Education in Asia and the Pacific

How We Work ADB—Education ADB provides project financing and technical assistance to help develop comprehensive education sector plans and support sustainable development of education at all levels. at a Glance ADB’s Community of Practice in Education supports education sector operations through knowledge generation and sharing lessons and best practices from the field. ADB regularly undertakes studies on education development in the region and prepares timely publications and other knowledge products to share knowledge on important topics in education.

The National Qualifications Framework for Skills Training Reform in Sri Lanka

CERC Monograph Series in Comparative and International The National VocationalEducation Qualifications and Development Framework of Sri Lanka was developed in conformity with the socioeconomic milieu and the needs of the labor market with the participation of industry stakeholders. It has enhanced the role of the government in policy and regulation, and the role of the private sector in providing skills training. A unified system with seven levels covering 96 occupations at the craft level, 14 fields at the middle ADB proactively pursues partnerships with stakeholders of education, technician level, and 4 courses of study at the degree level, it has reduced the complexity and ambiguity of training and selecting competent workers. This publication describes the progress and challenges in developing, implementing, and monitoring this ambitious scheme, with lessons for developing skills qualification frameworks in other countries.

Shadow Education including the private sector, to help leverage financing for education and About the Asian Development Bank ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its The National Qualifications developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling Shadow Educationon less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive Framework for Skills Training improve inclusiveness, quality, and relevance of education service delivery. economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Shadow Education Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia Private Supplementary Tutoring instruments for helping its developing memberNo. countries9 are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance. In all parts of Asia, households devote considerable expenditures to and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia Reform in Sri Lanka private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring may contribute to students’ achievement, but it also maintains and exacerbates social inequalities, diverts resources from other uses, and can contribute to inefficiencies in Mark Bray and Chad Lykins education systems. Such tutoring is widely called shadow education, because it mimics Bray and Lykins ADB Support to Education Development, 1970–2013* school systems. As the curriculum in the school system changes, so does the shadow. This study documents the scale and nature of shadow education in different parts of the region. For many decades, shadow education has been a major phenomenon in East Asia. Now it has spread throughout the region, and it has far-reaching economic and social implications. IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL QUALITY Focus on Faculty Development About the Asian Development Bank Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve ISBN 978-92-9092-221-6 Country the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it Publication Stock No. TIM112959 remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, Printed in the Philippines environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Afghanistan Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the COUNTING THE COST region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and Financing Asian Higher Education Bangladesh technical assistance. for Inclusive Growth ACCESS WITHOUT EQUITY? Finding a Better Balance Bhutan CERC in Higher Education in Asia

Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City Cambodia Asian Development Bank 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org HIGHER6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong EDUCATION City ACROSS ASIA ISBN 978-92-9092-518-7 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Printed in the Philippines Publication Stock No. RPS124228 www.adb.orgAn Overview of Issues and Strategies China, People’s Printed on recycled paper. Broad Education Republic of Printed on recycled paper. Private Higher Education Across Asia Printed in the Philippines Sector Development Cook Islands Expanding Access, Searching for Quality 13% Asian Development Bank HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA Fiji 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City Regional Cooperation and Cross-Border 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org Collaboration in Higher Education in Asia Improving Transitions India Printed on recycled paper. Ensuring that Everyone Wins From School to University to Workplace

ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8 Indonesia Administration and Governance of Kazakhstan Higher Education in Asia HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA Printed in the Philippines Patterns and Implications Kiribati Printed in the Philippines Asian Development Bank HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA Technical 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Korea, Republic of www.adb.org ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8 Preprimary and Publication Stock No. RPS114214 HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA Asian Development Bank Education and Printed on recycled paper. 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City Kyrgyz Republic 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org

Printed in the Philippines ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8 Basic Education Vocational Skills

Lao People’s Printed on recycled paper. ISBN 978-92-9092-734-1 Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines 37% Democratic www.adb.org ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8 Printed in the Philippines Training Publication Stock No. RPS114214 Republic Printed on recycled paper. 21% Malaysia HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA ISBN 978-92-9092-824-9

Maldives HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA

Marshall Islands ISBN 978-92-9092-762-4 HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA Nonformal Micronesia, Education Federated States of Printed in the Philippines Asian Development Bank 4% 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Mongolia www.adb.org Upper

Printed on recycled paper. Tertiary and Myanmar Secondary Nepal Education is a Core Operation Area of ADB. Education Higher Pakistan 13% Education Papua New Guinea ADB. 2008. Strategy 2020: The Long-Term Strategic 12% Philippines Samoa Framework of the Asian Development Bank 2008–2020. Manila. Singapore Solomon Islands Sri Lanka Tajikistan Thailand Timor-Leste Tuvalu Uzbekistan Vanuatu Viet Nam Regional

* Includes loans, grants, and technical assistance (TA). How We Work ADB—Education ADB provides project financing and technical assistance to help develop comprehensive education sector plans and support sustainable development of education at all levels. at a Glance ADB’s Community of Practice in Education supports education sector operations through knowledge generation and sharing lessons and best practices from the field. Education plays an increasingly critical role in ensuring sustainable human resource development in Asia and the Pacific. The Asian Development ADB regularly undertakes studies on education development in the region Bank (ADB) provides financing and technical assistance to its developing and prepares timely publications and other knowledge products to share member countries (DMCs) in the region to help improve education systems knowledge on important topics in education.

The National Qualifications Framework for Skills Training Reform in Sri Lanka to become equitable and inclusive, cost-efficient, of high quality, and

CERC Monograph Series in Comparative and International The National VocationalEducation Qualifications and Development Framework of Sri Lanka was developed in conformity with the socioeconomic milieu and the needs of the labor market with the participation of industry stakeholders. It has enhanced the role of the government in policy and regulation, and the role of the private sector in providing skills training. A unified system with seven levels covering 96 occupations at the craft level, 14 fields at the middle ADB proactively pursues partnerships with stakeholders of education, technician level, and 4 courses of study at the degree level, it has reduced the complexity responsive to labor market needs. In the past 4 decades, ADB has provided and ambiguity of training and selecting competent workers. This publication describes the progress and challenges in developing, implementing, and monitoring this ambitious scheme, with lessons for developing skills qualification frameworks in other countries.

Shadow Education support worth $9.5 billion to its DMCs for the development of education. including the private sector, to help leverage financing for education and About the Asian Development Bank ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its The National Qualifications developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling Shadow Educationon less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive Framework for Skills Training ADB assistance covers all education subsectors and also supports broad improve inclusiveness, quality, and relevance of education service delivery. economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Shadow Education Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia Private Supplementary Tutoring instruments for helping its developing memberNo. countries9 are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance. In all parts of Asia, households devote considerable expenditures to and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia Reform in Sri Lanka private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring may contribute to students’ education sector development. achievement, but it also maintains and exacerbates social inequalities, diverts resources from other uses, and can contribute to inefficiencies in Mark Bray and Chad Lykins education systems. Such tutoring is widely called shadow education, because it mimics Bray and Lykins ADB Support to Education Development, 1970–2013* school systems. As the curriculum in the school system changes, so does the shadow. This study documents the scale and nature of shadow education in different parts of the region. For many decades, shadow education has been a major phenomenon in East Asia. Now it has spread throughout the region, and it has far-reaching economic and social implications. IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL QUALITY Focus on Faculty Development About the Asian Development Bank Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve ISBN 978-92-9092-221-6 Country the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it Publication Stock No. TIM112959 remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live ADB Support to Education, 1970–2013 on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, Printed in the Philippines environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Afghanistan Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the COUNTING THE COST region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries Financing Asian Higher Education are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and * Bangladesh technical assistance. for Inclusive Growth ACCESS WITHOUT EQUITY? ($9.5 billion) Finding a Better Balance Bhutan CERC in Higher Education in Asia

Printed in the Philippines ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8 Basic Education Vocational Skills

Maldives HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA

Printed on recycled paper. Tertiary and Myanmar Secondary Nepal Education Higher Pakistan 13% Education Papua New Guinea 12% Philippines Samoa Singapore Solomon Islands Sri Lanka Tajikistan Thailand Timor-Leste Tuvalu Uzbekistan Vanuatu * In this publication, “$” refers to US dollars. Viet Nam Regional

* Includes loans, grants, and technical assistance (TA). Strong Track Record Increasing Focus on Higher Education Moving Forward and Workforce Skills Development Examples of in Education Development “ADB assistance to education will contribute to meeting the broad challenges of innovation, inclusiveness, and integration in the region.” Expansion of basic and secondary education has led to the increased demand for higher education and skills development. Higher education ADB Support DMCs have made good progress ADB. 2010. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan. Manila. enrollments in Asia and the Pacific have risen drastically, with a twelvefold overall in increasing enrollments in increase in student numbers from about 4 million in 1970 to almost basic education. Further development 45 million students in 2011 in East and Southeast Asia alone. A large is warranted, especially in improving number of students in Asia enroll in private higher education institutions Expanding Equitable Access quality and completion rates. (about 33% of total higher education enrollment). Concurrently, DMCs increasingly seek and Improving Quality of Education to expand education opportunities To succeed in comprehensive education sector development, DMCs recognize the need to look beyond basic and secondary education and beyond basic education and to The Secondary Education Modernization Project financed by ADB in improve quality and relevance of invest increasingly in higher education and workforce skills development, as well as to encourage private sector involvement. Sri Lanka resulted in a substantial impact on the quality of public secondary secondary and higher education, education through the development of ICT-supported learning centers, as well as skills development. interactive learning, and school-based assessment. With the expansion of access to ICT infrastructure and services, the project successfully enhanced ADB’s track record in education reflects a strong performance that addresses access of students in remote areas, as well as other disadvantaged students, the needs of DMCs. ADB has supported development of decentralized basic to secondary education. education in Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan; and modernization of secondary education in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. In higher ADB has assisted the Lao PDR through the Post-Secondary Education education, ADB projects support comprehensive policy and structural reforms Rationalization Project in establishing a multicampus national university and in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam; development of designing an effective national framework for higher education institutions. distance education in South Pacific countries and Sri Lanka; and establishment Thus, the project helped improve the quality and cost efficiency of the of open university systems in Bangladesh. In skills development, the focus of The education sector is a core operation area in ADB’s long-term strategic higher education system as a whole. ADB projects ranges from technical education and vocational training in framework, Strategy 2020. Given a great variation and dynamism among Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, DMCs, ADB support to education is carefully tailored to meet specific needs and Timor-Leste; to support for science and technology in Sri Lanka and of individual DMCs. polytechnic systems in Indonesia. ADB aims to substantially increase financial and technical support to Strengthening Skills Development the development of education and skills in DMCs. While ADB will continue to provide assistance to basic and secondary education, support and Advancing Innovation ADB Loans and Grants to postsecondary education will have an increasing share in ADB’s in the Education Sector ($ million) education sector portfolio. This is in response to the growing demand Through the Technological and Professional Skills Development Project, for higher education and skills development to aid DMCs’ progress in ADB assisted the Government of Indonesia in strengthening capacity and 3,500 the economic ladder. 3,000 governance of its public and private higher education systems and in enhancing community and industrial relations. Institutions participating in 2,500 ADB will support inclusive education to help provide opportunities to all. 2,000 ADB will also pursue innovative models of service delivery and financing the project improved their academic performance and campus facilities. 1,500 in education through, for example, public–private partnerships, and will The project helped increase female students’ participation and graduates’ 1,000 assist DMCs in expanding the use of information and communication employment prospects. 500 technology (ICT) as a way to improve quality and cost efficiency of education 0 The Basic Skills Project in Cambodia made a significant contribution to Basic TVET and Secondary Broad Education Higher Nonformal service delivery. developing the capacity of skills development institutions for improving Education Skills Development Education Sector Development Education Education ADB will facilitate labor mobility by supporting cooperation initiatives for the the quality of skills programs and expanding rural populations’ and 1970–1979 1980–1989 1990–1999 2000–2009 2010–2013 Total 1970–2013 disadvantaged groups’ access to skills development. (Total $197) (Total$1,102) (Total $3,476) (Total $3,033) (Total $1,716) (Total $9,524) harmonization of education and skills qualifications. Providing support to regional cooperation and cross-border collaboration in education is a unique institutional strength of ADB as a regional development bank. Strong Track Record Increasing Focus on Higher Education Moving Forward and Workforce Skills Development Examples of in Education Development “ADB assistance to education will contribute to meeting the broad challenges of innovation, inclusiveness, and integration in the region.” Expansion of basic and secondary education has led to the increased demand for higher education and skills development. Higher education ADB Support DMCs have made good progress ADB. 2010. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan. Manila. enrollments in Asia and the Pacific have risen drastically, with a twelvefold overall in increasing enrollments in increase in student numbers from about 4 million in 1970 to almost basic education. Further development 45 million students in 2011 in East and Southeast Asia alone. A large is warranted, especially in improving number of students in Asia enroll in private higher education institutions Expanding Equitable Access quality and completion rates. (about 33% of total higher education enrollment). Concurrently, DMCs increasingly seek and Improving Quality of Education to expand education opportunities To succeed in comprehensive education sector development, DMCs recognize the need to look beyond basic and secondary education and beyond basic education and to The Secondary Education Modernization Project financed by ADB in improve quality and relevance of invest increasingly in higher education and workforce skills development, as well as to encourage private sector involvement. Sri Lanka resulted in a substantial impact on the quality of public secondary secondary and higher education, education through the development of ICT-supported learning centers, as well as skills development. interactive learning, and school-based assessment. With the expansion of access to ICT infrastructure and services, the project successfully enhanced ADB’s track record in education reflects a strong performance that addresses access of students in remote areas, as well as other disadvantaged students, the needs of DMCs. ADB has supported development of decentralized basic to secondary education. education in Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan; and modernization of secondary education in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. In higher ADB has assisted the Lao PDR through the Post-Secondary Education education, ADB projects support comprehensive policy and structural reforms Rationalization Project in establishing a multicampus national university and in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam; development of designing an effective national framework for higher education institutions. distance education in South Pacific countries and Sri Lanka; and establishment Thus, the project helped improve the quality and cost efficiency of the of open university systems in Bangladesh. In skills development, the focus of The education sector is a core operation area in ADB’s long-term strategic higher education system as a whole. ADB projects ranges from technical education and vocational training in framework, Strategy 2020. Given a great variation and dynamism among Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, DMCs, ADB support to education is carefully tailored to meet specific needs and Timor-Leste; to support for science and technology in Sri Lanka and of individual DMCs. polytechnic systems in Indonesia. ADB aims to substantially increase financial and technical support to Strengthening Skills Development the development of education and skills in DMCs. While ADB will continue to provide assistance to basic and secondary education, support and Advancing Innovation ADB Loans and Grants to postsecondary education will have an increasing share in ADB’s in the Education Sector ($ million) education sector portfolio. This is in response to the growing demand Through the Technological and Professional Skills Development Project, for higher education and skills development to aid DMCs’ progress in ADB assisted the Government of Indonesia in strengthening capacity and 3,500 the economic ladder. 3,000 governance of its public and private higher education systems and in enhancing community and industrial relations. Institutions participating in 2,500 ADB will support inclusive education to help provide opportunities to all. 2,000 ADB will also pursue innovative models of service delivery and financing the project improved their academic performance and campus facilities. 1,500 in education through, for example, public–private partnerships, and will The project helped increase female students’ participation and graduates’ 1,000 assist DMCs in expanding the use of information and communication employment prospects. 500 technology (ICT) as a way to improve quality and cost efficiency of education 0 The Basic Skills Project in Cambodia made a significant contribution to Basic TVET and Secondary Broad Education Higher Nonformal service delivery. developing the capacity of skills development institutions for improving Education Skills Development Education Sector Development Education Education ADB will facilitate labor mobility by supporting cooperation initiatives for the the quality of skills programs and expanding rural populations’ and 1970–1979 1980–1989 1990–1999 2000–2009 2010–2013 Total 1970–2013 disadvantaged groups’ access to skills development. (Total $197) (Total$1,102) (Total $3,476) (Total $3,033) (Total $1,716) (Total $9,524) harmonization of education and skills qualifications. Providing support to regional cooperation and cross-border collaboration in education is a unique institutional strength of ADB as a regional development bank. Strong Track Record Increasing Focus on Higher Education Moving Forward and Workforce Skills Development Examples of in Education Development “ADB assistance to education will contribute to meeting the broad challenges of innovation, inclusiveness, and integration in the region.” Expansion of basic and secondary education has led to the increased demand for higher education and skills development. Higher education ADB Support DMCs have made good progress ADB. 2010. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan. Manila. enrollments in Asia and the Pacific have risen drastically, with a twelvefold overall in increasing enrollments in increase in student numbers from about 4 million in 1970 to almost basic education. Further development 45 million students in 2011 in East and Southeast Asia alone. A large is warranted, especially in improving number of students in Asia enroll in private higher education institutions Expanding Equitable Access quality and completion rates. (about 33% of total higher education enrollment). Concurrently, DMCs increasingly seek and Improving Quality of Education to expand education opportunities To succeed in comprehensive education sector development, DMCs recognize the need to look beyond basic and secondary education and beyond basic education and to The Secondary Education Modernization Project financed by ADB in improve quality and relevance of invest increasingly in higher education and workforce skills development, as well as to encourage private sector involvement. Sri Lanka resulted in a substantial impact on the quality of public secondary secondary and higher education, education through the development of ICT-supported learning centers, as well as skills development. interactive learning, and school-based assessment. With the expansion of access to ICT infrastructure and services, the project successfully enhanced ADB’s track record in education reflects a strong performance that addresses access of students in remote areas, as well as other disadvantaged students, the needs of DMCs. ADB has supported development of decentralized basic to secondary education. education in Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan; and modernization of secondary education in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. In higher ADB has assisted the Lao PDR through the Post-Secondary Education education, ADB projects support comprehensive policy and structural reforms Rationalization Project in establishing a multicampus national university and in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam; development of designing an effective national framework for higher education institutions. distance education in South Pacific countries and Sri Lanka; and establishment Thus, the project helped improve the quality and cost efficiency of the of open university systems in Bangladesh. In skills development, the focus of The education sector is a core operation area in ADB’s long-term strategic higher education system as a whole. ADB projects ranges from technical education and vocational training in framework, Strategy 2020. Given a great variation and dynamism among Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, DMCs, ADB support to education is carefully tailored to meet specific needs and Timor-Leste; to support for science and technology in Sri Lanka and of individual DMCs. polytechnic systems in Indonesia. ADB aims to substantially increase financial and technical support to Strengthening Skills Development the development of education and skills in DMCs. While ADB will continue to provide assistance to basic and secondary education, support and Advancing Innovation ADB Loans and Grants to postsecondary education will have an increasing share in ADB’s in the Education Sector ($ million) education sector portfolio. This is in response to the growing demand Through the Technological and Professional Skills Development Project, for higher education and skills development to aid DMCs’ progress in ADB assisted the Government of Indonesia in strengthening capacity and 3,500 the economic ladder. 3,000 governance of its public and private higher education systems and in enhancing community and industrial relations. Institutions participating in 2,500 ADB will support inclusive education to help provide opportunities to all. 2,000 ADB will also pursue innovative models of service delivery and financing the project improved their academic performance and campus facilities. 1,500 in education through, for example, public–private partnerships, and will The project helped increase female students’ participation and graduates’ 1,000 assist DMCs in expanding the use of information and communication employment prospects. 500 technology (ICT) as a way to improve quality and cost efficiency of education 0 The Basic Skills Project in Cambodia made a significant contribution to Basic TVET and Secondary Broad Education Higher Nonformal service delivery. developing the capacity of skills development institutions for improving Education Skills Development Education Sector Development Education Education ADB will facilitate labor mobility by supporting cooperation initiatives for the the quality of skills programs and expanding rural populations’ and 1970–1979 1980–1989 1990–1999 2000–2009 2010–2013 Total 1970–2013 disadvantaged groups’ access to skills development. (Total $197) (Total$1,102) (Total $3,476) (Total $3,033) (Total $1,716) (Total $9,524) harmonization of education and skills qualifications. Providing support to regional cooperation and cross-border collaboration in education is a unique institutional strength of ADB as a regional development bank. Strong Track Record Increasing Focus on Higher Education Moving Forward and Workforce Skills Development Examples of in Education Development “ADB assistance to education will contribute to meeting the broad challenges of innovation, inclusiveness, and integration in the region.” Expansion of basic and secondary education has led to the increased demand for higher education and skills development. Higher education ADB Support DMCs have made good progress ADB. 2010. Education by 2020: A Sector Operations Plan. Manila. enrollments in Asia and the Pacific have risen drastically, with a twelvefold overall in increasing enrollments in increase in student numbers from about 4 million in 1970 to almost basic education. Further development 45 million students in 2011 in East and Southeast Asia alone. A large is warranted, especially in improving number of students in Asia enroll in private higher education institutions Expanding Equitable Access quality and completion rates. (about 33% of total higher education enrollment). Concurrently, DMCs increasingly seek and Improving Quality of Education to expand education opportunities To succeed in comprehensive education sector development, DMCs recognize the need to look beyond basic and secondary education and beyond basic education and to The Secondary Education Modernization Project financed by ADB in improve quality and relevance of invest increasingly in higher education and workforce skills development, as well as to encourage private sector involvement. Sri Lanka resulted in a substantial impact on the quality of public secondary secondary and higher education, education through the development of ICT-supported learning centers, as well as skills development. interactive learning, and school-based assessment. With the expansion of access to ICT infrastructure and services, the project successfully enhanced ADB’s track record in education reflects a strong performance that addresses access of students in remote areas, as well as other disadvantaged students, the needs of DMCs. ADB has supported development of decentralized basic to secondary education. education in Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Uzbekistan; and modernization of secondary education in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. In higher ADB has assisted the Lao PDR through the Post-Secondary Education education, ADB projects support comprehensive policy and structural reforms Rationalization Project in establishing a multicampus national university and in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam; development of designing an effective national framework for higher education institutions. distance education in South Pacific countries and Sri Lanka; and establishment Thus, the project helped improve the quality and cost efficiency of the of open university systems in Bangladesh. In skills development, the focus of The education sector is a core operation area in ADB’s long-term strategic higher education system as a whole. ADB projects ranges from technical education and vocational training in framework, Strategy 2020. Given a great variation and dynamism among Cambodia, the People’s Republic of China, India, the Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, DMCs, ADB support to education is carefully tailored to meet specific needs and Timor-Leste; to support for science and technology in Sri Lanka and of individual DMCs. polytechnic systems in Indonesia. ADB aims to substantially increase financial and technical support to Strengthening Skills Development the development of education and skills in DMCs. While ADB will continue to provide assistance to basic and secondary education, support and Advancing Innovation ADB Loans and Grants to postsecondary education will have an increasing share in ADB’s in the Education Sector ($ million) education sector portfolio. This is in response to the growing demand Through the Technological and Professional Skills Development Project, for higher education and skills development to aid DMCs’ progress in ADB assisted the Government of Indonesia in strengthening capacity and 3,500 the economic ladder. 3,000 governance of its public and private higher education systems and in enhancing community and industrial relations. Institutions participating in 2,500 ADB will support inclusive education to help provide opportunities to all. 2,000 ADB will also pursue innovative models of service delivery and financing the project improved their academic performance and campus facilities. 1,500 in education through, for example, public–private partnerships, and will The project helped increase female students’ participation and graduates’ 1,000 assist DMCs in expanding the use of information and communication employment prospects. 500 technology (ICT) as a way to improve quality and cost efficiency of education 0 The Basic Skills Project in Cambodia made a significant contribution to Basic TVET and Secondary Broad Education Higher Nonformal service delivery. developing the capacity of skills development institutions for improving Education Skills Development Education Sector Development Education Education ADB will facilitate labor mobility by supporting cooperation initiatives for the the quality of skills programs and expanding rural populations’ and 1970–1979 1980–1989 1990–1999 2000–2009 2010–2013 Total 1970–2013 disadvantaged groups’ access to skills development. (Total $197) (Total$1,102) (Total $3,476) (Total $3,033) (Total $1,716) (Total $9,524) harmonization of education and skills qualifications. Providing support to regional cooperation and cross-border collaboration in education is a unique institutional strength of ADB as a regional development bank. How We Work ADB—Education ADB provides project financing and technical assistance to help develop comprehensive education sector plans and support sustainable development of education at all levels. at a Glance ADB’s Community of Practice in Education supports education sector operations through knowledge generation and sharing lessons and best practices from the field. ADB regularly undertakes studies on education development in the region and prepares timely publications and other knowledge products to share knowledge on important topics in education.

The National Qualifications Framework for Skills Training Reform in Sri Lanka

Shadow Education

including the private sector, to help leverage financing for education and About the Asian Development Bank ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its The National Qualifications developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling Shadow Educationon less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive Framework for Skills Training improve inclusiveness, quality, and relevance of education service delivery. economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Shadow Education Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main Private Supplementary Tutoring and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia Private Supplementary Tutoring instruments for helping its developing memberNo. countries9 are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance. In all parts of Asia, households devote considerable expenditures to and Its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia Reform in Sri Lanka private supplementary tutoring. This tutoring may contribute to students’ achievement, but it also maintains and exacerbates social inequalities, diverts resources from other uses, and can contribute to inefficiencies in Mark Bray and Chad Lykins education systems. Such tutoring is widely called shadow education, because it mimics Bray and Lykins ADB Support to Education Development, 1970–2013* school systems. As the curriculum in the school system changes, so does the shadow. This study documents the scale and nature of shadow education in different parts of the region. For many decades, shadow education has Subsectors been a major phenomenon in East Asia. Now it has spread throughout the region, and it has far-reaching economic and social implications. IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL QUALITY Upper Tertiary Technical Broad Focus on Faculty Development About the Asian Development Bank Asian Development Bank Preprimary and Secondary and Higher Nonformal Education and Education Sector 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve ISBN 978-92-9092-221-6 Country the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it Publication Stock No. TIM112959 Basic Education Education Education Education Vocational Skills Development remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, Printed in the Philippines environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Afghanistan X X X X Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the COUNTING THE COST region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and Financing Asian Higher Education Bangladesh X X X X X X technical assistance. for Inclusive Growth ACCESS WITHOUT EQUITY? Finding a Better Balance Bhutan X X X CERC in Higher Education in Asia

Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City Cambodia X X X X X X Asian Development Bank 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org HIGHER6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong EDUCATION City ACROSS ASIA ISBN 978-92-9092-518-7 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Printed in the Philippines Publication Stock No. RPS124228 www.adb.orgAn Overview of Issues and Strategies China, People’s Printed on recycled paper. Broad Education X X X X Republic of Printed on recycled paper. Private Higher Education Across Asia Printed in the Philippines Sector Development Cook Islands X X X Expanding Access, Searching for Quality 13% Asian Development Bank HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA Fiji X 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City Regional Cooperation and Cross-Border 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org Collaboration in Higher Education in Asia Improving Transitions India X Printed on recycled paper. Ensuring that Everyone Wins From School to University to Workplace

ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8 Indonesia X X X X X X Administration and Governance of Kazakhstan Higher Education in Asia HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA X X Printed in the Philippines Patterns and Implications Kiribati X Printed in the Philippines Asian Development Bank HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA Technical 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Korea, Republic of X X www.adb.org ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8 Preprimary and Publication Stock No. RPS114214 HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA Asian Development Bank Education and Printed on recycled paper. 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City Kyrgyz Republic X X X 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org

Printed in the Philippines ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8 Basic Education Vocational Skills

Lao People’s Printed on recycled paper. ISBN 978-92-9092-734-1 Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines 37% Democratic X X X X www.adb.org ISBN 978-92-9092-511-8 Printed in the Philippines Training Publication Stock No. RPS114214 Republic Printed on recycled paper. 21% Malaysia X HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA ISBN 978-92-9092-824-9

Maldives X X X HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA

Marshall Islands X X X ISBN 978-92-9092-762-4 HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA Nonformal Micronesia, Education Federated States of X Printed in the Philippines Asian Development Bank 4% 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Mongolia X X X X X www.adb.org Upper

Printed on recycled paper. Tertiary and Myanmar X X Secondary Nepal X X X X X X Education Higher Pakistan X X X X X X 13% Education Papua New Guinea X X X X X 12% Philippines X X X X X X Samoa X X X Singapore X X Solomon Islands X X Sri Lanka X X X X X X Tajikistan X X Thailand X X X X X Timor-Leste X X Tuvalu X X Uzbekistan X X X X Vanuatu X X Viet Nam X X X X X Regional X X X X X X

The National Qualifications Framework for Skills Training Reform in Sri Lanka

About the Asian Development Bank Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve ISBN 978-92-9092-221-6 Country the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it Publication Stock No. TIM112959 remains home to two-thirds of the world’s poor: 1.8 billion people who live on less than $2 a day, with 903 million struggling on less than $1.25 a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, Printed in the Philippines environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Afghanistan Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the COUNTING THE COST region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and Financing Asian Higher Education Bangladesh technical assistance. for Inclusive Growth ACCESS WITHOUT EQUITY? Finding a Better Balance Bhutan Strategies in Higher Education in Asia

Printed in the Philippines ISBN 978-92-9092-636-8 Basic Education Vocational Skills

Maldives HIGHER EDUCATION IN DYNAMIC ASIA

Printed on recycled paper. Tertiary and Myanmar Secondary Nepal Education Higher Pakistan 13% Education Papua New Guinea Asian Development Bank 12% Philippines Samoa 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City Singapore 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Solomon Islands Sri Lanka www.adb.org/education Tajikistan Publication Stock No. ARM136142 Thailand Timor-Leste December 2013 Tuvalu Uzbekistan Vanuatu Viet Nam Printed on recycled paper Printed in the Philippines Regional

* Includes loans, grants, and technical assistance (TA).