DOCSLIB.ORG

Bison West of the Rocky Mountains

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Bison West of the Rocky Mountains Oirk Van Vuren, Departmentof Systernaticsand Ecology Un versityof Kansas Lawrence Kansas66045 Bison West of the RockyMountains: An AlternativeExplanation Abstract Althoush abundant on the C.eat Plains, bison (Aison bison)were relatively scarcewesr of rhe Rocky Mountains in the Pacific Northwest.Four explanationshave been advancedto :rccountfor this low density: l) relalive inaccessibilit]ol the atea, coupled with Indian,causednortaliryi 2) low prorein content of forages;3) lack of slnchrony betweenforage plant phenologyand the bison reproducti'e .ycl€; 4) periodicallyh€arf winter snowsdeep enough 1o kill all colonizingbhon. None ofthese explanations finds lolid supporr in rbe available evidence.I propose that low bison nunbers resulted fron low overall forage produc!ion, and from discontinuousbabitar shich isolatedbison populationsand sloved recolonizationfollowing periodic Iocal extinctions. Introduction authors. My purposeis to examinethe four ex- planationsin light of the availableevidence, then and extraordinaryabun- The former distribution proposea new explanation. danceof bison (Bison bison\ot the Great Plains (Roe hasbeen chronicled in detail 1970),but the FormerDistribution of Bison occurrenceof bison further west is not well known and has been a matter of considerable Numerouseyewitness accounts attest lo the abun- debate.Although bison apparently were widely danceof bisonin southwesternWyoming and the distributed throughout much of the Pacific SnakeRiver Plain and adjacentvalleys of south- Northwest,they were abundantwest of the Con- easternIdaho (e.g.,Ogden 1910,Work 1913, tinentalDivide only in southwesternWyoming Davis 1935,Haines 1955).There are no eye" and southeasternIdaho. Low densityof bison witnessaccounts of bison further westand north- overmost of their rangewest of the Divide stands west,in the PacificNorthwest, but broaddistribu- in marked contrast to availabilityof steppe tion is suggestedby recoveryof bisonskulls and habitatrvhich sppmcd capable of supporling otherbones from at least44localities in ea"t"rn much higher numbers.This disparitybetween Washington,eastern Oregon, and southnestern numbersand apparentcarying capacitywas Idaho(hereafter"PNW") (Schroedl 1973, Agen- notedby the earliestexplorers in the area,and broad l9?8, Van Vuren and Bray l9B5).Only one hasstimulated much discussion since (Kingston oftheselocalities yielded evidence ofmore than 1932,Haines 196?,Christman 1971, Schroedl a fewindividuals; hundreds of bisonskulls were 1973,Butler 1978,Mack and Thompson1982, exposedat MalheurLake in easternOregon, sug- Daubenmire1985). Resolurion of the problemhas gesting that bison may have been locally com- important implications for plant ecology and mon there(Van Vuren and Bray l9B5).Most of evolution(Daubenmire 1978, 210, Mack and the 44 localitieswere in areascharacterized by Thompsonl9B2), zoogeography (Lyman and Liv- steppevegetation \vhich produces an appreciable ingston1983), and ethnography(Schroedl 1973, biomassof graminoids,the principalforage of Butler l97B). bison(Meagher 1973, Peden 1976, Reynolds et Four explanationshave been proposed to ac- aL l978, Van Vuren l9B4a).Available evidence countfor the scarcityof bisonwest of the Rocky suggeststhat bison becameextinct for uncertain Mountains.Critical evaluation of theseexplana- reasonsin easternOregon and Washin5on about tions,based on availableliterature, has been lack- 1800(Schroedl 1973, Van Vuren and Bray 1985). ing. Becausethe problemis historicalin nature (bison were exterminatedwest of the Rocky PreviousExplanations Mountainsover 100years ago), the causeof low bison numbersmay never be identified con- Kingston(1932) argued that physiographicbar- clusively;yet a considerablebody of pertinent riers greatlyrestricted immigration of bison into literatureexists, largely overlooked by previous the PNW, and that the few successfulimmigrants NorthvestScience, Vol. 61, No. 2, t9B7 65 were soon killed by Indians. Archeological shift accordingto environmentalconditions, evidencedoes not supportthis explanation.The Moreover, Daubenmire (1985) argued that presenceof bones of immature bison rn ar- grassesin more mesichabitats peripheral ro cheologicalsite" in soulheaqternWashington sug- steppe remain green throughout the summer, geststhat a breedingpopulation inhabited the providing sufficient forage to sustaina substan- area(Osborne 1953, Schroedl 1973). A bisonkill tial number of bison. The ability of bison to ex- site in southwesternIdaho, in usean estimated ploit seasonallyavailable forage is dernonstrated 7000years, incorporated 26B0 m of stonefences by the severalextant herds which are migratory (AgenbroadI9?8); the efforr for constructionand (Soper1941, Meagher 1973, Van Vuren and Bray the duration of usesuggest that bison in the area 1986). vere an establishedpopulation rather than an Daubenmire(1985) proposed that occasion- occasionalgroup that strayed west. ally heary snowfallwest of the RockyMountains, Johnson(1951), noting the apparentlylow held in place by shrubs,was sufficiently deepto densitiesof bisonon tallgrassprairie east of the kill any bison that crossed the Continental MississippiRiver compared with high densities Divide.Telfer and Kelsall(1984) reported that on shortgrassprairie further west,suggested that bison seemedless efficient than severalother bison nurnberswere limited by presumedlower native North Americanungulates at coping with proteincontent of tallgrassspecies. Daubenmire deepsnow, but it is unknownif this relativein- (1985)interpreted this suggestionas an explana- efficiencytranslated into an absoluteinability to tion of low bisonnumbers in the PNW as com- survivein the PNW. There is a crucialdifference paredwith high numberson the Great Plains. betweensnowfall sufficient to causelocal mor- Data on proteincontent of grassesdo not sup- tality in bison, which has been documented port this interpretation.Protein content of steppe (Meagher 1973), and snowfall periodically so grassesin the PNW,either live (ca. 6-15% of dry severethat a vast area was renderedentirely weight)or cured (co. 4-7%) (Mcllvanie 1942, uninhabitable.Daubenmire derives suppod for Rickard el aL 1975, Uresk and Cline 1976, his explanationlargely from historicalaccounts Willms er al. 1981),was similar to proteincon- of domesticlivestock encountering difficulty with tentoflive (co.6-15%) or cured(ca- 3€%) steppe deep snow. The underlying assumption, that grasseseast of the Rocky Mountains (Jefferies bison and livestockare ecologicallysimilar, is and Rice 1969,Sims et al t971, Willard and probably invalid (e.g., Peden et al. 1974; Schuster 1973, Coetz 1975, Cogswell and Christophersonet al. l97B; Schwartzand Ellis Kamstra1976). l98l; Van Vuren 1982,1984a; Van Vuren and Mack and Thompson(1982) suggested that Bray 1983).Moreover, there are numerousre- grassphenology in the PNW may havelimited liable descriptionsfrom rhe lB00'sof facrorssuch bison numbers.They noted that btson cows as drowning, fire, and quicksand killing large usuallycalve late April throughearly June and numbersof bison,but noneof massmortality due proposedthat the nutritionalstress of lactation to deepsnow (Roe l9?0). Indeed, historical ac- coincidedwell with grassphenology on the Great countsindicate bison were not greatlyaffected Plains, but very poorly with phenology in the by snow (Roe 1970,203). PNW,where steppe grasses are dormant during Any explanationfor low bisonnumbers in the much of the summer.The underlyingassump- PNW shouldalso account for the disappearance tion, that the bison reproductivecycle cannot of bisonin the areaabout 1800.Chdstman (197t) shift in responseto forage availability, may not suggestedthat this extinction,whicn occurred bp valid.The midpointof the breedingsea"on shortlyafter Iocal Indiansacquired the horse, of sevenbison herds(McHugh t958, Halloran resultedfrom the increasedefficiency and mobil- and Class 1959,Fuller 1962,Meagher 1973, ity of mountedhunters. The preferenceof In- Petersburg1973, Mahan 1978,Lott 1981,Lott diansfor bison is demonstratedby numerousac- and Galland1985, Shull l9B5)was correlated with countsof PNW tribesmaking trips of 500 km latitude(R" = 0.75,P ( 0.05).Breeding, and or more on horsebackto hunt bisoneast of the presumablycalving, occurred up to six weeks ContinentalDivide (e.g.,0gden 1910,Stewart earlierin southernherds than in northern herds, 1938).Daubenmire (1985), however, argued that suggestingthat the bison reproductivecycle can Christman'ssuggestion was inconsistentwith 66 Van Vuren Schroedl's(1973) conclusion that bisonnumbers mancyof steppevegetation may havefuither re- in easternWashington were seemingly in decline duced carrying capacity (Mack and Thompson long beforeintroduction of the horse.Schroedl's r9B2). conclusionwas based on a temporaldecline in Second,vegetation east of the RockyMoun- numbersof archeologicalsites in which bison tains consistedof nearly continuousgrassland, havebeen found and in numbersof bisonbone virtually all of it suitablebison habitat.Any area fragmentsper site.This evidenceis questionable. sufferinga localpopulation reduction or erlinc- The declinein number of sitescontaining bison, tion of bison could be recolonizedquickly by ad- from nine (2500-1500BP) to six (500-200BP), is jacentherds. In contrast,much of the tenain west unconvincing.Schroedl did not comparethe of the RockyMountains was a mosaicofhabitats, numberof sitesin whichbison were found with many of them unsuitablefor bison.Distribution the number in rhich they were not found; a of bison probably was disjunct,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Mountain-Prairie Region 6 Overview of the Service’S Mountain-Prairie Region
    U.S. U.S.Fish Fish & Wildlife & Wildlife Service Service Mountain-Prairie Region 6 Overview of the Service’s Mountain-Prairie Region Widgeon Pond at Red Rocks Lake National Wildlife Refuge / USFWS The Mountain-Prairie Region consists of federal agencies such as the Department Regional Demographics 8 states in the heart of the American of Defense. Energy development, ■ Land area: 737,884 square miles west including Colorado, Kansas, agricultural trends and urbanization all (468,573,000 acres) Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, exert influences on the Region’s ■ Population: 15,403,172 (Roughly 2.5 to South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. The landscapes. 1 urban to rural ratio) region is defined by three distinct ■ Members of Congress: 37 landscapes. In the east lie the central Resource Facts and Figures ■ Federally Recognized Indian Tribes: 40 and northern Great Plains, primarily the ■ Approximately 5,751,358 acres ■ Public land: 137,024,000 acres (federal vast mixed- and short-grass prairies. To protected by the National Wildlife and state) the west rise the Rocky Mountains and Refuge System (NWRS), including ■ Wildlife-dependent recreation: the intermountain areas beyond the both fee title and easement lands. This 7,275,000 people* (hunting, fishing, and Continental Divide, including parts of includes 124 national wildlife refuges, wildlife watching) the sprawling Colorado Plateau and the 18 coordination areas, and numerous * USDA Economic Research Service Great Basin. The northeastern part of waterfowl production areas in 120 **FY 2011 National Survey of Fishing, the Region contains millions of shallow counties through Fiscal Year 2012. Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated wetlands known as the “prairie ■ 2,576,476 visitors to NWRS lands in Recreation potholes,” which produce a large portion Fiscal Year 2012.
    [Show full text]
  • Bent's Fort Teacher Resource Guide-Secondary
    Annotated Resource Set (ARS) Bent’s Fort Teacher Resource Guide-Secondary Title / Content Area: Bent’s Fort-US History Developed by: Kelly Jones-Wagy Grade Level: 9-12 Contextual Paragraph Bent’s Fort in southeastern Colorado, built in 1833 by trader and rancher William Bent, was an important trading settlement in the 1830s. Located on the border of Mexico and US territory and in the heart of Native American country, Bent’s Fort was a hub of globalism, international trade, and international relations. Although Bent mysteriously destroyed it in 1852, the fort was rebuilt in 1976 and is now a National Historic Landmark. Bent’s Fort does not typically align with high school curriculum; however, it is an excellent introduction to the Sand Creek Massacre and Manifest Destiny. The Sand Creek Massacre took place on November 29, 1864, in southeastern Colorado. Colonel John Chivington (the hero of the Civil War Battle of Glorieta Pass) attacked an American Indian encampment made up largely of women and children from the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes. About 200 people were killed in the attack, and Chivington paraded body parts of the dead along the streets of Denver. In 1865 Congress led an investigation into the massacre, but Chivington never faced charges for his role. In addition to its connections to the events at Sand Creek, Bent’s Fort helped open up the American western frontier to settlement. It helped America bring forward the concept of Manifest Destiny. 1 Resource Set Title Primary Source Lesson Map of the upper Great The Dawes Act Johnson's new Ft.
    [Show full text]
  • Colorado River Slideshow Title TK
    The Colorado River: Lifeline of the Southwest { The Headwaters The Colorado River begins in the Rocky Mountains at elevation 10,000 feet, about 60 miles northwest of Denver in Colorado. The Path Snow melts into water, flows into the river and moves downstream. In Utah, the river meets primary tributaries, the Green River and the San Juan River, before flowing into Lake Powell and beyond. Source: Bureau of Reclamation The Path In total, the Colorado River cuts through 1,450 miles of mountains, plains and deserts to Mexico and the Gulf of California. Source: George Eastman House It was almost 1,500 years ago when humans first tapped the river. Since then, the water has been claimed, reclaimed, divided and subdivided many times. The river is the life source for seven states – Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming – as well as the Republic of Mexico. River Water Uses There are many demands for Colorado River water: • Agriculture and Livestock • Municipal and Industrial • Recreation • Fish/Wildlife and Habitat • Hydroelectricity • Tribes • Mexico Source: USGS Agriculture The Colorado River provides irrigation water to about 3.5 million acres of farmland – about 80 percent of its flows. Municipal Phoenix Denver About 15 percent of Colorado River flows provide drinking and household water to more than 30 million people. These cities include: Las Vegas and Phoenix, and cities outside the Basin – Denver, Albuquerque, Salt Lake City, Los Angeles, San Diego and Tijuana, Mexico. Recreation Source: Utah Office of Tourism Source: Emma Williams Recreation includes fishing, boating, waterskiing, camping and whitewater rafting in 22 National Wildlife Refuges, National Parks and National Recreation Areas along river.
    [Show full text]
  • E-Book on Dynamic Geology of the Northern Cordillera (Alaska and Western Canada) and Adjacent Marine Areas: Tectonics, Hazards, and Resources
    Dynamic Geology of the Northern Cordillera (Alaska and Western Canada) and Adjacent Marine Areas: Tectonics, Hazards, and Resources Item Type Book Authors Bundtzen, Thomas K.; Nokleberg, Warren J.; Price, Raymond A.; Scholl, David W.; Stone, David B. Download date 03/10/2021 23:23:17 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/11122/7994 University of Alaska, U.S. Geological Survey, Pacific Rim Geological Consulting, Queens University REGIONAL EARTH SCIENCE FOR THE LAYPERSON THROUGH PROFESSIONAL LEVELS E-Book on Dynamic Geology of the Northern Cordillera (Alaska and Western Canada) and Adjacent Marine Areas: Tectonics, Hazards, and Resources The E-Book describes, explains, and illustrates the have been subducted and have disappeared under the nature, origin, and geological evolution of the amazing Northern Cordillera. mountain system that extends through the Northern In alphabetical order, the marine areas adjacent to the Cordillera (Alaska and Western Canada), and the Northern Cordillera are the Arctic Ocean, Beaufort Sea, intriguing geology of adjacent marine areas. Other Bering Sea, Chukchi Sea, Gulf of Alaska, and the Pacific objectives are to describe geological hazards (i.e., Ocean. volcanic and seismic hazards) and geological resources (i.e., mineral and fossil fuel resources), and to describe the scientific, economic, and social significance of the earth for this region. As an example, the figure on the last page illustrates earthquakes belts for this dangerous part of the globe. What is the Northern Cordillera? The Northern Cordillera is comprised of Alaska and Western Canada. Alaska contains a series of parallel mountain ranges, and intervening topographic basins and plateaus. From north to south, the major mountain ranges are the Brooks Range, Kuskokwim Mountains, Aleutian Range, Alaska Range, Wrangell Mountains, and the Chugach Mountains.
    [Show full text]
  • Flood Potential in the Southern Rocky Mountains Region and Beyond
    Flood Potential in the Southern Rocky Mountains Region and Beyond Steven E. Yochum, Hydrologist, U.S. Forest Service, Fort Collins, Colorado 970-295-5285, [email protected] prepared for the SEDHYD-2019 conference, June 24-28th, Reno, Nevada, USA Abstract Understanding of the expected magnitudes and spatial variability of floods is essential for managing stream corridors. Utilizing the greater Southern Rocky Mountains region, a new method was developed to predict expected flood magnitudes and quantify spatial variability. In a variation of the envelope curve method, regressions of record peak discharges at long-term streamgages were used to predict the expected flood potential across zones of similar flood response and provide a framework for consistent comparison between zones through a flood potential index. Floods varied substantially, with the southern portion of Eastern Slopes and Great Plains zone experiencing floods, on average for a given watershed area, 15 times greater than an adjacent orographic-sheltered zone (mountain valleys of central Colorado and Northern New Mexico). The method facilitates the use of paleoflood data to extend predictions and provides a systematic approach for identifying extreme floods through comparison with large floods experienced by all streamgages within each zone. A variability index was developed to quantify within-zone flood variability and the flood potential index was combined with a flashiness index to yield a flood hazard index. Preliminary analyses performed in Texas, Missouri and Arkansas, northern Maine, northern California, and Puerto Rico indicate the method may have wide applicability. By leveraging data collected at streamgages in similar- responding nearby watersheds, these results can be used to predict expected large flood magnitudes at ungaged and insufficiently gaged locations, as well as for checking the results of statistical distributions at streamgaged locations, and for comparing flood risks across broad geographic extents.
    [Show full text]
  • Rocky Mountain National Park Geologic Resource Evaluation Report
    National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior Geologic Resources Division Denver, Colorado Rocky Mountain National Park Geologic Resource Evaluation Report Rocky Mountain National Park Geologic Resource Evaluation Geologic Resources Division Denver, Colorado U.S. Department of the Interior Washington, DC Table of Contents Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... 1 Dedication and Acknowledgements............................................................................ 2 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 3 Purpose of the Geologic Resource Evaluation Program ............................................................................................3 Geologic Setting .........................................................................................................................................................3 Geologic Issues............................................................................................................. 5 Alpine Environments...................................................................................................................................................5 Flooding......................................................................................................................................................................5 Hydrogeology .............................................................................................................................................................6
    [Show full text]
  • Rocky Mountains and the Great Plains
    Rocky Mountains and the Great Plains Colorado – Wyoming – Montana – North Dakota - South Dakota – Nebraska Denver Art Museum Denver, Colorado Denver is the perfect blend of outdoor beauty and big-city charm. It was also one of the first U.S. cities to embrace the craft brewing movement. To celebrate this fact, grab a pint and join a tour of the Denver Beer Trail, home to some 20 craft breweries, including the city’s oldest microbrewery, Wynkoop Brewing Company. Denver’s Larimer Square, now a bustling hub of shops, restaurants, bars and clubs, was the city’s first block, founded before Colorado became a territory. LoDo, the city’s lower downtown area, is Denver’s oldest neighborhood. It’s also where you’ll find the Colorado Rockies baseball stadium, numerous art galleries and boutiques, and dozens of restaurants and bars. Denver’s visual arts scene is impressive; begin exploring at the Denver Art Museum, one of the largest art museums in the West, boasting a major collection of Native American art. Save time to visit Denver’s Museum of Contemporary Art to see cutting-edge works in a variety of mediums, or get outside and meander through the Mile High City’s many galleries. The Art District on Santa Fe, with some 60 galleries, hosts an art walk the first Friday of each month, as does the Golden Triangle Museum District, home to more than 50 galleries. While strolling around Denver, make note of the city’s collection of more than 300 pieces of public art, including sculptures, murals, and sound- and light-based works.
    [Show full text]
  • Appendix E: SWAP Vegetation Conservation Target Abstracts Member National Vegetation Classification Macrogroup/Group Summaries
    Appendix E: SWAP Vegetation Conservation Target Abstracts Member National Vegetation Classification Macrogroup/Group Summaries Alpine & High Montane Scrub, Grassland & Barrens Cushion plant communities, dense sedge and grass turf, heath and willow dwarf-shrubland, wet meadow, and sparsely-vegetated rock and scree found at and above upper timberline. Topography, wind, rock movement, soil depth, and snow accumulation patterns determine distribution of vegetation types in these short growing season habitats. Alpine Scrub, Forb Meadow & Grassland (M099) M099. Rocky Mountain & Sierran Alpine Scrub, Forb Meadow & Grassland Railroad Ridge RNA, White Cloud Mountains, Idaho © 2006 Steve Rust Rocky Canyon, Lemhi Mountains, Idaho © 2006 Chris Murphy Cushion plant communities, dense turf, dwarf-shrublands, and sparsely-vegetated rock and scree slopes found at and above upper timberline throughout the Rocky Mountains, Great Basin ranges, and Sierra Nevada. Topography (e.g., ridgetops versus lee slopes), wind, rock movement, and snow accumulation patterns produce scoured fell-fields, dry turf, snow accumulation heath sites, runoff-fed wet meadows, and scree communities. Fell-field plants are cushioned or matted, adapted to shallow drought-prone soils where wind removes snow, and are intermixed with exposed lichen coated rocks. Common species include Ross’ avens (Geum rossii), Bellardi bog sedge (Kobresia myosuroides), twinflower sandwort (Minuartia obtusiloba), Idaho Department of Fish & Game, 2016 September 22 886 Appendix E. Habitat Target Descriptions. Continued. cushion phlox (Phlox pulvinata), moss campion (Silene acaulis), and others. Dense low-growing, graminoids, especially blackroot sedge (Carex elynoides) and fescue (Festuca spp.), characterize alpine turf found on dry, but less harsh soil than fell-fields. Dwarf-shrublands occur in snow accumulating areas and are comprised of heath species, such as moss heather (Cassiope), dwarf willows (Salix arctica, S.
    [Show full text]
  • The Little Rocky Mountains
    The Little Rocky Mountains Map Area Geo-Facts: he Little Rocky Mountains are an island on the Great Falls • The Little Rocky Mountains contain the only exposures of ancient To Havre To LITTLE ROCKY MOUNTAINS northern Great Plains of Montana. About 50 GFTZ Precambrian basement rock in northeastern Montana. million years ago, a fifteen-mile-wide igneous 66 Highway State Billings dome pushed its way up through 1700 million-year-old MONTANA • Laccoliths are magma domes that pushed upward, whereas magma T sheets that rose vertically are called dikes. Dikes often radiate out Precambrian basement rocks to form this spectacular from the laccoliths like the spokes on a gigantic wheel. mountain range. The mountains are a composite of ta Precambrian metamorphic rocks, Paleozoic limestone al • Madison Limestone formed 350 million years ago when a shallow M o and dolomite, Mesozoic sandstone and shale, and Tertiary Zortman T sea covered much of Montana. Madison Limestone can be found in Landusky Domes many of the mountain ranges of western Montana, but lies deeply intrusive rocks. The loftiest portion of the range is girdled buried by younger rocks over most of eastern Montana. by a steeply dipping wall of Madison Limestone that makes Mine areas 1 the interior part of the range appear as a fortress. The Little 19 Geo-Activity: y wa Igneous Rock gh . Hi Rockies also contain igneous dikes and sills that contribute U.S N • Look out at the Little Rocky Mountains or when you are back in the Sedimentary Rock car and try to identify some of the formations referenced in the sign.
    [Show full text]
  • The Colorado River an Ecological Case Study in Coupled Human and Natural Systems
    The Colorado River An Ecological Case Study in Coupled Human and Natural Systems edited by David L. Alles Western Washington University e-mail: [email protected] Last Updated 2013-6-2 Note: In PDF format most of the images in this web paper can be enlarged for greater detail. 1 “Ten years or a hundred years or a hundred thousand years from now, the world's supply of freshwater will remain much the same. Such an assertion cannot be made about the world's population or about mankind's capacity for devising technologies to use-and abuse-the limited water supply. Put another way, the fate of all natural bodies of water is inseparably tied to human values about the quality of life and the number of people any part of the world can properly support. Seen from this perspective, the Colorado River is a microcosm of the world's water supply. Lessons learned from its past and policies adopted for its future are of fundamental importance not only for those dependent on the river, but also for people everywhere.” Norris C. Hundley from The West Against Itself: The Colorado River-An Institutional History http://www.movingwaters.org/hundleychapter.html 2 Introduction In studying humanity’s impact on the world’s ecosystems there are few better examples than the use and misuse of the Colorado River in the American southwest. This web paper introduces the Colorado as a case study in how humans have changed their world and the lessons that can be learned from those changes. The story of the Colorado River is a study in complex environmental systems where human and natural systems are coupled in complex loops of cause and effect.
    [Show full text]
  • Proactive Limber Pine Conservation Strategy for the Greater Rocky Mountain National Park Area
    United States Department of Agriculture Proactive Limber Pine Conservation Strategy for the Greater Rocky Mountain National Park Area Anna W. Schoettle, Kelly S. Burns, Christy M. Cleaver, J. Jeff Connor Forest Rocky Mountain General Technical Report May 2019 Service Research Station RMRS-GTR-379 Schoettle, Anna W.; Burns, Kelly S.; Cleaver, Christy M.; Connor, J. Jeff. 2019. Proactive limber pine conservation strategy for the Greater Rocky Mountain National Park Area. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-379. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 81 p. Abstract This proactive conservation strategy addresses the unique situation of limber pine in the Greater Rocky Mountain National Park Area (GRMNPA). The target area includes Rocky Mountain National Park and surrounding areas of northern Colorado and southern Wyoming. The GRMNPA is at the infection front for white pine blister rust (WPBR) where populations were also impacted by the recent mountain pine beetle epidemic and are threatened by climate change. This is the first proactive conservation strategy for a five-needle pine species in North America. It focuses on timing specific monitoring efforts and interventions to sustain healthy limber pine populations and ecosystems during invasion and naturalization of WPBR, thereby putting limber pine on a trajectory that reduces the probability of ecosystem impairment in the future. The high frequency of complete resistance to WPBR in limber pine populations in the GRMNPA is a distinctive feature of this area’s ecol- ogy. Having this information and other site-based genetic and disturbance ecology information before WPBR affects the populations is also unique and warranted the development of this proactive conservation strategy.
    [Show full text]
  • Alpine Ecosystems
    TWENTY-NINE Alpine Ecosystems PHILIP W. RUNDEL and CONSTANCE I. MILLAR Introduction Alpine ecosystems comprise some of the most intriguing hab­ writing about the alpine meadows of the Sierra Nevada, felt itats of the world for the stark beauty of their landscapes and his words were inadequate to describe “the exquisite beauty for the extremes of the physical environment that their resi­ of these mountain carpets as they lie smoothly outspread in dent biota must survive. These habitats lie above the upper the savage wilderness” (Muir 1894). limit of tree growth but seasonally present spectacular flo­ ral shows of low-growing herbaceous perennial plants. Glob­ ally, alpine ecosystems cover only about 3% of the world’s Defining Alpine Ecosystems land area (Körner 2003). Their biomass is low compared to shrublands and woodlands, giving these ecosystems only a Alpine ecosystems are classically defined as those communi­ minor role in global biogeochemical cycling. Moreover, spe­ ties occurring above the elevation of treeline. However, defin­ cies diversity and local endemism of alpine ecosystems is rela­ ing the characteristics that unambiguously characterize an tively low. However, alpine areas are critical regions for influ­ alpine ecosystem is problematic. Defining alpine ecosystems encing hydrologic flow to lowland areas from snowmelt. based on presence of alpine-like communities of herbaceous The alpine ecosystems of California present a special perennials is common but subject to interpretation because case among alpine regions of the world. Unlike most alpine such communities may occur well below treeline, while other regions, including the American Rocky Mountains and the areas well above treeline may support dense shrub or matted European Alps (where most research on alpine ecology has tree cover.
    [Show full text]