The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations Kristian Kristiansen and Thomas B

Cambridge University Press 0521604664 - The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations Kristian Kristiansen and Thomas B. Larsson Index More information

Index

Note: Page numbers for figures appear in italics.

abstraction, in oral traditions and rock Amenhotep III, 72, 73, 80 art, 269 Amenophis II, 72 Abydos temple, 96 Amenophis III, see Amenhotep III acculturation, 25, 26--7, 30, 363 Amenophis IV, see Akhenaton acrobats/acrobatics, 230, 229--31, 351 Amun, 70 affines, 45, 46 Anatolia agency Alaça Hüyük site, 75, 78, 308, 348 socio-seismographic curve of, 370 Demircihuyuk site, 174 theory of, 370--72 Hasanoglan site, 308 agro-pastoral economies, 109 Hattusha site, 79, 200 Akhenaton, 72--3, 74 Horoztepe site, 77, 308 Akkad dynasties, 63 Miletus site, 101 Akkadian languages, 78 rulers, 75--7, 85 Akurgal, E., 315 trade networks, 77, 91--3, 181--5 Alaça Hüyük site, Anatolia, 75, 78, 308, use of metal, 77, 109 348 see also Boghazköy rock art; Hittites Alcinos, 227 ancestors, 45, 54, 56, 210 Aldred, C., 73 Anderlingen burial, 191, 206 Alexander, R. L., 96, 337 Andrén, A., 21--2, 269 Alfred, 238 Andronovo Culture, 171n.5, 176, 173--9 alliances Aner, E., 186 confirmed through marriage, 37, 205, animals, 45, 309, 348 232, 234, 240 as burial sacrifices, 176, 177, 245 Egyptian, 68, 72, 74 Mistress of Animals, 358, 344 guest friendships, 28, 238--40 role in religion, 320--4 power and, 37, 74, 80 used for sun journey transport, 309 travel and, 204--9 see also specific animals Almgren, O., 251 Anitta, 78 Die älteren Kulturperioden im Orient und in ankh, 73 Europa (Montelius), 2 Ankhesenpaaten, 81 Amarna letters, 67, 73 Apophis, 70 amber appearance, 227--31, 349--50; see also in hoards, 135, 158 costumes; hairstyles with Linear B inscriptions, 127, 235 Arafat, K., 7 necklaces, 234 archaeological record sun-discs, 302n.14 confirmation of ethnohistorical as a trade item, 122, 125, 127, 186 evidence, 22, 259, 329 value of, 139, 236 contexts and categories, 34, 33--8

425

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521604664 - The Rise of Bronze Age Society: Travels, Transmissions and Transformations Kristian Kristiansen and Thomas B. Larsson Index More information

426 Index

archaeological record (cont.) distribution, 209, 288--91 correspondence with written texts, in double burials, 266 139 with hats, 195, 274 trade goods and, 34, 93 between horns, 330 archaeology Nordic, 194, 200, 266 disciplinary boundaries, 21 production, 122 study of religion and, 251--3 with ships, 202 architecture with spiral decorations, 160, 194, 272 chieftain halls, 226, 277, 279, 277--80 symbolism of, 85, 280, 330, 341 columns, 163 Unetice hoard, 115 cult buildings, 338 axes, war, 218, 281 fortiﬁcations, 133, 226, 235 axes mundi, 357 funerary, see burial practices houses, 7, 29, 33 Babylon, 65--7 Minoan/Mycenaean imitations, 162 Backa, Brastad rock art, 286 similarities between cultures, 177 Bagterp lance, 217n.13 tell settlements, 162 Balkakra,˚ Sweden, throne, 203, 294 Arˆete, 57 Balkan-Carpathian region, metallurgy, Argonauts of the Western Pacific 109 (Malinowski), 268 Baltic Sea, 204 Arkaim site, 171, 174, 175; see also Barca site, Slovakia, 129, 162 Sintashta culture bards, 55, 59 Armorican culture, 125 Barret, J., 5, 11 armour, 220, 223 barrows arrowheads, distribution patterns, 216 construction, 241, 242 Art and Agency (Gell), 370 Gotland, 244 Art and the Early Greek State (Shanks), 247 grave goods, 213 artefacts, chronology, 314 Haga,˚ 339 artisans Jutland, 226, 244 in the archaeological record, 57--60 placement, 226, 355 supernatural powers of, 51--4 Sagaholm, 196, 242, 243, 328, 329, 349 travel and, 68, 97, 133, 141, 234, 337, Tinghøj, 312 364 Upton Lowell, 121 Aryans, 171n.5, 180 Battle-Axe Culture, 109 Arzawa kingdom, 80 Bavaria, 235 Ashur, 90--3 beads, 18, 58, 138 Ashvinau, 297, 327 Beal, R., 328n.3 Aspeberget rock art, 327, 343 The Organization of the Hittite Military, assassinations, 80 222 Assyria, 67 Beckman, G., 271, 291 Aten, 72--3, 74 behaviour, social Aunjetitz Culture, 112, 120 control of women, 237 authority, institutionalisation of, 47, 49 dress codes, 225 autonomous framework, 5--6 vs. ritual, 349--51 axes, ritual, 95, 201, 275, 281, 306, 341 Bell Beaker Culture, 112, 140 in antithetical compositions, 190, 190 belt boxes, 341 dating, 218n.13 belt plates, 294, 300, 306

Index 427

Beowulf, 23 brotherhood of rulers, 83, 99, 101, 104 Bernal, M., 193 Bruatorp, Sweden, 279 Bertemes, F., 112 Brumfiel, E., 9 bestiality, 324--8 Brun, P., 7n.2, 42 Bietak, M., 98 Bryce, T., 81 bits, distribution of, 184 Buchholz, H.-G., 168 Bittel, K., 315 Bühl hoard, 204 Bjerre, Denmark, 135 bull jumpers, 71, 230 Black Sea trade networks, 125 bulls, 327 Blischke, J., 150 cult of, 330 Boand, 260 Divine Twins as, 263 boars horns, 281, 330 hunting, 247, 347, 348 weather god’s sacred animal, 285, tusks, 247 285--6 Boas school, 27 burial practices, 284 Boghazköy rock art, 288, 289 barrows, 213, 226, 241, 242, 244, 355 Bohuslän rock art, 335, 336n.5, 356 Haga,˚ 339 chariot motifs, 223, 223 Jutland, 226, 244 Fossum, 342, 343, 342--3, 345 Sagaholm, 196, 242, 328, 329, 349 horned divinities, 331 Tinghøj, 312 raised arm gesture, 76 Upton Lowell, 121 sun-disc pulled by horse, 326 burial pits, 248 Bona, I., 159 cemeteries, 127, 133n.3, 246, 284 Bornholm, Gyldensgard˚ burial, 157, 189 chamber tombs, 144 Borodino find, 128 chariot burials, 176 Boroffka, N., 181 funerary architecture, 87 boundaries, 38, 38--43, 361 grave circles, 87, 144, 154, 156 bows kurgans, 109 arrows and, 218, 345 mass graves, 248 composite, 71 oak coffins, 152, 242, 245 as symbols of divinity, 68 pit graves, 134 Braudel, F., 32 shaft graves, 75, 88, 122--3, 128, 145, breasts, naked, 148, 150, 151 180, 181--4 Bregninge, Denmark, 332 tholos graves, 235, 236, 241 Brittany, 121, 122 tumuli, 109, 171, 177, 235, 241, bronze 338 commoditisation of, 136 burial rituals composition of, 99, 109, 124, 136 animal sacrifices, 176, 177, 245 expansion of technology, 140--1 social hierarchy in, 177 see also specific artefacts weapons and, 231--6 Bronze Age widow burning, 237, 274 end of, 365--7 burials as protohistory, 1, 20--4 Anderlingen, 191 trends, 140--1 chief/priest, 274 see also European Bronze Age culture; Clytemnestra, Tomb of, 302n.14 Nordic Bronze Age culture dating of, 120 The Bronze Age (Childe), 2 Dendrá, 144, 313

428 Index

burials (cont.) Carpathian tell cultures double burials, 237, 265, 266, 276, adaptation of Minoan/Mycenaean 276n.9, 276 institutions, 158--67 Egtved woman, 225n.16, 298, 299 architecture, 162, 163 of foreign women, 234 collapse of, 127, 211, 236 Guldhøj, 303, 304 cosmology, 359 Gyldensgard,˚ 157, 189 female costumes, 145, 150--4 Hagia Triada, 220, 262, 264 iconography, 145, 164, 200 Helmsdorf, 133 metal production, 134 Hesselagergard˚ woman, 298, 300 model of, 362 Ilica cemetery, 284 polities, 361 Kivik, Scania, 49, 71, 86n.6, 157, 188, territories, 17--16th c. bc, 126 187--9, 267--70 trade networks, 129, 179--85 cist-stones, 187, 188, 190, 192, 267, use of early signs, 168 268, 269--70, 328 Castor, 297 context; interregional, 198--9; local, Catacomb Culture, 109, 172 194--8 cattle, 172 dating, 189--93, 197, 198n.10 Caucasian region, 109, 134 grave goods, 187, 189--90 Celtic sagas, 23 plan view, 338 cemeteries, 127, 133n.3, 246, 284, Leubingen, 122, 133, 134, 266 358 Maikop, 109 centralisation vs. fragmentation, 105, Montelius, 156 359 Neolithic, 29 centres Nizná Mysla, 134 cosmological centres, 357 Ølby woman, 298 peripheries and, 5, 6, 21, 43--7 single burials, 172n.6 interaction among, 48, 112, 119, Tape cemetery, 127 364--5 Terramare, 216n.12 ceremonies, drinking, 281, 282 Tobøl woman, 220, 298, 301 cestrums, 85 travelling metallurgist, 141 chariots Unetice Culture, 120 buried with horses, 176 Vapheio, 330 charioteers and, 223, 223 Vatya cemeteries, 133n.3 groups of, 176, 221 warriors, 151, 215, 218, 231--6, 240--6 military use of, 180--1, 184, 184, 191 Wessex Culture, 120 origins, 185 Zafer Papoura, 302n.14 symbols of, 154 Burkert, W., 95 twin gods/goddesses and, 262, 262, Burnaburiash, 73 281 wheels calves of legs, exaggerated, 312--13, 315, bronze, 220 342 two-wheeled, 71, 178 Cameron, M., 281 wooden, 63 campstools, 216, 281, 282, 304, 303--8 see also sun-disc; sun-chariot Cape Gelidonya shipwreck, 105 Chernykh, E. N., 110, 134 caps, see headgear Cherry, J., 19 Carneiro, R. L., 248 chiefdoms

Index 429

characteristics, 40, 47, 52, 55--7, 58 Early Dynastic periods (2900-- Fijian, 248 2350 bc), 62--3, 108 maritime, 198 Kassite period (1595--1155 bc), 67 Panamanian, 54 Old Babylonian period (2004-- see also elite culture 1595 bc), 63 chieftain halls, 226, 277, 279, 277--80 Uruk period (3500--3200 bc), 65 chieftains Minoan Crete costumes, 264n.6, 272, 277, 351 Second Palace period (1700--1450 from external sources, 40 bc), 83 grave goods, 56, 58, 59, 121, 271, 303, of religious institutions, 256 305 Circum-Pontic Metallurgical System, 173 as priests, 303--8 cist-stones reproduction of power, 17 Kivik burial, 187, 188, 190, 192, 267, as the sun, 291 268, 269--70, 328 swords, 130 dating, 189--93 travel and alliances, 204--9, 210, 234 Sagaholm barrow, 327, 328, 329, travel by, 39--40, 371 349 see also elites; warrior aristocracies Clarke, D., 25--6, 363n.1 Childe, C. G., The Bronze Age, 2 classes, social, 32 chisels, woodworking, diagnostic of classification, normative vs. functional, male chieftains, 58, 59 16 chronologies clientship, 227 of artefacts, 313, 314 climate change, 106 Bronze Age, 116--17 Cline, E. H., 99, 104 in central Europe, 159 Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea, 104 first phase (2300--1900 bc), 118--20 closure/openness, 38, 38 Reinecke, 112, 118 club of the great powers, 67, 105 second phase (1900--1600 bc), 120--7 Clytemnestra, Tomb of, 302n.14 third phase (1600/1500--1300 bc), coffins 127--30 oak, 152, 242, 245 Egypt wooden, 99 Amarna period, 72 columns, 163 First Intermediate period commoditisation of copper and bronze, (2180--2040 bc), 70 136 Hyksos period (1720--1550 bc), 70--1 commodity production, model of Middle Kingdom (2040--1730 bc), 70 economic and political New Kingdom (1550--1069 bc), 71--5 implications of, 113 nineteenth and twentieth competitive emulation, 19 dynasties, 73 compositions Old Kingdom (2686--2181 bc), 69 antithetical, 86, 190, 190, 348 of figurines, 313 three-dimensional, 191 Hungary Conchobor, 246 Kozsider period, 194 conquest migrations, 179, 180, 182, 185, Mesopotamia 365 Agade period (2340--2159 bc), 63 construction methods Akkad and Ur dynasties (2300-- drystone, 162 2000 bc), 63 mud bricks, 177

430 Index

contextualisation, 25, 26--7, 30 crafting skills, 41, 57--60 copper craftsmen, see artisans alloys, 110, 112, 124 crocus, 145 commoditisation of, 136 Crouwell, J. H., 178, 179n.7 Kargaly mines, 110, 173 crowns, see headgear mine production, 110 Crow-Omaha kinship system, 237, 240 sources, 99, 100, 124 Crumley, C., 9 as a trade item, 67, 78, 108, 125 Cuchulainn, 231, 246 in Ulu Burun shipwreck, 101, 102n.8 cult buildings, 338 Corded Ware Culture, 109, 112, 140, cultural systems, model of interaction 265 between, 38 correspondence (interpretative method), culture-historical theoretical framework, 21--2, 152--3, 154, 157 4, 24, 369--72 correspondence (letters) cuneiform signs, 73 Amarna letters, 67, 73 cupmarks, 168, 344, 346 between queens, 63 as female symbols, 328, 342 between rulers, 73, 95, 96 on libation stones, 162, 165, 242, cosmological categories 242n.22 gods/goddesses, 252--3 vs. figurative images, 355 institutions, 252--3 cups, 156, 157, 304 myths, 252--3, 254 gold, 330 rituals, 242, 252--3 ritual, 89, 154--8, 303 cosmological nature of power, 46--7, 48, see also ceremonies, drinking 54, 55--7, 367 currency, 136 cosmological order Cycladic lance, 119 culture and, 357--8 Cyprus, Enkomi figurines, 272, 332, nature and, 355--6 333 cosmological origins, 40, 45--7, 316--19, 360 daggers, 78, 122, 130, 145, 218, 305 cosmological space, 209 Dark Ages, 105, 181 cosmologies dating Bronze Age, 259--63, 296, 306, 341, of burials, 120 354, 355 C14 dates, 17n.7, 116--17 centred, 358--9 dendrochronological dates, 116--17 decentred, 358--9 Kivik burial, 189--93, 197, 198n.10 Egyptian, 321--4 David, W., 181 modern perception of, 320--1 Davidson, E., 263 premodern perception of, 320--1 death, 341 costumes Death, Women and the Sun (Goodison), definition, 227 302n.14 dress codes, 225 deforestation, 172n.6 female, 145, 227, 239, 299, 351 Delphic Apollo, 44 figurines with short loincloths, 274, Demeter, 260 312, 312--13, 314 Demircihuyuk site, Anatolia, 174, 177 male, 227--31 democracy, 366 chieftains, 264n.6, 272, 277, 351 Dendrá burials, 144, 313 ritual dress, 274--7 dendrochronological dates, 116--17

Index 431

Denmark dualism, 273--80 Bjerre, 135 Dumezil, G., 364n.2 Bregninge, 332 Dumuzi, 65 Djursland hoard, 207 Duplje, Serbia, figurines, 150, 307 Faardal figurines, 261, 310, 323 Grevensvænge figurines, 274, 332, Eanatum, 63 333 Earle, T., 60n.1 metal imports, 135, 136 earrings, 136, 147, 151, 152 Rørby east Mediterranean trade networks, 90, paired scimitars, 266 102, 96--105, 123, 128 sword, 207, 208, 290n.11 economies Tinghøj barrow, 312 agro-pastoral, 109 Trundholm sun-disc/chariot, pastoral, 172, 172n.6 197, 295n.12, 295, 296, 294--6, Edens, C. M., 6 306 egalitarianism, 366 Viksø horned helmets, 332, 333 Egtved woman’s burial, 225n.16, 298, see also Jutland 299 Deutsche Orientgesellschaft, 91 Egypt dichotomies, 358, 359 alliances, 67, 72, 74, 98 Dietler, M., 7n.2 chronology Dietz, S., 118 Amarna period, 72 diffusion, 4, 13, 30, 25--30, 252 First Intermediate period diffusion patterns, before Bronze Age, (2180--2040 bc), 70 26 Hyksos period (1720--1550 bc), 70--1 Dioskouroi, 264, 297 Middle Kingdom (2040--1730 bc), 70 distance New Kingdom (1550--1069 bc), 71--5 esoteric knowledge and, 53--4 nineteenth and twentieth ideological meaning of, 39--43 dynasties, 73 distance-parity model, 7 Old Kingdom (2686--2181 bc), 69 Divine Twins, see Twins, Divine cosmology, 321--4 divinity hieroglyphs, 75, 76 Hittite hieroglyph for, 343 ka temple, Luxor, 75 symbols of leadership, 69--75, 85 bows, 68 tombs, Minoan figures on, 100 maces, 68 trade networks, 70 naked breasts, 148, 150, 151 Egypt’s Legacy (Rice), 75 scimitars, 68 Eliade, M., 44, 357 wheel-cross, 195, 298--302, 346 The Forge and the Crucible, 52 wings, 68, 293, 332; see also elite culture, 55, 129, 212, 225--7, 283 symbolism of headgear crafting skills’ role in, 57--60 see also leadership, theocratic domestic rituals, 158--67 Djursland, Denmark, 207 iconography, 126, 142--50, 199--204 Dohnsen, Germany, 156 power, control of, 323 Dövlek figurine, 315, 315 symbolic transmissions via material dress codes, 225 culture, 142, 167--70, 254, 255 Drews, R., 180, 181, 182, 224n.15 treatment of subordinates, 61n.2 Druids, 55 see also warrior aristocracies

432 Index

elites fertility as immortal, 57 goddesses, 342--4 mythological origins, 46 rituals, 145, 150 otherness of, 45, 170 figurative images vs. cupmarks, 355 see also chieftains figures, S-shaped, 192 El Tod silver treasure, 98 figurines emulation, see symbolic permutation bronze, 152, 311, 308--16 England, 134 chronology of, 313 Enkomi, Cyprus, figurines, 272, 332, clay, 148, 151, 152 333 Dövlek, 315, 315 Enright, M., Lady with a Mead Cup, Duplje, Serbia, 150, 307 225n.16 Enkomi, Cyprus, 272, 332, 333 Erzgebirge, Germany, 122 Faardal, Denmark, 261, 310, 323 esoteric knowledge, 17, 39, 43, 186 Grevensvænge, Denmark, 274, 332, distance and, 53--7 333 languages as, 54 Hattian, 308--16 written signs, 168, 170 Hittite, 310, 315, 308--16 ethnic groups, 106, 133n.3, 259; see also lack of in central and southeastern identity Europe, 313 ethnohistorical evidence, Nordic, 308--16 archaeologically verified, 22, 259, Scheren, Poland, 274, 314 329 with short loincloths, 274, 312, European Bronze Age culture, 108--16 312--13, 314 contact with Mediterranean cultures, Stockhult hoard, 274, 312 17--19, 118--27, 136, 138, 249--50 Ugarit, 315 Europe before History (Kristiansen), 2, 6 used in rituals, 150, 353 Evans, A., 83, 334 Fiji chiefdoms, 248 exchange, see trade fire, control of, 53 exchange categories Flowerful Maiden, 260 personal items, 34, 35, 136, 147, Fogtdarp, Sweden, double axes with 205 horns, 330 prestige goods, 35--7, 112, 121, 139, The Forge and the Crucible (Eliade), 52 208, 235 fortified settlements, 133, 166, 174 horizontal and vertical exchange Fossum rock art, 342, 343, 342--3, 345 models, 36 foster sons, exchange of, 236--40 trade goods, 35--8 Fox, R., 237 archaeological record and, 34, 93 fragmentation vs. centralisation, 105 Fränarp rock art, 191, 221 Faardal, Denmark, figurines, 261, 310, frescos 323 Hagia Triada, 281 Falkenstein, A., 65 Knossos, 281, 282, 305 families, royal, 88 Minoan, 71, 84, 98, 101 Fangel, Funen hoard, 314 Pylos, 282 farming, mobility and, 32 Tel Kabri, Israel, 98 feather crowns, 142, 142n.1, 143 Thera, 86, 103, 144, 145, 147, 150, 152 females, see women Freyr, 260 Fergus, 260 Friedman, J., 6

Index 433

‘Frühes Griechentum und nordisches White Cow goddess, 260 Bronzezeit’ (Sprockhofs), 252n.1 see also gods/goddesses Fyllingen, H., 248 gods animals as symbols of, 321--4 games, 229--31 Athum, 322 Gell, A., Art and Agency, 370 attributes of, 259 Gelling, P., 252n.2 as a cosmological category, 252--3 gender identities, 349--50, 362; see also Divine Twins, 22, 258--63, 264--7, 319 men; women attributes of, 318 genealogies, 254 birth myth, 329--30 Gening, V. F., 171, 174 as bulls, 263 Gening, V. V., 174 God of War, 288, 289 Gerloff, S., 119, 122, 271 Greek, 23 Germany hippomorphic, 329--30 Dohnsen, 156 horned, 331, 332, 330--4 Erzgebirge, 122 Kurunta, standing on a stag, 286, 287 Nebra bronze disc, 2 Prince with the Feather Crown, 142--4 gestures, ritual, 150, 151 ritual dress, 274--7 raised arms, 76, 343 storm-god, 274 phallus and, 340 sun-goddess and, 153, 297 gift exchanges, 67, 95, 104, 128 symbolism of, 190, 264n.6, 269--70 Gilgamesh epic, 43, 316 twins riding in a chariot, 262, 262, Gillis, C., 139 281 goats, 348, 348--9 weather-god, 283, 285, 285--6 goddesses young hunter/warrior, 260, 342--4 animals as symbols of, 321--4 see also gods/goddesses with corded skirts, 261 gods/goddesses as a cosmological category, 252--3 Bronze Age pantheon, 353--5 of fertility, 342--4 human separation from, 366 Flowerful Maiden, 260 Proto-Indo-European (PIE) pantheon, Fossum rock art, 342 258--9, 265, 364n.2 Greek, 23 realms, 259--63, 341, 358 hippomorphic, 329--30 shape shifting, 263, 264 Mistress of Animals, 344 gold smelling lilies, 87 Carpathian, 125 snake-goddess, 148, 340 crowns, 127, 209 sun-goddess, 264 cups, 330 of Arinna, 79, 80, 96, 283, 285, 293 diadems, 235 in chariot drawn by swans, 150, earrings, 136, 147 153, 306 exploration for new sources, 100 divine twins and, 153, 297 inlaid, 138, 310 names of, 150, 297 staff, 127 priestess of, 286, 344 as a trade item, 78, 122 ritual marriage with king, 293 Goodison, L., Death, Women and the Sun, symbols of 302n.14 twins riding in a chariot, 262, 262, Gordion graveyard, 284 281 Gotland, Sweden, barrows, 244

434 Index

grass turves, symbolic of eternal Hasanoglan site, Anatolia, 308 meadows, 242 Hasfalva, Hungary, throne, 200, 203 grave goods Hathor (mother goddess), 70 in barrows, 213 hats, see headgear beyond personal needs, 138 Hatshepsut, 72 of chieftains, 56, 58, 121, 271, 303, Hattians, 77, 283 305 figurines, 308--16 Kivik burial, 187, 189--90 see also Hittites of metal, 136 Hattusha site, Anatolia, 79, 200; see also Greece, 87--90 Boghazköy rock art gods/goddesses, 23 Hattusili, 79 mythology, 44, 95, 259 Hattusili III, 73, 291 see also Mycenae, Greece headgear Greek language, 83; see also Linear B female, 151, 239 Grevensvænge, Denmark, figurines, 274, symbolism of, 351 332, 333, 351 caps (ruler), 227, 265, 272, 351 griffins, as symbols of Priestess Queens, crowns: feather (divine), 142, 86 142n.1, 143; gold, 127, 209; guest friendships, 28, 238--40 horned (divine), 68, 101, 247, 323, Guldhøj, Jutland 332, 333 artefacts, 304 hats: axes with, 274; double, of gods burials, 303, 304 and chieftains, 264n.6; pointed Gurney, O. R., 286, 291, 293 (divine), 101, 190, 281, 291, Güterbock, H. G., 77 312--13, 314--16; storm-god with, Gyldensgard˚ burial, Bornholm, 157, 274; twins figurines with, 274 189 helmets: horned (divine), 68, 101, 247, 323, 332, 333 Haas, V., 286, 294 hearths, with spiral decorations, 164 Haga˚ barrow, 339 Hector, 240 Hägg, R., 88 Hedeager, L., 29 Hagia Triada Helena, 297 sarcophagus, 220, 262, 264, 281 helmets, see headgear hair styles, 153 Helms, M. female, 152, 351 on access to origins, 45--7 male, 228, 228 on esoteric knowledge, 17, 54 Hajdusámson´ hoard, 161, 214, 215, on imitation, 18 217n.13, 281 on skilled artisans and culture halberds, 115, 122 heroes, 2, 52--3, 58, 60, 126 Hall, J., 361 on space and distance, 39, 40, Hallstat D residences, 7 53 Hammurabi Helmsdorf burials, 133 Law Code Stele, 65, 66 Herodotus, 44 Handbuch der Vorgeschichte (Müller-Karpe), heroes, 210, 228, 254 3 separation from the gods, 366 Hankey, V., 118 Hesiod, 367 Hantili, annals of, 80 Hesselagergard˚ woman’s burial, 298, Harding, A., 18, 19 300

Index 435

heterarchy, 8, 9, 83 Hungarian, 147 relationship with hierarchy, 9 linked to the Netherworld, 356 Die Hethiter und ihr Reich, 75 ritual axes in, 115 Heyd, 112--14 as ritual depositions from battle, 224 hierarchy, 8, 279, 365, 366 Stockhult, 197, 273, 274, 312, 312--13 processes of hierarchisation, 41 Tagaborg,˚ 296n.12 relationship with heterarchy, 9 tools in, 58 hierogamy, 324--8 Tufalau, 152 hieroglyphs Hodder, I., 6, 16, 25--6, 29 Egyptian, 75, 76 Symbols in Action, 254, 361 Hittite, 168, 168, 343 Holloway, R. R., 168 Hieros Gamos, 344, 346, 350 Homer, 57--60, 104, 170, 229n.18, Himmelstalund rock art, 169, 170, 335, 256 347, 348, 347--8 Hymn No. 33, 264 history, disciplinary boundaries, 21 Iliad, 23, 170, 227, 240, 246--7 Hittites Odyssey, 23, 170, 227, 245 alliances, 66, 67, 74 horned crowns or helmets, see headgear chronology horned gods, 331, 332, 330--4 Imperial period (1430--1200 bc), 79, horned vipers, 261, 323, 323 80 horns Middle Kingdom (1500--1430 bc), anthropomorphic images with, 333 79 bull, 281, 330 Old Kingdom (1650--1500 bc), 79 on crowns or helmets, 68, 101, 247, deﬁnition, 283 323, 332, 333 fall of, 81--2 ox, 330, 330 ﬁgurines, 310, 315, 308--16 horns of consecration, 330 hieroglyphs, 168, 168, 343 Horoztepe site, Anatolia, 77, 308 iconography, 190, 190, 193, 200, 271, horses, 172, 197, 322 284 breeding of, 184 Inandik relief-vase, 282 buried with chariots, 176 languages, 77 with deer masks, 286 Law Code, 328 human--horse relationships, 325, 327, leadership, 271, 285 324--8 theocratic, 75--82 military horse and chariot package, military texts, 328n.3 180--1, 184 religion, 96, 253, 282--8 pulling sun-disc/chariot, 128--30, 170, sun cults, 288--94 264, 288, 297, 326 seals, 293 Trundholm, 197, 295n.12, 295, 296, see also Anatolia; Hattians 294--6, 306 hoards, 50, 273 Sagaholm rock art, 197 amber in, 135, 158 Tagaborg˚ hoard, 197 Bühl, 204 as trade items, 95, 128 deposited in bogs, 338 in written texts, 322n.1 Djursland, Denmark, 207 Hradisko Vesele site, Slovakia, 162 Fangel, Funen, 314 Hungary Hajdusámson,´ 161, 214, 215, 217n.13, Hasfalva throne, 200, 203 281 hoards, 147

436 Index

Hungary (cont.) inscriptions, 290n.11, 322n.1 Kozsider period, 194 institutionalisation, 8--10, 27--8, 30 swords, 207 of authority, 47, 49 Tape cemetery, 127 institutions hunting as a cosmological category, 252--3 boars, 247, 347 identified in the archaeological withbowandarrow,218, 345 record, 10--11 rituals, 321, 346--9 religious, 256, 259, 270 stags, 347, 346--7 transmission of, 13--15, 249--50, 364 Hurrians, 283 wanax institution, 88, 280--2 Hyksos dynasty, 99, 180 warrior aristocracies, 80, 277--80 interaction, 24, 25--30 Icelandic sagas, 23, 238 among centres and peripheries, 48, iconography 112, 119 definition, 186n.9 models of, 7, 38, 49, 51 elite culture, 126, 142--50 peer polities, 15, 19, 27--8, 48 on Kivik cist-stones, 187, 189--93 types of, 49--51 royalty, 190, 190, 193, 199--204, 271, interaction zones 284 Circum-Pontic, 200 S-shaped figures, 192 Mediterranean corridor, 211, 212 visual memory and, 353 western steppe corridor, 179--85, 211, see also spiral ornaments/ 212 ornamentation; symbols intercontextual archaeology, 4--5, 12, identity, 249, 259, 349, 360--4; see also 10--15, 16, 24, 25--30, 368 appearance; gender identities intermarriage, see alliances Ighiel hoard, 218n.13 interpretative archaeology, 12, 15, Iliad (Homer), 23, 170, 227, 240, 246--7 368--72 Ilica cemetery, 284 interpretative model of material imagery of mother and child, 75 culture, 30 imitation Ireland, 122 in material culture, 16--20, 155, 156, Irish sagas, 238, 246--7, 256, 326 162, 198--9, 235 iron of value systems, 187 dagger, 78 immobility, peasant societies and, sceptre, 78 32--3 throne, 78--9 imports, 14, 17--19, 135, 155, 156, Iron Age, 29, 106, 366--7 186 Ishtar, 291; see also Inanna Inandik relief-vase, 282 Isis, 70 Inanna, 65, 68, 69; see also Ishtar Ismarus, sacked by Odysseus, 247 Inanna’s Descent to the Netherworld, 44 Israel, Tel Kabri frescos, 98 individuals, as autonomous, 10n.4 Istria, 235 Indo-European languages, 180, 359 Monkodonja, 162, 166 Indo-European religion, 258--9 ivy, lilies and, 144, 147, 142--50 Indo-Iranian people, 171n.5, 180 Indus civilisation, 140 Jacobsen, T., 63, 65 Ingold, T., 321 Jockenhövel, A., 57 initiation rituals, 145 Jones-Bley, K., 174

Index 437

Jörlov rock art, 346 Prince of the Lilies, 143 Jutland seal, 330 barrows, 226, 244 knowledge, systems of learning, 55 double burial, 276 Kohl, P., 6, 7 Guldhøj burials, 303, 304, 304 Kossack, G., Symbolgut der Urnenfelderzeit, Hohøj tumulus burial, 243 252n.1 Tobøl woman’s burial, 220, 298, 301 Kristiansen, K., 5, 224, 367 Europe before History, 2, 6 Kadesh, battle of, 73, 81, 82 Krtenov axe, 218n.13 Kanesh, 78, 91--3 Krückennadeln, 136 Kantor, H., 105 Kuhrt, A., 64, 72, 79 Kargaly mines, 110, 173 Kültepe, 204 Kassites, 66, 67, 180 spearhead, 290n.11 ka temple, Luxor, 75 Kulturkreislehre, 27 Kaul, F., 200, 252n.2, 308, 353 Kurunta, 286 Keftiu, see Minoan Crete Kersten, K., 186 Labarna, 79 Khania seal, 85 labour, division of, 173 Kilian, K., 88, 280--2 Lady with a Mead Cup (Enright), 225n.16 Kilian-Dirlmeier, I., 102, 118, 154 Lagash (city-state), 63 kingship, 79--81, 84, 284 lances, 53, 119, 177, 181, 217n.13 lilies as symbols of, 86, 144 languages warrior kings, 88, 177 Akkadian, 78 see also leadership, theocratic; regalia, as esoteric knowledge, 54 royal Greek, 83 kinship systems of the Hittites, 77 Crow-Omaha, 237, 240 Indo-European, 180, 359 exchange of foster sons and, 236--40 international, 32 male solidarity and, 238 local, 32, 259 patrilineal societies, 237 Luwain, 291 Kivik, Scania Minoan, 13n.5 burial, 49, 71, 86n.6, 157, 188, 187--9, multi-lingual states, 106 267--70 in pre-state societies, 33 cist-stones, 187, 188, 190, 192, 267, Scandinavian, 32 268, 269--70, 328 see also writing systems context: interregional, 198--9; local, Larsson, T., Materiell kultur och religiösa 194--8 symboler, 13, 112, 200, 294 dating, 189--93, 197, 198n.10 Lawagetas, 280 grave goods, 187, 189--90 Law Code Stele of Hammurabi, 65, 66 origins, 189--93 leadership, theocratic, 62, 107, 365 plan view, 338 Egyptian, 69--75 as a religious centre of learning, Hittite, 75--82 199 legitimation of lineages, 99 Klejn, L., 257n.4 Mesopotamian, 62--8 knives, tanged, 177 Minoan Crete, 82, 83--7 Knossos, palace of, 83, 281 Mycenaean, 82, 87--90 frescos, 281, 282, 305 Old Assyrian period (2000--1800 bc), 90

438 Index

leadership, theocratic (cont.) ritual between king and sun-goddess, ritual/political leaders and war 293 leaders, 218, 225, 232, 255--6, 267, sacred, 65, 44--5 355 virilocal residence, 237, 237n.21 Scandinavian, 204, 333 Massleberg rock art, 347, 346--7 lead-isotope analyses of bronze, 99 material culture, 363n.1 Lesko, L. H., 69--70, 72 as identity, 360--1 Leubingen burials, 122, 133, 134, 266 relationship to oral/written culture, Lévi-Strauss, C., 321 257 libation stones, 162 materialisation, 30, 29--30 with cupmarks, 162, 165, 242, 242n.22 Materiell kultur och religiösa symboler lilies (Larsson), 13, 112, 200, 294 goddess smelling, 87 matrilineal succession to power, 72 ivy ﬂowers and, 144, 147, 142--50 mead, 155 as symbols of kingship, 86, 144 meaning, contextualised, 30, 29--30 Linear A, 83, 101, 168, 170, 208 Mederos Martin, A., 117 Linear B, 83, 168 Mediterranean corridor, 211, 212 inscriptions on amber, 127, 235 Mediterranean cultures names of gods, 259 city-states, 62, 105 Lipari Islands contact with Europe, 17--19, 118--27, pottery, 167, 169 136, 138, 249--50 script, 167 megara, dual, 280--2 Littauer, M. A., 178, 179n.7 Melz hoard, 217n.13 longue durée, 32 memory, social and religious, 254 lurs, 195, 196 men Luwain language, 291 costumes, 227--31 Luxor, ka temple, 75 chieftains, 264n.6, 272, 277, 351 kinship systems and male solidarity, maces, 68 238 McGovern, P. E., 99 roles, 85, 145 Macqueen, J. G., 284 woodworking chisels diagnostic for Maderovce Culture, 125 chieftains, 58 Maikop burials, 109 Menelaus, 102, 170 males, see men merchants, 77, 106 Malinowski, B., Argonauts of the Western Meskell, L., 350 Pacific, 268 Mesopotamia Malmer, M., 25, 353 chronology Manning, S., 98, 117, 147 Agade period (2340--2159 bc), 63 Maran, J., 120 Akkad and Ur dynasties (2300-- Marcus, M. I., 75 2000 bc), 63 Mari (city-state), 93--5 Early Dynastic periods (2900-- Marinatos, N., 84--6, 97, 99, 145, 334--5 2350 bc), 62--3, 108 marriage Kassite period (1595--1155 bc), 67 alliances conﬁrmed through, 37, 205, Old Babylonian period (2004-- 232, 234, 240 1595 bc), 63 Egyptian, 68, 72, 74 Uruk period (3500--3200 bc), 65 intermarriage patterns, 32, 233 leadership, theocratic, 62--8

Index 439

message, 30, 29--30 Minoan ﬁgures on Egyptian tombs, metal 100 production, 120, 125, 134 religion, 253 as a trade item, 39, 77, 108--12, 186 rhyta, 89 metallurgist’s burial, 141 settlements in Asia Minor, 101 metallurgy ships, 103 in Balkan-Carpathian region, 109 state formation, 28 Circum-Pontic Metallurgical System, swords, 215 173 symbolic transmissions via elite composition of alloys, 99, 109, 110, material culture, 142, 154--8, 124, 133, 136 167--70 expansion of bronze technology, 41, lily and ivy ﬂowers, 144, 147, 142--50 58, 123, 132--8, 140--1 tin content in bronze, 124 research in, 173 trade networks, 98, 128 smelting, 175 Minoan language, 13n.5 metalwork, 19 Minoan thalassocracy, 96--9 Hajdusámson´ group, 161 Mitanni kingdom, 72, 80 in Sintashta culture, 174 texts, 180 methodology mobility in prestate societies, 32--3 analytical units, 7 models archaeological record, contexts and distance-parity, 7 categories, 34, 33--8 economic and political implications C14 dates, 17n.7, 116--17 of commodity production, 113 correspondence (interpretative exchange of prestige goods, method), 21--2, 152--3, 154, 157 horizontal and vertical, 36 rules for symbolic structures, 21 of interaction, 7, 38, 49, 51 traditional research strategies, 34--5 of material culture, 30 typologies, 19n.9 of symbolic transmissions via elite see also cosmological categories; material culture, 14 exchange categories; theoretical of tradition and transformation, 370 framework monkeys, as symbols of Priestess Middle Helladic pottery, 207 Queens, 86 Miletus site, Anatolia, 101 Monkodonja, Istria, 162, 166 military organisation, 224, 224n.15 monotheism, 73 military technology, horse and chariot Montafon, 133 package, 79--81, 180--1, 184 Montelius, O., Die älteren Kulturperioden mining, 133--6, 138, 173 im Orient und in Europa, 2 copper production, 110 Montelius burial 2, 156 Minoan Crete Montelius typology, 18 cosmology, 359 Moore, H., 369 frescoes, 71, 84, 98, 101 Morgan, C., 7 hair styles, 153 Morgan, L., 98 iconography, 200 Morris, I., 24, 241 leadership, 85 Muhly, J. D., 99 power tradition, 97 Müller-Karpe, H., Handbuch der theocratic, 82, 83--7 Vorgeschichte, 3 Linear A, 83 Mursili I, 66, 80

440 Index

Mursili II, 291--3 Näsström, B.-M., 297 Mycenae, Greece nature adoption of cosmological order and, 355--6 Black Sea/Carpathian material imagery, 345 culture, 129 Near Eastern trade networks, 91, 90--6, Minoan symbols, 281 108 alliances, 98 Nebra, Germany, bronze disc, 2 chamber tombs, 144 neck rings, 309 conquest migrations, 180 Nefertiti, 73 cosmology, 359 negotiation, 10n.4 grave circles, 87, 144, 154, 156, 184 Neolithic of Europe, 25, 30 iconography, 200 Nesa, 78, 91--3 imitations of, 162 Nestor, 57--60, 170 leadership, theocratic, 82, 87--90 Netherworld, hoards linked to, 356 myths, 259 Niemeier, W.-D., 98, 101 networks, 98 night, 341 northern, 179--85, 235--6 Nilsson, M., 23, 251, 259 Panagia House, 144 Ninurtha, 44 pottery, 105 Nitrianski Hradok-Zamecek site, power tradition, 97 Slovakia, 129, 162 rhyta, 89 Nizná Mysla burial, 133n.3, 134 swords, 128, 159, 215, 235 Nordic Bronze Age culture trade, maritime, 123, 128 elite culture, 200 trade colonies, 126 ﬁgurines, 308--16 traders, 235 hairstyles, 153 Mylonas, G. E., 185 identity, 250 myths interaction and trade, 71 Achilles and Patroclus, 238 Montelius periods, 186, 189--90, 197, archaeological conﬁrmation of, 329 271 as a cosmological category, 252--3, origins of, 41, 186--9 254 religion, 55, 294--6 Cuchulainn and Ferdia, 238 ritual axes, 194, 200, 266 Divine Twins’ birth, 329--30 see also Kivik, Scania of elites’ origins, 46 Nordic Iron Age culture, 297n.13 Gilgamesh epic, 43, 316 Nordic tales, 23, 321--4 Greek, 44, 95, 259 Noua Culture, 127 Inanna and Dumuzi story, 44 of journeys, 43, 305--8 object traditions, 254 Mesopotamian, 44 Odysseus, 40, 57, 61n.2, 85, 227, 247, Mycenaean, 259 358 transfer of, 58--60 Odyssey (Homer), 23, 170, 245 of transformation, 263 Ohlmarks, Å., 251 in written texts, 323 Ølby woman’s burial, 298 see also sagas; tales Old Assyrian period (2000--1800 bc) Anitta text, 78 Naram-Sin, 63, 331--3 leadership, theocratic, 90 victory stele, 64, 332 trade networks, 92

Index 441

Old Babylonian period (2004--1595 bc), Persephone, 260 63 personal items, 34, 35, 136, 147, 205 Olmsted, G., 258, 259, 262, 263, 265 Pesinara ﬁnd, 128 Olympic Games, 229, 366 phallic cultures, 350 omega symbols, 193, 197 phallus, raised arm gesture and, 340 openness/closure, 38, 38 PIE (Proto-Indo-European) pantheon, Oppeby rock art, 169, 168--70, 335, 336 258--9, 265, 364n.2 oral traditions, 22--4, 228, 229n.18, realms, 259--63, 341, 358 254--7, 352 shape shifting, 263, 264 abstraction in, 269 see also Twins, Divine categories of, 268 pigs, 172 relationship to material culture, 257 pins The Organisation of the Hittite Military Schleifennadeln, 119, 118--19 (Beal), 222 similarities among, 95 origins, 39, 54 toggle pins, 136 cosmological, 40, 45--7, 316--19, 360 wheel-headed pins, 154, 155, 234 Ørskovhede sword, 19n.9 Pirinkir, 288 Osiris, 70 Pirwa, 286 Östergötland, Sweden, 335, 337, 355; see Pithana, 78 also Bohuslän rock art; Platon, N., 84 Himmelstalund rock art plunder of cemeteries, 246 otherness, 2, 39, 47 Pobedim site, Slovakia, 162 of elites, 45, 170 Poland, Scheren ﬁgurines, 274, 314 Ottar, 238--40 political territories, pottery styles Ottomani culture, 125; see also Nizná marking, 125 Mysla burial polities, 361 ox horns, 330, 330 Polydeukes, 297 polytheism, 73, 86 Panagia House, 144 pony-tails as female symbols, 342, 343, Panama chiefdoms, 54 344 panku, 80 population movements, 13n.5, 120, Panofsky, E., 186n.9 363 pantheons, see under gods/goddesses pottery, 125, 161n.4 partnerships, see alliances Lipari Islands, 169 pastoral economy, 172, 172n.6 Middle Helladic, 207 patrilineal societies, 237 Mycenaean, 105 Patroclus, 240, 247 power Pauketat, T., 45 alliances and, 37, 74, 80 Pazyryk mound, 286 chieftains’ reproduction of, 17 peasant societies, immobility and, 32--3 club of the great powers, 67, 105 Peer Polity Interaction, 15, 19, 27--8, cosmological nature of, 46--7, 48, 54, 48 55--7, 367 pendants, 95, 147, 151, 154 elites’ control of, 323 Penelope, 57 matrilineal succession to, 72 Penglase, C., 43--4 Minoan/Mycenaean tradition, 97 Penner, S., 181, 182 nature of, 8--10 peripheries, see centres via journeys, 17, 44, 270

442 Index

prestate societies, see societies, measuring rod and coiled rope, 65 traditional Old Kingdom (Egypt), 70 prestige goods, 35--7, 112, 121, 139, 208, staffs, 85 235 Rehak, P., 281 horizontal and vertical exchange religion models, 36 analysis and interpretation of, 251--3 Price, B., 248 archaeological study of, 251--3 priests/priestesses, 59 Hittite, 96, 253, 282--8 chieftain priests, 303--8 sun cults, 288--94 Priest King, 86 Indo-European, 258--9 Priestess Queen, 86 Minoan Crete, 253 sodality of, 256 Nordic Primas, M., 135 Bronze Age, 55, 294--6 Prince of the Lilies, 143, 334 Iron Age, 297n.13 Prince with the Feather Crown, 142--4 rituals and, 334--5, 352--6 privatisation, 106 role of animals, 320--4 processual and postprocessual world religions, 366--7 archaeology, 4, 5--6, 16, 252 see also cosmological categories; Prosymna, 145 cosmologies proto-currency, 136 religious behaviour, 349--51 Proto-Indo-European (PIE) pantheon, religious institutions, 256, 259, 270 258--9, 265, 364n.2 religious specialists, 255--6, 268, 352 realms, 259--63, 341, 358 religious themes, shared, 342--4, 346--9 shape shifting, 263, 264 death and regeneration, 338--42 see also twins, divine nature imagery, 345 Puhvel, J., 328 sacred marriage, 65, 344--5 Pylos, palace of, 164, 281, 282 Renfrew, C., 5, 13n.5, 15, 17, 19, 27--8, 361 queens Renfrew School, 18--19 becoming divine, 284 rhyta, 89 correspondence between, 63 Rice, M., 72 Priestess Queen, 86 Egypt’s Legacy, 75 as the sun-goddess of Arinna, Rig-Veda, 256, 264, 364, 365 293 ring ingots, 113, 114, 115, 118--19, Quillfeldt, I. von, 233 122 Rittershofer, K.-F., 204 radiocarbon dates, 17n.7, 116--17 ritual behaviour, 349--51 raised arm gesture, 76, 343 ritual depositions, see hoards phallus and, 340 ritual paraphernalia, 255 Ramesses I, 322 cups, 89, 154--8, 303 Ramesses II, 73 ﬁgurines, 150, 353 Randsborg, K., 189, 224 sun cult, 306 rapiers, 127, 209, 215, 231, 232 see also axes, ritual razor, tweezers and, 228 ritual/political leaders and war leaders, Re/Ra, 69, 70 218, 225, 232, 255--6, 267, 355 regalia, royal, 85, 126 ritual sites, 357 mace, scimitar and bow, 68 rituals

Index 443

animal sacrifices, 176, 177, 245 Sargon of Akkad, 105 weapons and, 231--6 Scandinavia ceremonies, drinking, 281, leadership, theocratic, 204, 333 282 monumental visual art, 334--7 as a cosmological category, 252--3 shared religious themes, 338--42 domestic, 158--67 trade networks, 125, 186 fertility, 145, 150 Scandinavian languages, 32 in front of rock art, 336n.5 sceptres gestures, 150, 151 iron, 78 raised arms, 76, 340, 343 stone, 177 horse sacrifice/copulation, 324--8 Schauer, P., 218 hunting, 321, 346--9 Scheren, Poland, figurines, 274, 314 initiation, 145 Schleifennadeln pins, 119, 118--19 marriage Schnabeltasse, 156 of king and sun-goddess, 293 Schumacher-Matthäus, G., 145 sacred, 65, 344--5 scimitars, 199, 272, 290, 313 religion and, 334--5, 352--6 in pairs, 266 roles of women, 152 as symbols of divinity, 68 sun-disc/chariot, 305 Sealand Dynasty, 67 see also hoards seals rock art Hittite, 293 abstraction in, 269 Minoan, 161 chronology, 313 with spiral band decorations, 160 processions, 291 secondary products revolution, 141 rituals in front of, 336n.5 security while travelling, 28 see also specific locations; specific motifs Serbia, Duplje figurines, 150, 307 Rørby, Denmark Sesostris I, 70 paired scimitars, 266 Sesostris III, 70 sword, 207, 208, 290n.11 settlement patterns, 125, 133, 158, 357 Roux, G., 91 Sety I, 73, 96 Rowlands, M., 6, 238, 254 sexuality, 350--1 Shamash, 65 Sagaholm, Sweden Shamshi-Adad, 91 barrow, 196, 242, 243 Shanks, M., Art and the Early Greek State, cist-stones, 327, 328, 329, 349 247 rock art, 197 Shaushka, 291 sagas sheep, 172 Celtic, 23 Sherratt, A., 7, 25--6, 28, 128, 139 Icelandic, 23, 238 Sherratt, S., 28, 139, 179, 257, 257n.4 Irish, 238, 246--7, 256, 326 shields, 220 see also myths; tales shipbuilding, 208 Sahlins, M., 60n.1 ships Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea (Cline), 104 on cist-stones, 190 Samsu-ditana, 66 double, 199 Sandagergärd site, 338 foreign, 238 sarcophagi of night, 306 Hagia Triada, 220, 262, 264 Nordic, 194, 207

444 Index

ships (cont.) as outsiders, 55 with ritual axes, 202 religious, 255--6, 268, 352 Rørby ship, 194, 208 Sperber, L., 237 similarities among, 75, 206 spiral ornaments/ornamentation, 149, on swords, 290n.11 194, 218n.13, 288--91, 296n.12 symbolism of, 71, 198--9 band decorations, 159 Thera frescos, 103 hearths, 164 shipwrecks paired, 193 Cape Gelidonya, 105 on pottery, 158, 161n.4 Ulu Burun, 2, 102, 105, 138 proto-spirals, 161 cargo, 101, 102n.8 as sun symbols, 303 route, 102 Spissky Stvrrtok site, Slovakia, 129, signet rings, 192, 192, 302n.14 162 silver, 78, 98, 108 sports, 229, 366 Simris rock art, 197, 200 springs, 284, 291 Single Grave Culture, 140, 265 Sprockhofs, E., ‘Frühes Griechentum Sintashta Culture, 171, 171n.5, 173--9 und nordisches Bronzezeit,’ skeletal analysis, Caucasian-Nordic 252n.1 traits, 184, 185 Srubnaya culture, 173 skirts, corded, 261, 298, 302, 306 staffs, 85, 127 slavery, 106, 133 stags Slovakia bronze, 77 Barca site, 129, 162 hunting, 347, 346--7 Hradisko Vesele site, 162 Kurunta’s sacred animal, 286, 287 Nitrianski Hradok-Zamecek site, 129, sun-wagon and, 287 162 state societies, 48 Pobedim site, 162 states Spissky Stvrrtok site, 129, 162 early formation of, 108 smelting, 175 multi-lingual and multi-ethnic, 106 smiths, see artisans territorial, 106 snake-goddess, 148, 340 statuettes, see ﬁgurines snakes, 340 status symbols, 16, 18 horned vipers, 261, 323, 323 Stein, G. J., 7, 363 Snorre Sturluson, 23 stelae social behaviour, see behaviour, social Hammurabi’s Law Code, 65, 66 societies, traditional, 33, 48 Naram Sin’s victory, 64, 332 society, ranked, 112--14, 174--9 Vulture, 63 sodalities, 236, 256 steppe corridor, western, 179--85, 211, Södermanland, Sweden, 355 212 sons, symbolised by calves, 96 steppe cultures, 171--9, 181--5 Sørensen M. L. S., 227 Stockhult hoard, 197, 273, 274, 312, space, 43 312--13 cosmological, 209 strontium isotope analysis, 4n.1 ideological meaning of, 39--43 Suciu de Sus culture, 161n.4 spearheads, inscribed, 290n.11 sun spears, 16 cults, 72--3, 74, 288--94, 337 specialists ritual paraphernalia, 306

Index 445

duality of, 295 as a religious centre of learning, journey 199 Bronze Age cosmology of, 296, 306, Kivik, Scania, burial, 49, 71, 86n.6, 341, 354 157, 188, 187--9, 267--70 transport animals, 309 cist-stones, 187, 188, 190, 192, 267, symbolism, 154, 244, 246 268, 269--70, 328 winged, 291, 293, 332 dating, 189--93, 197, 198n.10 sun-disc/chariot, 297n.13 grave goods, 187, 189--90 drawn by horses, 170, 264, 288, 297, origins, 189--93 326 plan view, 338 Trundholm, 197, 295n.12, 295, 296, Östergötland, 335, 337, 355 294--6, 306 Sagaholm drawn by stags, 287 barrow, 196, 242, 243 drawn by swans, 150, 153, 306 cist-stones, 327, 328, 329, 349 ritual, 305 rock art, 197 sun-discs, 286, 294, 299, 302n.14, Södermanland, 355 298--303, 343, 343; see also Aten swords sun-goddess, 264, 283 Apa type, 200, 207, 217n.13 of Arinna, 79, 80, 96, 283, 285 Bogazköy, 290n.11 queens as, 293 as Bronze Age weapons, 53 in chariot drawn by swans, 150, 153, chieﬂy, 130 306 with curved points, 288--91 Divine Twins and, 153, 297 distribution patterns, 216, 231--2 names of, 150, 297 foreign, 46 priestess of, 286, 344 Hajdusámson´ type, 200 ritual marriage with king, 293 hilts Sun Maiden, 319 ﬂanged, 130, 216, 234 sun-priestess, 298--303 octagonal, 231, 233, 233--5 Sund, Norway, burial pits, 248 solid, 209, 214, 218, 233, 275 Suppiluliuma I, 81 Hungarian type, 207 swans, 44, 297, 306 Marais de Nantes, 138 Sweden Minoan type A, 215 Balkakra,˚ 203, 294 Mycenaean, 128, 159, 215, 235 Bohuslän rock art, 335, 336n.5, Ørskovhede, 19n.9 356 resharpened, 218, 219 chariot motifs, 223, 223 Rørby, Denmark, 207, 208, 290n.11 Fossum, 342, 343, 342--3, 345 Symbolgut der Urnenfelderzeit (Kossack), horned divinities, 331 252n.1 raised arm gesture, 76 symbolic entrainment, 19 sun-disc pulled by horse, 326 symbolic permutation, 29 Bruatorp, 279 symbolic structures, rules for, 21 Fogtdarp double axes with horns, symbolism of headgear 330 caps (ruler), 227, 265, 272, 351 Gotland barrows, 244 feather crowns (divine), 142, 142n.1, Himmelstalund rock art, 169, 170, 143 335, 347, 348, 347--8 horned crowns or helmets (divine), Kivik, Scania 68, 101, 247, 323, 332, 333

446 Index

symbolism of headgear (cont.) horses mentioned in, 322n.1 pointed hat (divine), 101, 190, 281, Mitanni kingdom, 180 291, 312--13, 314--16 of myths, 323 symbols Old Assyrian Anitta text, 78 of chariots, 154 relationship to material culture, contextualised meanings, 29 257 cupmarks for females, 328, 342 as secondary, 255 of divinity, 348 see also writing systems bows, 68 theocratic leadership, see leadership, maces, 68 theocratic naked breasts, 148, 150, 151 theoretical framework, 4, 5--8, 24 scimitars, 68 culture-historical approach, 4, 24 wheel-cross, 195, 298--302, intercontextual archaeology, 4--5, 12, 346 10--15, 16, 24, 25--30, 368 wings, 68, 293, 332 interpretative strategies, 30, 368--72 see also symbolism of headgear limitations of, 4--8 Minoan adopted by Mycenaeans, 281 of processual and postprocessual style and form, 11--13 archaeology, 4, 5--6, 16, 252 Symbols in Action (Hodder), 254, 361 see also methodology; Renfrew School Szeghalom hoard, 218n.13 Thera eruption (1628 bc), 117, 161 Thera frescos, 103, 144, 145, 147, 150, Tagaborg˚ hoard, 296n.12 152 bronze horse, 197 tholos burials, 180, 236 tales thrones, 70 heroic, 61, 228--31, 254 Balkakra,˚ Sweden, 203, 200--4 Nordic, 23, 321--4 Hasfalva, Hungary, 200, 203 see also myths; sagas of iron, 78--9 Tanum project, 336n.5 Timber Grave Culture, 173 Tape, Hungary, cemetery, 127 tin, 78, 90, 108, 114, 115, 122 Taru, 285, 286 in bronze production, 120, 123, 124, Tawananna, 286 136 Telemachus, 102 sources, 100, 110 Tel Kabri, Israel, frescos, 98 in Ulu Burun shipwreck, 101 tell cultures, see Carpathian tell cultures value of, 95 terminology, redeﬁnition of, 7, 13 Tinghøj, Denmark, barrow, 312 Terramare culture, 127, 216n.12 Tiryns signet ring, 192 Teshub, 96 Tobøl woman’s burial, 220, 298, 301 textiles, 77, 108, 139 toggle pins, 136 texts Traction Complex, 26 archaeological record’s trade correspondence with, 139 analysis and interpretation of, 17, as evidence, 20--4 33--9, 364 clay tablets, 283 control of, 67 contemporary vs. directional nature of, 139 non-contemporary, 21 exchange systems, 48--51 historical origins, 23 model of interactions, 7, 51 Hittite military texts, 328n.3 secondary products revolution, 141

Index 447

trade centres, 158 travel, 17, 43, 364 trade colonies, 126, 129 chieﬂy alliances and, 204--9, 210, 234 trade goods, 35--8 by chieftains, 39--40, 371 archaeological record and, 34, 93 congruence between time and space trade networks/routes and, 54 Anatolian, 77, 91--3, 181--5 linked to value systems, 53 Black Sea, 125 by traders, 235 Carpathian, 129, 179--85 by warriors and artisans, 232, 235 development of, 130--2, 138--40, 158, see also distance 204--9 Trebatice wall decorations, 163 east Mediterranean, 90, 102, 96--105, tree 123, 128 of life, 245, 246 Egyptian, 70 sacred, 340 maritime, 267 Treibstacheln, 220n.14 Minoan Crete, 98, 128 tribute, 227 Mycenaean, 98, 179--85, 235--6 Trobriand Islanders, 40 Near Eastern, 91, 90--6, 108 Troy, 100, 116 Old Assyrian, 92 Trundholm, Denmark, sun-disc/chariot, open, 48 197, 295n.12, 295, 296, 294--6, population movements along, 120 306 Scandinavian, 125, 186 Tudhaliya I, 80 shift in, 128 Tudhaliya II, 290n.11 Sintashta culture, 177 Tudhaliya IV, 101, 271, 324 Tumulus Culture, 127--8, 139, 212 Tufalau hoard, 152 western, 114 tumulus burials, 177, 180, 242, 243 see also interaction zones Tumulus Culture, 125, 134, 187, 362 traders alliances supported by marriage, Mycenaean, 235 232 travel by, 235 cosmology, 359 transformation, 27--8, 53 polities, 361 model of, 30 trade networks, 127--8, 139, 212 tradition and, model of, 370 wheel-headed pins, 154 transmission Tushratta, 73 of institutions, 13--15, 249--50, 364 Tutankhamen, 73, 81 model of, 30 Tuthmosis III, 72, 80 of social and religious ideas, 27--8, 153 Tuthmosis IV, 72, 322n.1 see also transmissions, symbolic tutuli, 274 transmissions, symbolic tweezers, razor and, 228 via elite material culture, 142, 154--8, twins 167--70, 254, 255 brothers, 306 domestic rituals, 158--67 Divine Twins, 22, 258--63, 264--7, 319 female costumes, 145, 150--4, 227 attributes of, 318 lily and ivy ﬂowers, 144, 147, 142--50 birth myth, 329--30 model of, 14 as bulls, 263 ritual cups, 89, 154--8 ritual dress, 274--7 Trans-Urals, 171--9 sun-goddess and, 153, 297 Trassem hoard, 218n.13 symbolism of, 190, 269--70

448 Index

twins (cont.) warfare, 229, 247--8 gods/goddesses, riding in chariots, social organisation of, 227 262, 281 Warren, P. M., 118 rulers, 276, 278, 280--2, 303, 305 warrior aristocracies, 171, 173, 177--9, 212 Ugarit figurines, 315 appearance, 227--31 Ulu Burun shipwreck, 2, 102, 105, 138 archaeological evidence of, 159, cargo, 101, 102n.8 213--25 route, 102 institution of, 80, 277--80 Ulysses, see Odysseus kinship systems, 236--40 Unetice Culture, 113, 115, 120, 138, 140, social and cultural context, 225--7 302 see also chiefdoms universe, bronze disc of, 266 warrior ethos, 88, 228, 246--7 Upton Lowell barrow, 121 warriors Ur dynasties, 63 burials, 151, 215, 218, 231--6, 240--6 Urals, 173, 179--85 lifestyle, 246--9 Urnfield Culture, 117, 134, 153, 154, 194, professional, 213, 232, 234 237 on rock art, 345 cosmology, 359 traditional, 218 Uruk travel and, 232, 235, 364 state system, 7, 105 wavy band decoration, 182, 183, 184 Uruk Culture, 363 weapons, 53, 125, 218, 231--6; see also specific weapons value systems, 13--14, 53, 187, 225 weapons complexes, 213 warrior ethos, 88, 228, 246--7 early phase (18th and 17th c. bc), Vandkilde, H., 213n.11, 280 213 Vanuata in Oceania, 22 late phase (16th and 15th c. bc), Vapheio burial, 330 213--20 Vatya Culture, 125, 133n.3 weather-god, 283 Vedic traditions, 255, 326, 329--30 bull as the sacred animal of, 285, vehicles, wheeled, 172; see also chariots 285--6 Venus, 68 Weingarten, J., 97 Veterow Culture, 125, 133 Wessex Culture, 121, 122, 125, 127, Viby ritual axes, 341 138 Viksø, Denmark, horned helmets, 332, burials, 120 333 prestige goods, 121 violence Scandinavia and, 157 death by, 133 wheel-crosses, 168, 195, 244, 298--302, ritual, 133n.3 346 Vitlycke rock art, 346 wheel figures, 196 Vulture stele, 63 wheel-headed pins, 154, 155, 234 wheels Wales, 134 bronze, 220, 222 wall decorations, 163 spoked, 220 wanax institution, 88, 280--2 wooden, 63 Wanscher, O., 304 whips, 183 Ward, D., 264, 265 White Cow goddess, 260

Index 449

Wietenberg culture, 125 Egyptian hieroglyphs, 75, 76 Winghart, S., 220 Hittite hieroglyphs, 168, 168, 343 wings, as symbols of divinity, 68, 293, Linear A, 83, 100, 168, 170, 208 332 Linear B, 83, 168 Winkler, H., 79 Lipari Islands script, 167 Wismar lur, 195, 196 signs as esoteric knowledge, 168, women 170 costumes, 145, 150--4, 227, 239, 351 transmission of alphabets, 193 Egtved woman, 299 use of early signs, 168 deities, 84--6 see also languages; texts foreign, 234 hair styles, 152, 351 Yamna Culture, 109, 140, 172 picking lilies, 144 Yazilikaya rock art, 96, 288, 291, 292, as rulers, 72 324, 336--7 social control of, 237 status and functions, 145, 152 Zafer Papoura burial, 302n.14 symbols, 328, 342, 343, 344 Zajta, 217n.13 woodworking, 59, 59 Zakros palace, Crete, 348 world religions, 366--7 Zannanza, 81 world systems, 6, 316 Zdanovich, G. B., 171, 174 Wright, J., 88 Zeus, 297, 330 writing systems, 167--70 Zimri-Lim, 95 cuneiform signs, 73 Zwelebil, M., 32