Bilingual identities in two UK communities: A study of the languages and literacies of Welsh and British-Asian girls Susan Mary Jones BA (Hons), MA Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2009 Abstract This thesis considers the role of language and literacy in supporting the exploration of bilingual identities. Two groups of bilingual girls participated in the study when they were aged between 11 and 13. One group are British-Asian girls, located within an English inner-city; the other group live in North West Wales. Like many bilinguals, the girls in this study experience the daily interaction of different – and sometimes dissonant – realities. These are represented both by their languages and by the varying cultural practices and values of their communities, many of which can be seen reflected in different literacy practices. Early in the study, quantitative analysis of the reading practices of the research participants and their peers in both communities suggested significant differences in the amount and nature of the engagement with text that occurred in English and in minority languages. A series of interviews with the two groups of girls over the next two years allowed further insight into a range of complex factors that affected their engagement with their languages and literacies. The study offers a consideration of these interconnected factors. It is argued that the interaction between languages and literacies experienced by these young bilinguals supports their ongoing negotiation of identities. The girls are shown to actively utilise the repertoire of cultural resources they experience as part of this process, using their languages and literacies as a space where they explore and demonstrate their bilingual identities. i Published Papers Jones, S. (2006) 'One body and two heads: Girls exploring their bicultural identities through text', English in Education , 40: 2, 5-21 Jones, S. (2006) ‘A Tale of Two Literacies: Girls growing up biculturally literate in two UK communities’, in Hickey, T. (ed.), Language Learning and Literacy . Dublin: RAI, 99-113 Jones, S. (2007) ‘Land of “My 9”: Welsh-English Bilingual Girls Creating Spaces to Explore Identity,’ Changing English 14, 1, 39-50 ii Acknowledgments I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to all the young people who participated in this study, in particular the girls in the interview groups, without whom, clearly, it would not have been possible. My thanks also go to the staff at both schools for their welcome, support and willingness to regularly inconvenience themselves on my account. My supervisor, Professor Christine Hall, has been the source of great encouragement and I am grateful for her patience and faith in my work. I also appreciate the support of the staff at the School of Education, in particular Jane Restorick, for her help with the statistical elements of the research. The hands on help of all my family was crucial for me to be able to carry out this work. Their support and good humour is also very much appreciated. Diolch yn fawr Mam, Evan, Ann, Lowri, Nain, Taid, Neil, Chris and John. Thanks also to Dad, whose encouragement of me is just as much part of this work, although he is not here to see it. For keeping me going, keeping everything very much in perspective, and for never failing to make me smile, I am ultimately indebted to Jevon and Joe. iii Contents Abstract i Published papers ii Acknowledgments iii List of Tables x Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Origins of the study 1 1.2 Outline of the current study 6 1.3 The research: approaches and challenges 8 Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Bilingualism: definitions and key concepts 12 2.1.2 Levels of bilinguality 13 2.2 The social context of bilingualism 16 2.2.1 Language domains 16 2.2.2 Diglossia and the social capital of language 18 2.2.3 Codeswitching 20 2.3 The ‘language other than English’: terminology 25 2.4 The languages and communities of the study 29 2.4.1 Welsh: a linguistic context 29 2.4.1.2 A social and political history of the Welsh language 30 2.4.2 Asian community languages in context 34 2.4.2.1 The ‘British-Asian’ community 34 2.4.2.2 Language use within the British-Asian community of the study 35 2.5 Language and culture 39 2.5.1 Bilingualism and biculturalism 43 iv 2.6 Identity 46 2.6.1 Models of identity development 48 2.6.2 Social and cultural contexts for identity 52 2.6.3 Identity amongst minority groups 53 2.6.4 Factors influencing minority identity 57 2.6.5 Language and identity 60 2.6.6 Negotiation of identity within minority groups 64 2.6.7 Identity: a summary 67 2.7. Literacy 68 2.7.1 New Literacy Studies 71 2.7.2 Multiliteracies and multilingual literacy 74 2.8 The Concept of Space 80 2.8.1 The Third Space 85 2.8.2 Literacy and the third space 88 Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research design 91 3.2 Sample selection 92 3.3 The Focus Groups 95 3.3.1 Contexts 95 3.3.2 The groups 96 3.4 Conducting the research: gatekeeping issues 98 3.5 The Questionnaire 99 3.6 Interviews 103 3.6.1 Logistics and context 104 3.6.2 Implications and considerations 105 3.7 Validation 106 3.8 My own role 108 3.9 Analysis process 112 3.10 Organisation of the thesis and notes on transcription 113 v Chapter 4 QUESTIONNAIRE DATA 4.1 Introduction 115 4.2 The sample 116 4.3 Languages other than English and their use 118 4.3.1 Use of languages other than English at school 121 4.4 Involvement in lessons outside school 122 4.5 Reading 124 4.5.1 What respondents were reading 124 4.5.2 Preferences 127 4.5.3 Favourite author or series 128 4.5.4 Sourcing reading material 132 4.5.5 Library use 135 4.5.6 Books at home 138 4.5.7 Amount of reading 140 4.5.8 Reading the previous evening 142 4.6 Bilingual writing 144 4.7 Perceptions of ability in reading and writing 146 4.8 Attitudes towards reading and writing 149 4.9 Summary 152 Chapter 5 YSGOL GYMRAEG Part 1: Bilingualism and Identity 5.1.1 Introduction 155 5.1.2 The Welsh language and Welsh identity 156 5.1.3 Language backgrounds 158 5.1.4 Uses of bilingualism 163 5.1.5 Inclusion and exclusion through language 164 5.1.6 The politicised Discourse of Welsh as a language under threat 171 5.1.7 Tensions within the Discourse 177 Part 2: Literacy practices 5.2.1 Introduction: Reading in Welsh and English 182 5.2.2 Reading preferences amongst the interview vi group 183 5.2.3 Aliteracy in Welsh? 186 5.2.4 Choice 188 5.2.5 Translations of English books into Welsh 191 5.2.6 Language differences and difficulties 192 5.2.7 Literacy at home: magazine reading 196 5.2.8 Reading at school: the girls’ perspective 201 5.2.9 Teacher interviews 206 5.2.9.1 Practice and pedagogic approach to reading 207 5.2.9.2 Resources 208 5.2.9.3 Teachers’ perceptions of students’ attitudes towards reading 210 5.2.10 Literacy practices: a summary 219 Part 3: Electronic text 5.3.1 Introduction 221 5.3.2 CymraesCymreig.com : personal homepages 222 5.3.3 Language choice and identity on the personal homepages 224 5.3.4 Instant Messaging 228 Chapter 6 CITY COMMUNITY SCHOOL Part 1: Bilingualism and Identity 6.1.1 Introduction 239 6.1.2 The experience of bilingualism: day-to-day interaction 240 6.1.3 Proficiency 244 6.1.4 Language as a symbol of identity 246 6.1.4.1 Language and geographic links 246 6.1.4.2 Language and religion 250 6.1.5 Inclusion and exclusion through language 252 6.1.6 Language as a marker of community 255 vii Part 2: Literacy Practices 6.2.1 Introduction 258 6.2.2 Early reading experiences 259 6.2.3 Experiences of reading and the school library 260 6.2.4 Preferences and attitudes towards reading 263 6.2.5 Reading in Urdu and Punjabi 265 6.2.6 Proficiency and its impact on the experience of reading in Urdu and Punjabi 266 6.2.7 Learning Urdu and Punjabi: school and language classes 269 6.2.8 Cultural issues: translation 272 6.2.9 Religious texts 273 6.2.10 Literacy practices: a summary 276 Part 3: Magazine Reading 6.3.1 Magazines as key texts in the identity process 278 6.3.2 Teenage magazines in context: consternation and contestation 279 6.3.3 Magazine reading amongst the girls of City Community School 283 6.3.4 The content of teenage girls’ magazines 287 6.3.5 Negotiating meanings within contesting cultural practice 289 6.3.6 Representations of minority groups within teenage girls’ magazines 293 6.3.7 Bollywood magazines 297 6.3.8 Reading communities and reading spaces 304 Chapter 7 CONCLUSION: LITERACY PRACTICES AS SPACES OF IDENTITY NEGOTIATION 7.1 Introduction 313 viii 7.2 Space and the bilingual experience in both communities 314 7.3 Spaces encountered by the girls of Ysgol Gymraeg 315 7.4 Literacy spaces at Ysgol Gymraeg 317 7.5 Electronic third space as a negotiation and demonstration of bilingual identities 320 7.6 Spaces encountered by the girls of City Community School 323 7.7 Literacy spaces and the lives of the girls of City Community School 325 7.8 Room for manoeuvre: magazine reading as third space for exploring identities 328 7.9 Conclusion 331 References 333 Appendix 346 Pupil Questionnaire (bilingual version) 347 Sample interview schedules 363 ix List of tables 4.1 Numbers of respondents at each school 116 4.2 Number of respondents by gender 117 4.3 Response to ‘Do you speak a language other than English at home?’ 118 4.4 Bilingual respondents at both schools by gender 118 4.5 Languages reported to be spoken at home, other than or in addition to English 120 4.6 People with whom mother tongue is spoken 120 4.7 Estimated time spent speaking a language other than English each day 121 4.8 Bilinguals’ use of languages