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Concordia . Theological Monthly CONCORDIA . THEOLOGICAL MONTHLY "JJ ___ m m c~ -I <)SERVE Vol. XL Special Issue No.6 & 7 Justification by Works: Fate and the Gospel in the Roman Empire ROBERT L. Wn.KEN prominent theme in the Christian To ears attuned to the Reformation the A writings of the second and third statements of Justin and Origen sound centuries is that men are "rewarded and like a not too subtle support of justifica­ punished according to the quality of their tion by works. Where we would expect works." It is sounded in the middle of the Christian thinkers to accent the gracious second century by Justin Martyr in his action of God, we find that they assert that First Apology: "We have learned from the man is capable, according to his works, to prophets and declare as the truth, that appear righteous before God. "The penalties and punishments and good re­ apostles taught," says Origen, "that the wards are given according to the quality ~oul . will be rewarded according to its of each man's action." 1 A century later, deserts after its departure from this world; Origen, in Contra Celsum, lists this belief for it will either obtain an inheritance of as an article of faith alongside the resurrec­ eternal life and blessedness, if its deeds tion and virgin birth. "Almost the whole shall warrant this, or it must be given over (to world has come to know the preaching to eternal fire." 3 kerygma) of Christians better than the opinions of philosophers," writes Origen. 3 Origen, De Pt'incipiis 1. pref. 5; also For has not everyone heard of the Chris­ 3.1.1; see also Con. Cels. 8.51: "The whole foundation of [Christian} faith is God and the tian teaching about "Jesus' birth from promises concerning the righteous given by a virgin, and of his crucifixion, and his Christ and the teaching about the punishment resurrection and the proclamation of the of the wicked." (Chadwick, p.489) For rewards and punishment in the New judgment which punishes sinners accord­ Testament see Matt.25:31-46 and 2 Cor. 5:10, ing to their deserts and pronounces the to mention only two instances. The problem righteous worthy of reward?" 2 has engendered a large and often quite tenden­ tious literature, especially among Protestants. See Ernst Wuerthwein and Herbert Preisker, 1 Justin Martyr, Apologia 43. misthos, in Theological Dictionary of the New 2 Origen, Contra Celsum 1.7 (Text by P. Testament, IV (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerd­ Koetschau in Die Griechischen Christlichen mans Publishing Co., 1967), 69-72; G. Born­ Schriftsteller der e1'sten drei lahrhunderte kamm, "Der Lohngedanke im Neuen Testa­ [Leipzig: ]. C. Heinrichs, 1931J; Eng. trans., ment," Evangelische Theologie VI, (1946), Henry Chadwick, Origen: Contra Celsum 143-66; Floyd V. Filson, St. Paul's Conception [Cambridge: University Press, 1965}). See of Recompense (Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1931); also Con. Cels. 1.9, 29, 38; 3.16, 76; 4.3, 10; Bo Reicke, "The New Testament Conception 5.16, 83; 6.55; 8.48, 51; et passim. of Reward," Aux Sources de la Tradition Chre­ tienne: Melanges offerts a M. Maurice Goguel Robert L. Wilken is assistant professor of (Neuchatel: Delachaux and Niesth!, 1950), patristic theology at Fordham University, 195-206; Willem Cornelis van Unnik, "The New York. Teaching of Good Works in I Peter," New (59) 380 JUSTIFICATION BY WORKS The primitive Christian belief in grace ment for moral responsibility.5 The dis­ seems to have given way to a doctrine of tinction between voluntary and involun­ works based on the freedom of man's will tary actions ~ central to Aristotle's view to choose good and evil. Describing this of ethics - is based on the view that man transformation in early Christian thought is under certain conditions not responsible one historian wrote: "There is no need to for his actions while under other conditions dwell upon the disastrous results of such he is responsible. "Virtue is concerned tendencies and ideas. In it a defective with feelings and actions," writes Aristotle. theology and a defective experience of "But it is only voluntary feelings and ac­ God combine with an unintelligent mis­ tions for which praise and blame are given." apprehension of the essence of morality Therefore we must distinguish what is and a stereotyped ethical code to undo the voluntary from what is done by coercion, entire work of revelation. The vision for only then can we "assign rewards and of God is fading; and as it fades the char­ punishments." Aristotle wished to show acteristic dangers of Judaism come back, that when man acts out of neither igno­ only thinly disguised by a veneer of Chris­ rance nor compulsion he is the "author of his own actions," and for this reason tian phrases." 4 we designate such actions "dependent on In this article we examine the early ourselves and voluntary." This conclusion Christian belief in "rewards and punish­ is supported, says Aristotle, by the prac­ ments" and ask why, in the situation of the tice of lawgivers who "punish and exact second and third centuries, Christians were redress from those who do evil (except led to assert something that sounds very when it is done under compulsion, or much like "justification by works." How through ignorance for which the agent do the words of Justin and Origen look himself is not responsible), and honor when viewed from the perspective of the those who do noble deeds, in order to en­ Greco-Roman world of the second cen­ courage the one sort and to repress the tury? What is the setting for belief in other; but nobody tries to encourage us "rewards and punishments" and what role to do things that do not depend upon our­ does this belief play in Christian thinking selves and are not voluntary." 6 during the period? Aristotle is addressing himself to the I problem of moral behavior, and he tries In antiquity appeal to "rewards and punishments" or "praise and blame" usu­ 5 There is no survey of the idea of rewards and punishments in antiquity nor in early ally appeared in connection with an argu- Christianity. However, the literature on fate, astrology, free will, and so forth discusses the Testament Studies (1954-55), pp. 92-110. problem. See especially David Amand, Fata­ For rewards in the teaching of Jesus, see John lisme et Libe1'te dans l'Antiquite Grecque (Lou­ Reumann, Jesus in the Cburch's Gospels (Phil­ vain: Universite de Louvain, 1945), and the adelphia: Fortress Press, 1968), pp.241-50, literature cited in note 7. with recent bibliography. 6 See Nicbomachean Ethics 3. 1-5. On 4 Kenneth E. Kirk, The Vision of God Aristotle see the superb commentary by Harold (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1931), Henry Joachim, ed. D. A. Rees, The Nicho­ pp. 138-39; 111. macbean Ethics (Toronto: Oxford Press, 1951). (60) JUSTIFICATION BY WORKS 381 to show the integral part that responsi­ Carneades left no writings, but through bility plays in a proper understanding of the citation of his arguments by later morality. What he says here helps to lay writers, and as a result of the careful re­ the groundwork for a later discussion in searches of Dam David Amand, we can Hellenistic times, namely, human responsi­ reconstruct the basic outline of his argu­ bility and freedom in contrast to fatalism ments against fatalism.s Carneades had a and determinism. The argument for free­ cumber of fixed targets in mind - the dom based on moral responsibility was de­ Stoic Chryssipus for example - and his veloped and expounded by the academic challenge to fatalistic thinking takes two philosopher Carneades in the second cen­ forms. He offers a series of arguments tury B. C. But Carneades had a somewhat against astrology, attempting to show how different goal in mind since he was con­ fragile the rationale and empirical base of tending against belief in fate and the grow­ astrology actually is. We have, he says, no ing interest in astrology.7 By his time the truly scientific means to calculate the move­ intellectual and social situation had ment of the stars and the moment of a changed considerably from the days of person's birth. This lack of precision ren­ Aristotle. Zeno had founded the new phi- ders it impossible to prepare an accurate 10sophical school of the Stoics, and this horoscope. He argues further that men school had come to great prominence and born under the same sign of the Zodiac influence by the second century B. C. frequently have different fortunes in life, Furthermore, astrological thinking had be­ gun to assume a greater role in the Hel­ and that men born under different signs, lenistic world, and it joined with Stoicism for example, all the people of a given land to present a united front on the question or nation, frequently have similar customs, of fate and necessity. institutions, temperament, character, and so forth. Presumably this is determined by 7 On fate and astrology see Amand and their own history and traditions, rather Wilhelm Gundel, Beitrage zur Entwickelungs­ geschichte der Begriffe Ananke und Heimarmene than by the stars. (Giessen, 1914), and his article "Heimarmene" These arguments are widely repeated by in Paulys Realencyclopadie der Classischen At­ tertumswissenschaft, VII (Smttgart: J. B. Metz­ Christians and non-Christians alike in the ler, 1912),2622-45; Max Pohlenz, Die Stoa, centuries after Carneades. However, it is I (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1948 Carneades' second series of arguments to 49), 110 ff.; also Pohlenz, Freedom in Greek Life and Thought (Dordrecht, Holland: which concern us here.
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