fayetteville’s Rowan Park. By 1970, large protests against the war in Vietnam were not uncommon, but the rally in Fayetteville was unique. Approximately fifty Fort Bragg soldiers, intent on ending a war they no longer believed in, planned and led this rally. The servicemen, who in the spring of 1969 had formed their own antiwar organization, G.I.s United Against the War in Vietnam, used their underground newspaper to encourage their fellow soldiers to participate in the rally: “While the brass shows off its weapons, medals, and misadventures, you can act as America’s conscience…the closed mouth, closed mind 1 Quote by Frederick the Great, Attributed in J.A. Houlding, Fit For Service: The Training of the British Army, 1715‐1795 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981). Underground GI newspapers during the Vietnam era prominently featured this quote from the Prussian King. 2 For a history of Armed Forces Day, see the Department of Defense website, http://www.defense.gov/afd/history.aspx. The quote “educational program for civilians” is from this website. 1 image of GI Joe must be shattered.”3 The rebellious soldiers were successful. Renaming the celebration “Armed Farces Day,” 1,000 active duty soldiers joined the antiwar protestors in the streets of Fayetteville, a striking number considering that Fort Bragg leadership had restricted most soldiers to their barracks during the rally. Private John Vail called for a GI strike while Jane Fonda urged soldiers to stay in the army and resist
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