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Zgodovina Raziskovanja Vakuuma in Vakuumskih Tehnik

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Zgodovina Raziskovanja Vakuuma in Vakuumskih Tehnik ZGODOVINA RAZISKOVANJA VAKUUMA IN VAKUUMSKIH TEHNIK Stanislav Ju`ni~ ZGODOVINA RAZISKOVANJA VAKUUMA IN VAKUUMSKIH TEHNIK DRU[TVO ZA VAKUUMSKO TEHNIKO SLOVENIJE Ljubljana, 2004 Zgodovina raziskovanja vakuuma in vakuumskih tehnik Avtor: dr. Stanislav Ju`ni~ Urednika: dr. Peter Panjan, dr. Miha ^ekada Recenzorja: dr. Jo`e Gasperi~, dr. Janez [etina Lektorja: dr. Jo`e Gasperi~, dr. Miha ^ekada Oblikovanje in prelom: Miro Pe~ar Slika na naslovnici: Knez Janez Vajkard Turja{ki pozorno opazuje Magdebur{ki vakuumski polkrogli tik pred slovitim poskusom v Regensburgu. Avtorica: Ur{ka Ju`ni~ Naklada: 600 izvodov Tisk: Tiskarna Ple{ko, d. o. o. Zalo`nik: Dru{tvo za vakuumsko tehniko Slovenije Za zalo`bo: dr. Janez [etina CIP - Katalo`ni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knji`nica, Ljubljana 533.5(091) 621.52(091) JU@NI^, Stanislav Zgodovina raziskovanja vakuuma in vakuumskih tehnik / Stanislav Ju`ni~. - Ljubljana : Dru{tvo za vakuumsko tehniko Slovenije, 2004 ISBN 961-90025-6-3 215612416 Predgovor Pred nami je nova knjiga dr. Stanislava Ju`ni~a, ki je po osnovni izobrazbi fizik, potem pa se je usmeril v zgodovino fizike in iz zgodovine doktoriral. Ker je njegova zadnja knjiga o `ivljenju in delu kranjskega znanstvenika, matematika, astronoma, kartografa jezuita barona Ferdinanda Avgu{tina Hallersteina (1703–1774) iz{la {ele pred enim letom, bi si utegnil kdo misliti, da je pisanje zgodovine znanosti lahko delo ali pa da ga dr. Ju`ni~ povr{no opravlja. To seveda ni tako, saj avtor `e na za~etku uvoda k tej novi knjigi "Zgodovina raziskovanja vakuuma in vakuumskih tehnik" poudari, da je knjiga nastajala deset let in da so njeni posamezni deli `e bili objavljeni v strokovnem ~asopisju. Naslov te knjige rahlo zavaja, saj bralec pri~akuje v njej le opis razvoja vakuumskih tehnik in aparatur, kot so ~rpalke in merilniki. V knjigi je mnogo ve~. @e v prvem, naj- obse`nej{em in v bistvu centralnem poglavju avtor poda razvoj razumevanja vakuuma od antike do moderne dobe, ki se za~ne sredi 17. stoletja s prvimi na~rtovanimi in ponovljivimi poskusi. Ob tem vzporedno opisuje slovensko vlogo pri tem razvoju, pri ~emer vedno "slovensko" razume kot geografski pojem, ne pa morda jezikoven ali etni~en. Kot "slovensko" obravnava vse, kar se je dogajalo pri nas in kar so ljudje od tukaj naredili drugod. Ob tem na primer poudari, da je `e pri prvih poizkusih Guerickeja, "izumitelja" magdebur{kih polkrogel, aktivno sodeloval tudi na{ turja{ki knez, poka`e, da so bile v Ljubljani `e ob koncu 17. stoletja dosegljive knjige o vakuumu in da so v jezuitskem kolegiju, v ljubljanskem liceju in kasneje v gimnazijah u~ili o najnovej{ih dognanjih o vakuumu in delali ustrezne poskuse. Druga~na so naslednja poglavja, ki obravnavajo posamezna fizikalna in tehni~na pod- ro~ja, kjer se vakuum uporablja, toda zaradi {iroke potrebnosti vakuuma so to skorajda vsa moderna podro~ja znanosti. Poleg prikaza svetovnega razvoja na posameznem podro~ju poda tudi stanje pri nas in na{ prispevek in na{e raziskovalce. Nedvoumno doka`e, da nismo nikoli veliko zaostajali, da smo sprejemali svetovni razvoj brez velike zamude in ga soustvarjali. Ob odkritju rentgenskih `arkov je bila na{a javnost na primer o tem obve{~ena v strokovnih razpravah v na{em ~asopisju `e poltretji mesec po prvi objavi. Lahko bi bili veseli, ~e bi danes na{a javnost tako a`urno sledila napredku 5 znanosti. Avtor prika`e tudi sorazmerno hitro uvajanje tehnolo{kih dose`kov in tehnik pri nas, od televizije do polprevodni{kih in tankoplastnih tehnologij. Predvsem v obdobju po drugi svetovni vojni smo bili pri nas sposobni lotiti se ve~jih projektov in razviti na primer elektronski mikroskop, Van de Graaffov pospe{evalnik ali, zunaj podro~ja vakuuma in te knjige, magnetnoresonan~ni spektrometer. Na `alost teh sposobnosti danes nimamo ve~ v tolik{ni meri. Aparature raje kupujemo, vsakdo pa se ukvarja s svojim vrti~kom. Dr. Ju`ni~ je eden redkih, ~e ne edini pri nas, ki se je resno in profesionalno lotil zgodovine na{e (in tudi svetovne) fizike. Pri tem ga ne zanimajo le velika imena, ampak celotna pot, ki vodi do napredka znanosti in vklju~uje mno`ico majhnih korakov, h katerim so prispevali tudi manj znani znanstveniki in tudi manj{i narodi, med njimi tudi Slovenci. S svojimi raziskavami je dr. Ju`ni~ jasno pokazal, da smo bili na Slovenskem `e od samega za~etka razvoja moderne znanosti z dogajanji dobro seznanjeni, da smo najnovej{e dose`ke hitro vklju~evali v pouk na na{ih {olah in da smo vedno imeli ljudi, ki so te dose`ke tudi razumeli in k njim prispevali. Seveda so dela dr. Ju`ni~a znanstvena dela, z mnogimi viri, citati in slikami originalnih aparatur, ter so zato namenjena strokovnjakom, ki imajo osnovno znanje fizike in tehnike ter jih zanima zgodovina. Morda bi bilo treba ob tem misliti tudi na poljudnej{e zapise, ki bi splo{nemu bralcu predstavili na{o zgodovino znanosti in ga prepri~ali, da nismo nikoli v svoji zgodovini bistveno zaostajali za sosedi in da je na{ prispevek k razvoju znanosti glede na na{o velikost sorazmerno velik. akad. prof. dr. Bo{tjan @ek{ predsednik Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti 6 Beseda urednika Ko smo v mesecih pred izidom te knjige omenjali prijateljem, da pripravljamo knjigo o zgodovini vakuuma, so bili za~udeni: vakuum, to je vendar prazno, ni~ – kako lahko nekdo napi{e knjigo o praznem, celo o zgodovini praznega? Pa je zgodovina praznega vse prej kot prazna. Za~enja se v antiki, takrat {e kot vpra{anje koncepta, prvi nedvoumni poskusi v 17. stoletju pa so stvar postavili na realna tla. Tako kot pri mnogih drugih podro~jih znanosti je raziskovanje in uporaba vakuuma do`ivela prvi razcvet v 19. stoletju, drugi razcvet po 2. svetovni vojni pa je vakuum prinesel v na{a stanovanja: termovka, `arnica, televizor. Danes skoraj ni ve~ tehnologije, v kateri ne bi vsaj del procesa potekal v vakuumu. Dr. Stanislav Ju`ni~ se z zgodovino vakuuma intenzivno ukvarja `e 12 let. Veliko je objavil v poljudnoznanstvenih revijah, zahtevnej{im bralcem pa so namenjeni njegovi ~lanki v reviji Vakuumist, kjer jih je objavil `e skoraj 50, in v drugih strokovnih in znanstvenih publikacijah. Ta knjiga predstavlja zaokro`en pregled njegovega dela v enotni obliki in na nivoju, ki ga razume vsak z osnovno tehni{ko izobrazbo. Sprehodimo se na kratko po poglavjih. 1. poglavje je najobse`nej{e in se `e po zasnovi razlikuje od preostalih. Gre za zgo{~en pregled zgodovine vakuuma in vakuumskih tehnik od antike do danes, s posebnim poudarkom na prelomnih odkritjih, ki so ve~krat zamajala temelje takratne znanosti. V 2. poglavju se sre~amo s "katodnimi `arki", to je curek elektronov, ki so jih odkrili konec 19. stoletja. S tem povezano razpr{evanje katode je kasneje preraslo v danes izjemno pomembno tehnologijo tankih plasti, s katero se podrobneje seznanimo v 3. poglavju,ki je namenjeno uporabi vakuuma v metalurgiji. Naslednji dve poglavji opisujeta "napravi", ki nikoli nista imeli posebne prakti~ne vrednosti, sta pa pomembno prispevali k razvoju znanosti. V 4. poglavju so to (tehni~no zaenkrat neizvedljivi) vakuumski baloni, v 5. poglavju pa t. i. radiometer, bolje znan po imenu "svetlobni mlin~ek". Sledita poglavji o dveh vsakdanjih predmetih, tako samo po sebi umevnih, da nas nekoliko presene~a, koliko raziskav je bilo potrebnih za njihovo uveljavitev. To sta termovka v 6. poglavju in `arnica v 7. poglavju. 7 Naslednja {tiri poglavja so namenjena nekoliko bolj znanstvenim temam. V 8. poglavju je opisano odkritje rentgenskih `arkov, kjer spet ne gre brez vakuuma, v 9. poglavju pa vrsta raziskav, ki so privedla do odkritja elektrona. 10. poglavje je namenjeno odkritju in razvoju elektronskega mikroskopa, 11. poglavje pa pospe{evalnikom delcev. V 12. poglavju se spet vrnemo k bolj vsakdanjim predmetom, govor je o televiziji; v {ir{em pomenu besede obsega tako snemanje (kamera) kot predvajanje (televizor). Osnovna komponenta obeh naprav je vakuumski element – katodna elektronka. Ob{irno 13. poglavje najprej predstavi ionsko implantacijo, na kateri sloni polprevodni{ka tehnologija, po obsegu najpomembnej{a vakuumska tehnologija. Opisan je razvoj tranzistorja, ki je danes v obliki intergriranega vezja osnova vsake elektronske naprave. Knjiga se sklene s 14. poglavjem, namenjeno je plazmi. Ker plazma nastopa tudi v prej opisanih tehnologijah, je to poglavje namenjeno raziskovanju same plazme, danes predvsem v povezavi s fuzijo, pri~akovanim novim virom energije. Na koncu knjige je {e obse`en seznam literature, abecedni seznam v knjigi omenjenih raziskovalcev vakuuma in preko 900 sklicev na literaturo. S tem {e zdale~ niso opisana vsa podro~ja vakuumske tehnike, saj bi glede na njeno raz{irjenost to presegalo obseg knjige. Prepri~ana pa sva, da je avtor naredil dober izbor, tako da bo bralec dobil pravi vpogled na zgodovino raziskovanja vakuuma in vakuum- skih tehnik. dr. Miha ^ekada, dr. Peter Panjan Institut "Jo`ef Stefan", Ljubljana 8 ZGODOVINA RAZISKOVANJA VAKUUMA IN VAKUUMSKIH TEHNIK Kazalo Predgovor ..................................... 5 Beseda urednika ................................. 7 Kazalo ...................................... 9 Uvod ....................................... 12 1 Razvoj vakuumske tehnike .......................... 13 1.1 Vakuum v antiki .................................. 13 1.2 Poskusi z vakuumom sredi 17. stoletja, prva uporaba v barometru......... 14 1.3 ^rpalke v drugi polovici 17. stoletja ........................ 21 1.4 Vakuum na Kranjskem konec 17. in v 18. stoletju ................. 46 1.5 Parni stroji ..................................... 54 1.6 Skokovit napredek vakuumske tehnike v drugi polovici 19. stoletja ........ 56 1.7 Na{i vakuumisti po izumu katodne elektronke ................... 63 1.8 Prodor vakuumske tehnike v industrijo konec 19. in v za~etku 20. stoletja..... 72 1.9 Vakuumisti v "visoki znanosti" druge polovice 20. stoletja ............. 82 1.10 Sklep ....................................... 83 2 "Katodni `arki" in (katodno) razpr{evanje kovin ................ 85 2.1 Za~etki raziskovanja "katodnih `arkov" konec 19.
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