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43 Ambrosia Artemisiifolia L., Common Ragweed (Asteraceae) 296 Chapter 43 43 Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., Common Ragweed (Asteraceae) Alan K. Watson and Miron Teshler McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Québec 43.1 Pest Status bronchitis and asthma. The complex of 22 proteins released from ragweed pollen Common ragweed (herbe-à-poux), Ambrosia grains are some of the most powerful artemisiifolia L. (Asteraceae), a native antigens/allergens known (Bagarozzi and annual weed species, occurs throughout Travis, 1998). Although ragweed pollen North America and is most abundant in can travel great distances, allergenic southern Ontario and Quebec and in the reactions are caused by A. artemisiifolia north-east and north-central US states growing very close to the susceptible (Bassett and Crompton, 1975). It is a individual. Within urban and suburban pioneer species that fl ourishes in disturbed regions, effective control of ragweed habitats such as along rights-of-way, in infestations would substantially lower the vacant lots and cultivated fi elds. Ambrosia incidence of allergenic reactions. Ambrosia artemisiifolia is often the most frequent artemisiifolia has rapidly become a serious species in these habitats, and forms dense agricultural weed, especially in vegetable linear populations along the fi rst metre of crops grown in the muck soils of south- roads and highways in eastern Canada western Quebec and Ontario. Ambrosia (DiTommaso, 2004; Joly et al., 2011). There artemisiifolia seeds germinate in spring, is strong historical evidence that the the vegetative phase occurs from May to expansion of road networks has contrib- August, fl owering commences on the fi rst uted to the spread of A. artemisiifolia week of August and produces copious (Lavoie et al., 2007; Simard and Benoit, quantities of airborne pollen, and seeds are 2010). Moreover, this weed species is set in late summer or autumn. Individual highly plastic and very variable in size, leaf plants produce 3000 to 62,000 seeds that shape, infl orescence form, degree of can remain viable for 39 years or more hairiness and life-form strategy. Germin- when buried in the soil (Bassett and ation response for roadside populations of Crompton, 1975). A. artemisiifolia may be locally adaptive to salinity and allows A. artemisiifolia to emerge relatively early in spring thus 43.2 Background providing a competitive advantage over later emerging roadside plants (DiTommaso, Ambrosia artemisiifolia can easily be 2004). uprooted in most soil types; however, it Ambrosia artemisiifolia pollen is the can readily adapt to frequent mowing by primary cause of allergenic hay fever, quickly producing new stems and fl owers © CAB International 2013. Biological Control Programmes in Canada 2001–2012 (eds P.G. Mason and D.R. Gillespie) Chapter 43 297 below the cutting height (Vincent and grammes in Australia, eastern Europe and Ahmin, 1985; Patracchini et al., 2011). eastern Asia, with variable results (Julien Repeated mowing can reduce pollen pro- and Griffi ths, 1998; Zhou et al., 2009). duction but will not reduce the seed bank Tarachidia candefacta Hübner (Lepi- (Simard and Benoit, 2011). Various herbi- doptera: Noctuidae) and Zygogramma cides and tank mixtures have provided suturalis Fabricius (Coleoptera: Chrys- control of A. artemisiifolia in maize, Zea omelidae) are two natural enemies from mays L. (Poaceae), and soybean, Glycine Canada and the USA that were introduced max (L.) Merr. (Fabaceae), crops, but popu- into the former Soviet Union in 1966. They lations of A. artemisiifolia have developed became established and provided control resistance to herbicides having the follow- of the invasive A. artemisiifolia (Reznik, ing sites of action: Photosystem II inhibi- 1991; Goeden and Teerink, 1993). Of great tors, ALS inhibitors, PPO inhibitors, ureas recent interest, populations of T. cande- and amides and glycines (Heap, 1997; facta have recently begun to expand, many Patzoldt et al., 2001; Saint-Louis et al., years after introduction in southern Russia 2005), thus restricting control options. (Poltavsky et al., 2008). Zygogramma Several herbicides, including 2,4-D suturalis leaf beetles were also introduced ((2,4-dichlorophenoxy) acetic acid), MCPA into Croatia, but failed to become ((2 methyl-4-chlorophenoxy) acetic acid) established (Igrc et al., 1995). Releases of Z. and dicamba (3,6-dichloro-2-methoxy- suturalis in China in 1985, both from benzoic acid), have been the mainstay of A. Canada and from the former Soviet Union, artemisiifolia control strategies along road- established in some locations, but failed in ways and marginal areas in most com- others (Wan et al., 1995). In 1990, Z. munities. However, herbicide use for the suturalis was introduced into Australia control of A. artemisiifolia in urban areas from the USA but failed to establish (Julien has declined in recent years due to the and Griffi ths, 1998). implementation of municipal and pro- Ambrosia artemisiifolia is presently vincial legislation throughout Canada that considered under good control in south- bans or severely restricts herbicide use. eastern Queensland and in northern New Currently, foliar application of sodium South Wales and is regarded as an chloride solutions is being used in cities outstanding success in Australia (Palmer et and municipalities of Quebec (Grégoire et al., 2010); but the success is not due to the al., 2002; Watson, 2008). Ambrosia introduction of specifi c biological control artemisii folia is very sensitive to desic- agents against A. artemisiifolia. From 1980 cation and dries up whereas surrounding to 1984, three biological control agents, plants are not impacted. including the leaf-feeding chrysomelid beetle Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), the sap- 43.3 Biological Control Agents sucking bug Stobaera concinna (Stål) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) and the tip- 43.3.1 Insects galling moth Epiblema strenuana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) from Mexico Over 400 insect species have been known were introduced into Australia for the to attack A. artemisiifolia (Harris and biological control of parthenium weed, Piper, 1970) and more than 30 of these Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae) have been examined as potential biological (McFadyen, 1992). Parthenium hystero- control agents for A. artemisiifolia phorus is very closely related to the genus (Kovalev, 1970). Ambrosia artemisiifolia is Ambrosia and coincidentally it was an exotic invasive weed in Australia, observed that these three insects also Europe and central Asia. There have been attacked A. artemisiifolia. Epiblema strenu- several classical biological control pro- ana was the most effective biological 298 Chapter 43 control agent, and has reduced the size, pupation, the 3rd instar larvae spin loosely abundance and pollen production of woven cocoons on the upper or lower leaf ragweed to a greater extent than the two surfaces. Development time for the pupa other insects. stage is about 7 days and the total development time from oviposition to adult emergence is about 22 days (Welch, 1978). 43.3.1.1 Inundative biological control From 1995 to 1999, host-specifi city, life In Canada, Z. suturalis and Ophraella table, biotic potential, mortality, feeding communa LeSage (Coleoptera: Chrys- potential and mass rearing studies of O. omelidae) are native natural enemies of A. communa were conducted on transplanted artemisiifolia. They have been the main ragweed plants (Teshler et al., 1996, 1999). focus of biological control studies at the Conclusions derived from these studies Macdonald Campus of McGill University suggested that O. communa was a very as inundative biological control agents in promising candidate for inundative bio- Quebec (Teshler et al., 2002). In North logical control of A. artemisiifolia. Char- America, under natural conditions, popu- acteristics of O. communa include: (i) being lation densities and impact of O. communa native to Quebec; (ii) having a restricted on A. artemisiifolia tend to be low, host range; (iii) causing signifi cant A. presumably because of strong attack by artemisiifolia damage, especially at the predators and parasitoids by the end of vulnerable seedling stage; and (iv) having a summer (Teshler et al., 2002). Thus, high intrinsic reproductive rate, which has inundative releases of Z. suturalis and O. facilitated its mass rearing under controlled communa early in the growing season conditions (Teshler et al., 2002; Dernovici (Teshler et al., 1996) would be a reasonable et al., 2006). In 1999 and 2000, inundative approach. However, the reduction or cage releases were con ducted using various cessation of Z. suturalis oviposition on O. communa beetle-to-A. artemisiifolia and extensively damaged plants (as observed in O. communa egg-to-A. artemisiifolia ratios the former Soviet Union) and pupation in in carrot, Daucus carota L. subsp. sativa soil are the most important limitations for Schübl. & M. Martens (Apiaceae), cabbage, the mass-rearing of this species (Teshler et Brassica oleracea L. (Bras sicaceae), and al., 2002). Thus, O. communa became the soybean fi elds in Sherrington and St agent of choice. Isidore, Quebec. Four to fi ve O. communa Ophraella communa is oligophagous beetles per A. artemisiifolia plant caused and feeds on various members of the complete defoliation and death of 4- to subtribe Ambrosiinae (Asteraceae). All 6-leaf-stage plants within 14 days. In 2001, developmental phases of this multivoltine small-scale open fi eld release trials were insect occur on A. artemisiifolia. Fertile conducted with O. communa in soybean
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