VIRTUE AND VICE LISTS Lists of positive and negative behaviors that display a normative ethic focused on good character and incorporate Hellenistic influence on biblical authors and historical theology.
Context of Virtue and Vice Lists in the Bible
Ancient Near Eastern Influence Moral law codes were common in the Ancient Near East. These lists of laws, such as the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (c. 1772 bc), detail the prescribed social behaviors relating to property, family, and social contracts. Although these codes do not contain virtue and vice lists proper, they list acceptable and unacceptable behavior. The influence of these contemporary law codes on the structure of the Mosaic Law is evident. However, unlike the ancient Near Eastern law codes, the Mosaic Law depicts God as loving; His people benefit more than He does from their covenant; property violations are not seen as capital offenses; and notably it mentions God’s love and the love He requires from others (see Exod 20; 34:6; Lev 19:1–18; Deut 6:5). The mention of love and the emphasis on motivation and attitude made Israelite law much more virtue-based than other law codes of the time.
Graeco-Roman Influence The formation of ethical lists began in the Homeric era and developed more fully among the Socratics and post-Socratics, especially the Stoics. Stoicism later influenced Hellenistic Jews such as Philo (ca. 20 bc—c. 50 ad). The interaction between Stoics and Christians in the first century led to the Christian adoption of ethical lists for practical purposes (see Porter, “Vice and Virtue Lists”). Because the recording of ethical lists in the Bible is formally an influence of Hellenism, most lists are found in the New Testament, though similar lists are also present in the Old Testament. Ethical lists found in Graeco-Roman moralists of the first and second century contrast with New Testament lists by emphasizing “self-help” rather than divinely revealed moral obligation (Harrington, Paul and Virtue Ethics, 113).
Virtue and Vice Lists in the New Testament Virtue and vice lists in the New Testament most often serve the purpose of typifying righteous and unrighteous lives, and should be taken as illustrative rather than exhaustive (see Thompson, Moral Formation According to Paul). Lists of vices are characterizations of those who “walk according to the flesh,” while virtue lists display the character of those live by the Spirit, in the gospel life and Christian community (Harrington, Paul and Virtue Ethics, 110). Vice lists are often given in contrast with virtue lists to instruct individuals on their past lives and the lives they are to pursue. Ethical lists are prominent in Paul’s letters, as he addresses particular situations and provides specific instruction. In Galatians 5:16–23, Paul contrasts a list of generic works and desires of the flesh with the generic fruit of the Spirit. Although the list addresses a particular situation, it may be seen as partially depicting the foundations of morality in the imitation of divine characteristics. In 2 Peter 1:5–7 the Apostle Peter presents another list as the foundation of morality. It includes virtue, knowledge, self-control, steadfastness, godliness, brotherly affection, and love. The differences between these two lists show that New Testament virtue and vice lists illuminate each other, as they both overlap and differ.
Form and Use Strict virtue lists are found only in the apostolic letters, and take forms including antithesis (e.g., Gal 5:19–23; Jas 3:13–18), contrast (e.g., Titus 3:1–7), instruction (e.g., 2 Pet 1:5–7) or polemics (e.g., 1 Tim 1:9–10; 6:3–5; 2 Tim 3:2–5). Rhetorical emphasis is accomplished through repetition or rhythmic flow and may employ alliteration, assonance, or inclusio (the use of a term or idea at the beginning and the end of a section; see Porter, “Vice and Virtue Lists”). The intention for the order of items within a list is seldom discernable, excepting the progressions presented in Phil 4:8 and 2 Pet 1:5–7. Even in these lists it is important to note that their presentations are related to the occasions they address and are not intended to convey a universal hierarchy of virtue. It is possible, however, that certain virtues common throughout the New Testament—such as faith, love, and endurance—were included in early catechisms as more inclusive virtues.
Examples Examples of virtue/vice lists can be found in the following sources:
Ancient Near Eastern law codes • Code of Ur-Nammu (ca. 2100 bc, Third Dynasty of Ur); • Sumerian laws of Lipit Ishtar (c. 1925 bc); • Akkadian laws of Eshnunna (c. 1800 bc), north of Babylon; • Hittite laws (1650–1200 bc) of Asia Minor.
Classical Greek sources (before 336 bc) • Aristotle: Eudemian Ethics 2.3.4; • Plato: Gorgias 525–6; Republic 4.427e, 6.490c—e, 427c–434d, 543c–580a.
Hebrew Bible/Old Testament • Law: Exod 20; 34:6; Lev 19:1–18; Deut 5; 27:15–26; 6:5; • Prophets: Isa 11:1–3; Jer 7:3–11; Hos 2:19–20; 4:1–2; Mic 6:8; • Writings: Psa 15; Prov 6:16–19. Ancient Jewish Writings • Deuterocanonical Literature: Wisdom of Solomon 4:11; 8:4–9; 12:10; 14:21–31; Sirach 7:1–7; • Pseudepigrapha: 4 Maccabees 1:18; 1 Enoch 91:5–7; Jubilees 21:21, 23:144; 3 Baruch 4:17, 13:3–4; Testament of Reuben 3:2–8; Testament of Judah 16:1–2, 19:1–4; Testament of Gad 5:1–3; Testament of Asher 2:5–6; Testament of Benjamin 6:4; Sibylline Oracles 2:253–97, 3:36–45; Assumption of Moses 7:110.
New Testament • virtue lists: 2 Cor 6:6–8; Gal 5:22–23; Eph 4:32; 5:9; Phil 4:8; Col 3:12; 1 Tim 4:12; 6:11; 2 Tim 2:22; 3:10; Jas 3:17; 1 Peter 3:8; 2 Pet 1:5–7; • vice lists: Matt 15:19; Mark 7:21–22; Rom 1:29–31; 13:13; 1 Cor 5:10–11; 6:9–10; 2 Cor 6:9–10; 12:20–21; Gal 5:19–21; Eph 4:31; 5:3–5; Col 3:5, 8; 1 Tim 1:9–10; 2 Tim 3:2–5; Titus 3:3; Jas 3:15; 1 Pet 2:1; 4:3, 15; Rev 9:21; 21:8; 22:15; • related passages: Matt 5:1–12; 5:17–48; 19:18–19; 22:36–40; Mark 10:17–22; Luke 6:20–26; 18:20; Rom 5:3–5; 12:9–21; 14:17; 15:13; 5:1–5; 1 Cor 13:4–13; Eph 4:17–6:24; Phil 2:1–4; Col 3:1–4:6; 1 Thes 4:1–12; 5:8, 12–22; 1 Tim 3:2–11; 4:12; 6:3–12; Titus 1:6–9; Jas 2:8–11; 3:13–4:4; 1 Pet 4:15; 2 Pet 3:11.
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Timothy L. Jacobs