CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Russian-Speaking Population in the Baltic States: A“Fifth intheBaltic Population Russian-Speaking Column” or An Integral Part of the Local Society? Supervisor: Professor AntonPelinka Professor Supervisor: Department of Political Science Political of Department Central European University European Central Budapest, Hungary Davit Mikeladze Political Science Political Submitted to Submitted 2008 By CEU eTD Collection titular and non-titular populations. non-titular and titular both including society, Baltic entire the of integration and legislation citizenship inclusive affairs; and (3) accession to NATO external of andforeignsponsorship ethnic cleavages, influenceon domestic andinternational and the EU became a strong powersof potential werecausedbythethreat facilitatingstate of “nationalization” and centralization factor for more elaborating ethnicandcitizenship the ofthe newly-restored independent policies states; (2) while wasdecisive experience historical (1) that argues also case. It be the to latter analytical tracing, process of methods the uses narrative, study empirical This States? Baltic in the societies local discourse analysis, of the integral part an arethey column”, or “fifth a Are Russian-speakers native populations. and interviews of number the a certain among enemy” a “national of image the of with construction the to answer this andalso with experience historical isrelated in Republics Baltic the (minority) Population Russian-Speaking and question.(majority) nations titular the between Itrelation findsproblematic The the Abstract i CEU eTD Collection writing. hisandmy useful support thesis without continued improve recommendations to of myway complete have to able been not would I writing inEnglish, and academic literature scholarly AcademicWriting instructor atCentral Center European University.A newcomer tothe field trip, indeed, fruitful. my made project research in my interest and for support Their in Riga. friends their and Aija information and comments they gave me during the interviews and e-mail communication. Dmitrijs Nikolajevs, ViraKonyk, Anzelika Lensment andfor Ilzija Ahmet verythe useful Aboltina, Solvita Ushakov, Nil Veedla, Aarne Mätlik, Tanel Tsybulenko, Evhen Kirch, for theentire had and (Estonia project. importance which Latvia) research acrucial Baltic the States fieldmaketrip to a fundingme to with for providing European University thesis. the made suggestions metoimprove byhimfurthermore inspired parts of certain strengthen and and comments my Critical thesis. of referee anonymous the to thankful am also I standards. and requirements high-academic in it with make accordance enrich thesis the and me to Anton supervisor, Professorinvaluable and whose Pelinka, constant feedbackhelped support it completepossible to this thesis.of Firstall, like Iwould express to my my to gratitude Acknowledgements Last, but not the least, I want to express my special gratitude to Thomas Rooney, Thomas to gratitude special my express to want I least, the not but Last, Jurgis, and in Tallinn, Natalja sister her and –Tatjana hosts my thank to like would I Aksel Ivaskina, Irina Talts, Mait Kallas, Kristina Nils Muiznieks, to pay tribute I also I would like to say a special thanks to the Department of Political Science of Central I wouldlikemention to andseveral people whosesupport have encouragement made ii CEU eTD Collection B I B L I O G R A P H Y...... 64 ...... 59 Conclusion societies of the Baltic States...... 52 Chapter 5:Accessionthe EU to andNATO: Facilitating the integration inside the and place in the triadic nexus...... 47 Chapter 4: Russia–external national “homeland” for andits “Russian-speakers”, role Chapter 3: Impact of Mass Media on ...... 39 Interethnic Relations Chapter 2: Citizenship Policies of the newly-restored independent Baltic States...... 16 Chapter 1: History Matters: Impact of the Soviet and ...... 7 Nazi Occupations Introduction...... 1 ii Acknowledgements...... i Abstract...... Contents of Table identity problems ...... 32 in the Baltic States 2.3. Genesis of the newstratum –the “Russian-speaking population”and their 2.2. Restoration of State ...... 22 Sovereignty 2.1. Ethnic Control vs. Power-Sharing Approach ...... 16 (Consociationalism) Thesis Structure...... 6 Concepts and Definitions...... 4 iii CEU eTD Collection 2004. Other Post-Soviet republics Post-Soviet Other 2004. in Union (EU) European the and (NATO) Organization Treaty Atlantic North the entered andtogether criteria, metmain membership the They also relatively successfully. process implosion)like other Post-Soviet countries, they managed to pass through the democratization friendly” domestic Russia, problemsminorities with ethnic following the SovietUnion’s incorporation in the USSR and decades neighborhood under totalitarian withrule,very “not (forceful Despite challenges havingproblems thesame and of developmentstatehood. territory size,and less population andtheysharemore or history common and modern speaking population inspeaking population Baltic societies. the minorities that led of these help the with in region the goals geopolitical achieve their to to trying Federation establishing of the Russian the from forces political and interested the in states, the residing minorities ethnic perception of the the with connected was “fifth problems themain of One independence. state of restoration the after column” towards challenges facedserious All them of States. Baltic three forthe anyof been an easy one not Russian- approved trend. havethis also membership inthese The organizations. results ofthe April 2008 NATOSummitin Bucharest when they will be able to enjoy the security and economic stability guarantees provided by the http://www.confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/moldova3.pdf) July 1994,29, Constitution Finder, country is neutral under constitution.her (See Article 11, Constitutionof Republicthe of Moldova,adopted on 2 1 Introduction Interview with Irina Ivaskina, Project Coordinator,Latvian Transatlantic Organization, on April 14, 2008. Mainly Ukraine, Georgia, and Moldova with the exception to membership in NATO of the latter, as the There are three of them: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. All of them are small, both in both small, are All of them Lithuania. and Latvia Estonia, them: of There arethree However, the road to affiliation in the highly respectable Western organizations has organizations Western intheto affiliation highlyrespectable road the However, University of Richmond 2 are still in this process and no one could definitely say 1 “We are not the“fifth column”!” 1 CEU eTD Collection peaceful integrativecohabitation insideand processes the way society. this The process and to avoid to managed a direction destructiveinterethnic towards of andhavedevelopment bloody relations, and got have (Russian-speaking), minority and (titular) majority society, Baltic drawbacks, visible challenges and obstacles on the way of state formation, both parts of the despite the In that majority I will thesis more.argue this of haveany status did the not they where states new the in living now were they that reality the with acquainted get to had andpopulation in the Russian-speaking States, elaborating the Baltic policies the citizenship andmake deductions. well-balanced These meetings and interviews study me enabled to from subject the a differentpointof view in elaboratingpolicies,citizenship of NGOrepresentatives and Russian-Speakers. ethnically meetand with to scholarsstudyingthe the field, politicians and previously involved currently Latviatrip to and Estonia whichgave mea chance tostudy issuethe place atthe its origin,of towards the studying subject of my research. In this respect, extremely important was my field thought and national toachievepositions, maximumneutrality and non-biased approach different authors of different national origins and accordingly representing different schools of presented from only by of prism the one particular whilethe and analyzing works country, their works. Hence, I will try issue) the to of to in and origin Baltic,and(neutral the bytheauthors Russian foreign studied present the problem in the wholebeenissue investigated has andyears. byvarious studied inscholars Itwas recent discussed of its complexity and not speaking population, relatedwith problems and them in EstoniaandLatvia respectively).This population (especially, Estonians and Latvians duetotherelatively number high of Russian- native the of number a certain among enemy national a of image the of construction the with population (minority)in the Baltic Republics isrelated with historical experience and also Historical experience and memory have constituted an important factor while animportant have andmemory constituted Historical experience Russian-speaking and (majority) nations between titular the relation The problematic 2 CEU eTD Collection Republics I will present the three main arguments: main three the present will I Republics Baltic the of example the on local societies, of the integral part orthe column” are a“fifth development. of track right the areon States Baltic inthe societies the and avoided been already overall integration of the society is, indeed, difficult, though the worst possible scenario has lack of the other languages. In addition, due to the limit of funding and time I was not ablelimit funding not to andtime the of Iwas languages.addition, dueto lack In other the of compensate for language metothe inthe helped second most region Baltic and has spoken in languages. However,legal IknowRussian,whichisthe these archivaldocuments and This, of haslimitedrespectively). course, togetacquainted my literature, with possibilities languagesknow any state the of of Balticthe Republics(Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian collect newinformation and and checkthe assumptions findingsalreadybeenmade. while meeting with academics, and politicians NGOactivists was deeply valuablein to order analytical narrative, and analysis. discourse Themethod of interview used during myfield trip history from political and Iusethemethods the present the of tracing, situation, process While answering the main research question of the thesis, whether Russian-speakers I would also like to point out potential limitations of the research. First of all, I do not As my research is mainly based on the empirical studies and analyzing of the real facts 3. 2. 1. including both titular and non-titular populations. society Baltic entire the of integration and legislation citizenship inclusive more for factor facilitating a strong became NATOandEU the Accession to domestic and international affairs; potential external sponsorship of ethnic cleavages, and influence foreign on of by threat the caused powers were state of nationalization and Centralization states; independent newly-restored the of policies and citizenship theethnic elaborating while wasdecisive experience Historical 3 CEU eTD Collection on the the on Threshold of EU,March 1999, European Centre for Minority Issues. 5. 3 Majorities in Estonia: Problems of Integration at the Threshold of the EU” states: research. in my use I terms mentioned above the of my understanding and meaning the explain will I any misunderstanding and to show the limit of the scope of my research. Thus, in this section, column”. Clarification and further definition andthe“fifth in some Russian-speakers” cases) or (minorities, population “Russian-speaking of these two terms is essentialimportantdefineand most and twothe crucial concepts Iam terms theusing inmywork, in order to avoid Concepts and Definitions for thethesis. become shortcoming to aserious crucial or seem inpossible not problems be the latter them limitation with these alsoto does republics, societal legal and and numberRussian-speakers of higher the dueto Latvia andEstonia scope ofinvestigation and study of thesis the been have the puton republicstwo other – main the that fact the account into taking Nonetheless, research. the of limitation possible interviewsmake afield trip in conduct could and asanother that Lithuania beoutlined Priit Järve and ChristianWellmann, Report # 2, Minorities and Majorities in Estonia: Problems of Integration The term ‘Russian-speaking minorities’ denotes millions of former of millions Soviet minorities’ denotes ‘Russian-speaking The term The European Centre for Minority Issues (ECMI) in its report “Minorities and to feel itnecessary I analysis, empirical and the theoretical to proceeding Before Russians in dealing with minority issues. forhegemonyneeds various promotingethnic the groups of and ethnic of is Theresidence. term grounds often masking for on political diverse criticized of countries their of policies language official the with cope to have and grouped together haveidentity underbecause theterm problems they similar are People currentcitizenship. or mother tongue origin, their ethnic as to Union,mostly in former Sovietthe However, republics. termis the not precise beenhave livingoutsidethe since dissolution Russian Federation the Soviet of the who and life everyday their in Russian use predominantly who citizens 4 3 CEU eTD Collection max_to_show=10 http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50084505?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=fifth+column&first=1& 4 isnot a word fully that realizes writer the that indicate are usedto text marksinthe quotation the source, other from citation of fact the show to used being not are they Wherever thesis. “fifth column”. Russian-speakingthe innot population been Baltichave the States turned into andusedasthe forces, political external interested made by the desire andefforts a great faced, challenges the all despite fact that very show the isto my of mainresearch goal asthe term this use exactly to need anextreme is, Isee theissue delicate how acknowledging While fully terminology. the with writer the of association noand distance a readerthe to will signal marks that absolutelyitnot showany in this alwaysuse neutral preference quotation term andI will to speaking Russian- the addressing while narratives informal population and official in both used isoften term in enemy’sthe supporter’s in one’s own country, and isused symbolizeto the traitor, spy, etc.Baltic Republics.meaning of body a of inone’s supporters an attacked or foreignoccupied country, or the Here,outside the city) besieging while the capital the Spanishduring Civil War. it Later gained the I have to hisarmy the four columns of (in to addition haveinMadridhimself to MolaGeneral declared stress that in order to theterm. views concerning genesis the different and inmore and details will discuss stay initial isappearance partof Iwill backtothe later in thesis, the That turn why, precise. the highlyindeed,not itself only is, Theproblematic and as term ethnic Russians. not well), and formerwhile nationalitiesvarious addressingthe citizens Soviet of Poles Jews and (including thesis will term use the “Russian-speaking Russian-speakers)” population (minorities, or Oxford English Dictionary, entry on fifth column, Oxford University Press. Here, Iwill also outline anddetermine the of purpose marksusage quotation of in this which column the supporters of appearedafter “fifth originally The term column” my in and ECMI the by given term the of explanation and concept main the share I 5 4 This CEU eTD Collection the Baltic States. mainoutlinebrieflyin democratic thefindings discuss thesis,and of the current development for providing thethird and support thesis. argumentof the ground I In concludingpart, the thus, inthese side,of theaffiliation organizations, process anddescribes Balticthe States of seeking security and stability by guarantees provided European the Union from and NATO necessity the explains lastchapter The affairs. international and on domestic influence foreign were caused by powers of threat potential the and ethnic external sponsorship of cleavages, validity of the second the 4approves Chapter of in thesis, the parts presented previous the support theoretical argument of the thesisas an thatexternal centralization national Russia’s and Baltic region the of example the on nexusrelation triadic the 4describes Chapter homeland’s and nationalizationlevel. (Baltic) local the to conceptual broader rolefrom relations interethnic on in media minority these of relations.state Together massmedia,ethnic of Chapter 3 examinesparticularly and theimpact states. independent with the empiricaldecisive elaboratingwhile the ethnicand policies citizenship of newly-restored the and explanation and approvalone hand,findsLithuania one. Thesecondchapter –onthe and the other empirical for the first argumentmain reason of of differences ethnic compositions of populationsthe in Latvia and Estonia on of the thesis thatNazi historicaloccupations experience on andalso of and results show the theSoviet pastevents, the whileevaluating (Russian-speakers) entire was Baltic Region;historical memory and present differencesin between majorityaddition, (titular nations) and minority I outline and further explainThesis Structure the certain word. tothe andfully neutral hehasa attitude sense, commonly-accepted being inits current used The thesis proceeds as follows. In the next chapter I discuss the impact of impact Idiscuss of the the chapter nextthe asfollows.In proceeds The thesis 6 CEU eTD Collection manuscript, (2008), 20. 5 identity Soviet– the inUnion’s victory World Second the War.” Russian-speakers as viewed generally an statue the essential of element theirhistorical recapture of Tallinnin 1944–asapainful of reminder Sovietthe occupation of their country, theSoviets’ commemorate to monument– erected sawthe “While Estonians Kallas describe, and As Pettai past. distant so not the of facts very the assessing and interpreting of problem centre of the Estonianstreet clashes around the problem of dealing with the bronze capital,statue of the Soviet Soldier in the Tallinn,isitfor Russian-speakers perceivedas from liberation the Nazi The April,occupation. 2007 have shown extremelyof the native Baltic people consider this as the re-occupation from the side of the USSR, while well all theArmy in Soviet of hadleave 1944.Most underthe pressure tocountries the troops the Baltic deepness of the “occupation”. word neverhave usedthe Russian or current officials the Soviet occupation, the equal act to as aforceful perceived the incorporation in the Soviet Union of independentthe republics population, was understood andis still titular the of most and elites, national Baltic the for While Liberation. and Occupation – narratives competing existing two with connected strongly are differences century)was taking placeduring theprevious decades (from the 40s till late80sof the twentieth the between the titular nations of the Baltic States and Russian-speakers. These of the society are far away from consensus over the very problematic issue of assessment of assessment issueof thevery problematic over from consensus arefar away of society the parts two indeed, the in mademethinkthat, Riga, Occupation of book inof Museum the the diametrically opposite evaluation of the historical facts, left by the visitors of Russian origin Vello Pettai and Kristina Kallas, “Estonia: conditionality amidst a legal straightjacket”, unpublished There are still differences in interpreting the history and evaluating the process which process the evaluating and history the ininterpreting still differences There are Furthermore, the debate heats up concerning the assessment of the factwhen Nazi of the assessment the concerning heatsup debate the Furthermore, Chapter 1: History Matters: Impact of the Soviet and Nazi and Soviet of the Impact Matters: 1: History Chapter Occupations 7 5 Comments with CEU eTD Collection 10 Ethnologia 19, had leaveto the territory, was identified as Russification; the personal experience of the Baltic independent Balticrepublics into the SovietUnionin 1940 andin 1944afterHitler the troops Union and the years of authoritarian rule that followed. years rule that Union the and of authoritarian by Soviet the and annexation thankstothe occupation enemyoccurred image of nation the of independence Germans, against cultural educational from The or affairs. shift toanother one more or less neutral, even friendly when the situation was dealing with struggle for Russians was towards attitude natives’ the and enemy rolea national of the fulfilled Germans phenomena”. widespread are andantipathy prejudice, stereotypes image of a nationalimage enemy,shared Russians.the This isnot by buteverybody, the family, school, media and surrounding community on the young generation. from influences the to ofsociety due parts both for the acceptable narrative common kind of Integration Affiars of Latvia, Nils Muiznieks, alsostates that itis very difficult tocreate some Society for Assignments Special for Minister first The issue. the of complexity whole region or by ethnic Russian at all, but still the fact and the content itself argues and showsany by livingin made were abovementioned comments the of Baltic a Russian-speaker the the 9 8 7 6 # 2–“Museum being isof pity for It oneself. disgusting.” diminutive, trifling burns nation in hell.Waningthe whimpers. Stalin!!! USSR!!!” museumthe furthermore infeeling: strengthens particular Comment such #1-“Letthe and general in nation Latvian the about language in Russian left comments Two history. the Olaf Mertelsmann, “How the Russians Turned into the Image of the “National Enemy” of the Estonians”, of the Enemy” “National ofthe Image the into Turned Russians the “How Mertelsmann, Olaf Interview with Nils Muiznieks, Director, Advanced Social and Political Research Institute, Comments made in on bookthe April ofimpressions at 16, Museumthe 2008.of Occupation inRiga. All the translationfrom Russian source to English here and henceforth is mine. Ibid. 45-50. The process of Sovietization, which took place after the forceful incorporation of place forcefulincorporation three the after took which The process of Sovietization, As Mertelsmann points out, “In contemporary Estonian society one may find the 43. 8 10 7 I have no intention to claim that claim to intention no have I 9 Traditionally, the Baltic the Traditionally, 8 6 Comment Pro CEU eTD Collection http://www.newsfromrussia.com/main/2005/05/05/59601.html 11 recognized inmany in countries theirfunction and continued thename governments of of the still were missions diplomatic Estonian and Lithuanian Latvian, Vatican. the and America of States United the Spain, Belgium, them among Union, Soviet the into republics Baltic the republics into USSRin the 1940. of Baltic Republics” the of governments the consent the andwith agreements the instead –“following “occupation”, theword never used currenthave Russian officials or is whytheSoviet explanation Socialist This the Republics. Moscow that facilitated “voluntarily” incorporation of the republics official the to to loyal the Union of governments Soviet elected were republics three all in majority overwhelming Accordingly, an with inJuly, 1940. supervision and pressure strict republics under alternative of the communist electionsin USSRtoconduct with helpedthe presence Military countries. only the these (workers bloc) partialwith whichofficial Moscow, granted rightthe to theUnion Soviet deploy to its military bases list suggested to the sign Latvia, “Mutual faced anultimatum treaties Assistance” Soon, and Estonia Lithuania to voters in the Baltic into weredividedNazi spheres ofinfluence. Parts andandof Northern Europe Soviet Eastern Republics (The inPact), signed Molotov-Ribbentrop on August1939,Moscow the 24, Socialist of between Union and the Soviet Germany Non-aggression entitled Treaty of the covenant tothe protocols attached secret with the accordance In my work. for research importance museum is atthe direct of material presented The andSovietRegimes. Nazi both the under occupation of experience painful and tragic countries Baltic the andof complexity developmenttriggeredfeeling. the of negativethis people with Stalinist terror and crimes and the identification of “Russian” with “Soviet” Russiadenies it illegally annexed Balticthe republics inPravda.Ru, 1940, Nevertheless, a number of countries refused to recognize the fact of incorporation of deepness whole the of manifestation perfect isthe inRiga Occupation of The Museum 9 11 concerning the incorporation concerning the incorporation of Baltic the CEU eTD Collection Ethnologia 19, greeted asliberators”. greeted years after Estonians had beenhappy getridto of Balticthe Germans, were Hitler’s troops rule was enough changeto the attitude of the population. As a result of Soviet terror, only two regions of the Soviet Union. Farthe fromLatvia East Colonies) among them to only camps15081persons,1214children Camps and Labor Corrective of Administration Chief and inGULAG (The placed deported 14 13 12 Russia;bemove while remainingshould “Germanised”. 164 000 the TheNazis to planed majority of the towns and todeport 50% of the inhabitants of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia to populate by the1942) shows wasaplan to Germans that there 20, (August Korps” Schwarze “Das newspaper in SS the “Germanise?” article The region. Baltic the of “Germanization” Gypsies andGerman Jews. rule which wasHowever, less oppressive thanthe Stalinism Nazi for theGermany whole population had except its for own plan of colonization and policy Ononenight the Sovietorder. of aloneestablishing 13 (the cruel the of victims the became actions also anti-state of accused citizens ordinary activists, political and governments former the of members the against repression the Besides regime. ambassador to the United States should representinterests of the Latvian state in the world.” the Kingdom Unitedor tothe its ambassador authority, execute the moreto capable “if isno Itwasstated that toits ambassadors. government the Latvia gavespecialpowers of government the 1940 18, May on already example, For power. their of continuity legal the also states. of From ensured side, governments Balticthe States their(pre-1940) independent Olaf Mertelsmann, “How the Russians Turned into the Image of the “National Enemy” of the Estonians”, of the Enemy” “National ofthe Image the into Turned Russians the “How Mertelsmann, Olaf Ibid. Riga. in of Occupation Museum the at presented Information In such itnotis surprisingconditions “One Mertelsmann’s claim that yearofSoviet After establishing Soviet power in the region, people faced all the brutality of new the brutality of faced all the in people region, the power Soviet After establishing 49. 14 The same feeling was shared by other Baltic nations too duetothe by nationsfeeling wasshared Thesame Baltic too other 13 10 th /14 th of were of June) Pro 12 CEU eTD Collection 19 Ethnologia 19, occupation) re- the – as way another in it see elites Baltic national and Western the while officials, liberation from Nazi Occupation and is still treatedone. Soviet in the same way by the fewthe with onlyforain lasted years comparison Nazi is occupation regime that difference current Russian judgmentabout relativelythe conditions better existing under any regime, only occupation the 18 17 16 15 Baltic republics in 1946-47 and alarge they committed numbercrimes. of in theso-called bagbecame therefugees areasinRussia, from appeared the people starving like plundered negative on andmurdered; enemy they raped, stole, another territory: factor refugeeafter fleeing from Poland by 1941. was Jewish one of biggestwholethe in communities Europe,especially Central-Eastern the inwhere was Lithuania dramatic especially picture The mass their eradication. and out carried German settlers toLatvia within 25 years. individuals were deported from individuals from weredeported countries Baltic the 1949 (duringnight March 25,1949a of the families total 30 thousands of – 92 thousands Jews in(especially Latvia andLithuania), huge Soviet the deportations and of 1941, 1944-45 of eradication German war-time the Latvia), and Estonia from (especially Baltic Germans could be the significant depopulation in the region after World War II. The resettlement of the immigrants of influx large this of explanations possible the of One Ukrainians). (Belarusians, nations Slavic other and Russians mainly of in-migration, yearssawenormous post-war 1944, lossthe menof in German Soviet, and national military andunits the transfer of former Information presented at the Museum of Occupation in Riga. in of Occupation Museum the at presented Information Olaf Mertelsmann, “How the Russians Turned into the Image of the “National Enemy” of the Estonians”, of the Enemy” “National ofthe Image the into Turned Russians the “How Mertelsmann, Olaf Bush denounces Soviet domination, BBC NEWS, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4521663.stm Interview with Axel Kirch, Senior research fellow Internationalat University AUDENTES, on April 11, 2008. Informationpresented Museumat the of Occupation inRiga After in Balticby recapturing – region the 1944 (which Soviets the called was 17 53. total disappointment of the local people appeared. Red Army soldiers behaved Army soldiers Red appeared. people local of the total disappointment 15 16 German regime was especially cruel against Jews Therefore, I believe there could not be made any 11 19 ), the flight of refugees westwards in westwards refugees of flight the ), 18 In addition, the addition, In Pro CEU eTD Collection No. 3.(1980), 399. 20 socio-economic and Lithuania’s historical specific due to republics other Baltic the to in comparison Russian-speakers of number small relatively the explain to tries Elsuwege beginning Van republics in of citizenship1990s. the the newly the policies of restored Baltichas Republics in attitudes different resulted of national elitespolitical elaborating while of Estonians and Latvians. those unlike Lithuanians of numbers rising observed was there even and people native the of such proportion inthe decline of a dramatic not was Lithuania there However, titular people. Source: inregion, especially andLatvia.Estonia of the Sovietization the place after took changes those great the and outlines numbers absolute eponymous groups. homogeneous, but, more importantly,in it end the in resulted a hugeloss of people for the more ethnically madepopulation first territorial the at process case thedepopulation countries’ losses population of Worldthe WarIIperiod amongin the highest In Europe. each Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian territories to the RSFSR combined to make the three Russians Estonians Tonu Parming, “Population Processes and the Nationality Issue in the Soviet Baltic”, Table 1. Ethnic composition of the Baltic Republics before and after Soviet annexation This indifference numbers migration which duringoccurred the Soviet rule in the the of decline and new-comers of number growing the showing was tendency The Vol.32,No. 3.(1980), 399 the Baltic in Republics populations of of three ethniccomposition shows the Table 1 Tonu Parming, “Population Processes and the Nationality Issue in the Soviet Baltic”, Soviet the in Issue Nationality the and Processes “Population Parming, Tonu Estonia 1934 1959 977 34 20 240 893 Russians Latvians (in (in thousands) Latvia ,7 1,298 1,473 2,151 Lithuanians 2,075 1935 1959 207 12 556 Russians Lithuania Soviet Studies, 1938 1959 59 Soviet Studies, 231 Vol. 32, CEU eTD Collection 24 No. 3.(1980), 401. made bloodshed in Lithuanian capital against peaceful demonstrators whoprotected the made inLithuanian against peaceful bloodshed capital demonstrators moveLithuania twicethought abouttheir to activity. duetothe guerilla speaks aboutthe anti-Soviethe believesmany guerrilla activity; that immigrants potential immigration and to obstacles major is of the one agreesthis inLatvia, issues repatriation 23 22 threshold of the European Union”, ECMI Working paper #20,(2004), 4. 21 scale. All-Union the on wasanunusual that occurrence Lithuaniaserious as wasso to requireintervention the military of Soviet restore to units order both during andin 1944-50period the theearly 1970s. Headds during the 1972unrest that country, buthe averystrong resistance outlines toSovietby ruledisplayedLithuanians the of Lithuanians population inthewhole of proportion reasons stable relatively the of ethnic Lithuanians. majority a ProtestantEstoniaconsistentof andLatviaguaranteed inLithuania to comparison reduced theinflux migrantof Russian Finally, workers. higherbirth the of rate Catholic considered Soviets Lithuanian republic asprimarily largely the a area, which agricultural somuchnot byindustrial attheaffected endthe revolution nineteenththe century. of The was Lithuania Secondly, settlement. Russian of hadlonger tradition a region of Baltic the part northern the Consequently, Great. the Peter Tsar of empire Russian the into provinces Baltic the of incorporation the after acentury than more in 1795, Commonwealth Polish-Lithuanian the of disintegration the after dominance Russian came under It middle ages. the to back development. Juris Prikulis, “Migration andRepatriation Issues in Post-Soviet Countries: the Latvian Case”, Riga, 1997,47. Tonu Parming, “Population Processes and the Nationality Issue in the Soviet Ibid. Baltic”, 4. Van Peter Elsuwege,“Russian-Speaking MinoritiesEstonia in andLatvia: Problems of Integration at the The peak of The peakactivities of wasin 1991when anti-Soviet military January Soviet troops NATO Research Fellow Juris Prikulis, in the final report about migration and 21 First, Lithuania had a long tradition of independent statehood which went which statehood independent of tradition long a had Lithuania First, 22 Parming also mentions the higher fertility in Lithuania as one of the of one as Lithuania in fertility higher the mentions also Parming 13 23 24 Soviet Studies, Vol. 32, CEU eTD Collection No. 3.(1980), 403. 28 Ethnologia 19, Russian-speakers politically un-loyal to the Baltic States played a crucial role in establishing role a crucial played States Baltic the to un-loyal politically Russian-speakers Thus, it is clear nations”. Latvian all and Estonian the of thesebody in the tumor ominous “an are perceptionswhich garrisons” and historical memory,Estonian-Latvian as well as behavior of some of 27 26 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/13/newsid_4059000/4059959.stm 25 groups. ethnic of responsibility collective and guilt collective ideasof befound could enemy there from an Russiansalsothat images dictatorship.suffered samethe Stalinist Behindthose of factignored the was Toacertain wasmixed. extent, words both meaningof the “Russian”, to asidentical wasperceived Since “Soviet” factors. mythswereadditional historical personal experience violence like terror, and poverty triggered this image. Mass migration and of the national enemies. Freshindeed, establish of insome All society to misfortunes. the parts contributed these, image the memory of the concrete their all of reasons initial the were new-comers the and historical homes own in their guests becoming events (World War II) andand raising of the Russian one, made titular people of the Baltic region to think that they were languages of native the status diminishing governance, communication and state transport, the main cities of the countries andfreedom sovereignty. and independence”. were given thewith positions force breakus army)(the can is that It possible whohear us. those all “Weaddress said: announcer in all spheresor Lithuanian centre. and radio television close of industry, our mouths, but no one will make us renounce freedom and Tonu Parming, “Population Processes and the Nationality Issue in the Soviet Baltic”, Olaf Mertelsmann, “How the Russians Turned into the Image of the “National Enemy” of the Estonians”, of the Enemy” “National ofthe Image the into Turned Russians the “How Mertelsmann, Olaf Ibid. 1991: Bloodshed atLithuanian TVstation, BBC NEWS, 27 The conditions of growing number of immigrants, majority of whom were settled in settled were whom of majority immigrants, of number growing of conditions The The approval of the idea even more comes clear after taking into account the joint the account into taking after clear comes more even idea the of approval The 49 . 26 These words clearly show the level of struggle of the local people for samizdat document from from document 1975, whichreferred Russians tothe as“civil 25 Just before the radio station was shut down, an 14 Soviet Studies, Vol. 32, Pro 28 CEU eTD Collection with with populations. Russian-speaking the of “fifth in activists by term and column” the thinking relation usagesome nationalistically 15 CEU eTD Collection modernization, and contingent actor-related strategiesactor-related andbargaining. andcontingent modernization, elite democratization stresses twokey long-term determinants: structural through development project was advanced within the Baltic States on three key fronts: first, it was advanced in was advanced it first, fronts: on key three States Baltic was advancedthe within project The Sovietization landscape.and societal political, Baltic economic post-independence the 2.1. Ethnic Control vs. Power-Sharing Approach (Consociationalism) ethnic insidethe states. relations ethnically heterogeneous for additional often between inter-termschallenges anddefinitions creates and problems minority”. a “national constitutes what of legal,definition conceptual is or noagreed there that 1919); show also they in Versailles at legitimated usewasfirst its when (as nowadays defined is apoorly relations ininternational “majority” its antonym and “minority” of concept the that argue They also managed bestinstability and, consequently, policies. and assimilatory are by centralization for political potential has serious that nation-states democratizing to a challenge represent minorities furthermore, majoris todemocratization; viewed asa state obstacle transition in minorities, a Sasse addressthe issue theirpresence when transitology outlineof does that democracy”. “transition to of is that change post-communist of most process widely thatthe foremployed paradigm understanding the and report others, Minority Protection in the CEECs”, in the Protection Minority 29 32 31 30 (2003), 2. James Hughes and Gwendolyn Sasse, “Monitoring the Monitors: EU Enlargement Conditionality and Conditionality Enlargement EU Monitors: the “Monitoring Sasse, Gwendolyn and Hughes James Ibid. 5. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 2. Chapter 2: Citizenship Policies of the newly-restored independent newly-restored of the Policies Citizenship 2: Chapter Graeme and Lofgren argue that the experience of Sovietization was critical inshaping critical Sovietization was of experience the Graeme Lofgren arguethat and Hughes and Sasse, based on the analysis of the previous works by Lipset, Stepan, Linz Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe(JEMIE), 32 And, it is absolutely true that ambiguity and contradictions and ambiguity that true is absolutely it And, Baltic States Baltic 16 29 As they state this approach to this approach state Asthey 30 Hughes and Hughes No. 1, No. 31 CEU eTD Collection International Dimensions 37 36 the Transdniester Moldovan Republic”, Moldovan Transdniester the 35 34 publications, London, (2001), 278. 33 indigenes”. of territory inthe resources of more control for pressed and nationalistic more became they economically and politically mobilized as a resultof growth the of educated indigenous elite, instrumental in themaking of nations and nationalism and as indigenes became more Citizen”. of preference “Soviet the ideological tothe loyalties submerged cultural after decadesof that awakening communism phenomenon, beauty” “sleepingof resulta the was not Union formerfrom Soviet the combined”. “Although analytically distinct,in practice these three types of threats to identity can easily be interlinkedthis process. reinforcedRepublic Federal (RSFSR), Socialist Russian particularly Republics, Soviet the from Sovietthe restof the Baltic into three States the migration mass republics; these lifewithin of aspects all of Sovietization/Russification the promote to aimed that competition psychological, linguisticand project cultural terms,this wasadvanced through horizontal in second, Republics; Socialist Soviet of status the with Union Soviet the into assimilation byforced States of Baltic integration the thevertical through terms andeconomic political conflict situation, asked an academic what practical wisdom the theories of ethnic conflict and Baltic society. publicthe into the of realm land” exploded of their own “masters the status languages,migration, andmakeof upgrade nations eponymous thethe titular As Muiznieks describes, with in liberalization haltpolitical the late1980s,demands to Nils Muiznieks, “Government Policy and the Russian Minority,” in Ibid. 341. O’Loughlinet al, “National Construction, Territorial Separatism and Post-Soviet Geopolitics: The Example of Buzan et al, Graeme P. Herd and Joan Lofgren, Joan and Herd P. Graeme O’Loughlin points out that nationalism and in outthat whichemerged new states territories points the O’Loughlin an ethnic-for a peacearrangement crafting chargedwith if “Whata policymaker, 36 34 Security: A New Framework for Analysis, Boulder This claim finds empirical support in the national movement in the Baltic States. Baltic in the movement national in the support empirical finds claim This , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, (2006), 14. 33 AsBuzan claims, weremutually processes these reinforcing: Societal Security, the Baltic States and EU Integration Post Soviet Geography and Economics 35 He adds that “Soviet nationalities policy was 17 , CO: Lynne Rienner, (1998), 121. Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and Vol.39, no.6, (1998),341. , SAGE 37 CEU eTD Collection understandand show anysensitivity toward needthe groups”. of other solidarity that within cultural is one’s ethnic kin sostrong that are essentially groups to unable is aprimordialist, academic the spoils the from groups”. other way maximizingshortest profit, areboundto mobilize groups orlater to sooner get andto try academic is an instrumentalist, the answer would be that because “ethnic enrollment history”.inaccurate an hadbeen taught they because each killed other their ancestors is the and chance, by merely b group a or group to belong they that showing one conflict, of history involved thethat groups shouldbe taughtacompletely newversion theirof ethnogenesis and be answermight the is “If a constructivist, academic aswell. avariety the answers of suggests 44 optation in post-communist Estonia”, 43 Defence Review, Vol. 1, No. 9, (2003), 42. 42 41 40 39 Krastev, CEU Press, (2004), 13. in Theory,” and Research 38 Estonian political community over its sizeable Russian-speaking minority. Estonia overthe decade of 1990s the was a considerable degreeof instituted by control the and buildingisimportant state exclusive”.projectblood are the ties that where is primordial strategy building nation “Estonian policy, integration and frame legal not to agree with Lind when she itisconcludes difficult Estonia), in and (particularly, Latvia in States beginning Baltic 1990s the of the that on the basis of the analysis of the Estonian nationalism could offer to help draft such a plan?” control using Lustick’s three main indicators of segmentation, dependence and co-optation. Ibid. 505. co- and dependency segmentation, control: ethnic of processes “Understanding Hallik, Klara and Pettai Vello Maibritt Lind, “Is the Russo-phone Minority a Structural Security Threat to the Ibid.Estonian 13. State?”, Baltic Ibid. 13. Ibid. 13. Alina Mungiu-Pippidi, “Sense and Prejudice in the Study of Ethnic Conflict: Beyond System Paradigms in Pettai and Hallik argue that one of the key reasons for ethnic peace and stability in Indeed, due to the content of these answers and the legal framework existing in the Nationalism after Communism. Lessons Learned. the answer might be that “groups inherit a culture as a given and given a as a culture inherit “groups be that might answer the 41 Nations and Nationalism, 18 38 SoasksAlinaand she Mungiu-Pippidi, (2002), 505. ed. Alina Mungiu-Pippidi and Ivan 42 40 43 And finally, if the They analyze this 39 If the 44 CEU eTD Collection 47 31, No. 3, (Apr., 1979), 327. 46 45 in the control system,it is the interest of the superordinate segment and its elite. while elites, byrespective their articulated asperceived and segments two of interests the the of denominator common system, the in consociational the resources of allocation authoritative suggests The factors. seven important is first thecriterion outlined effectivelythat governs the segments. segment or another politicaland the of enforce actions opportunities byconstraining stability mobilized to is segment one of power superior the which in a relationship of maintenance and emergence cooperation focuses mutual on consociationalism the whereas however, societies; divided and segmented of in for stability explanations asalternative be seen could approaches these of both that argues subnationalHe control. and (power-sharing) of consociationalism approaches twotheoretical between elites as leaders. amongnon-Estonian key apolicy of haveco-optation practiced decisive,the latter on the former. Lastly, they examine the extent to which the Estoniana political elite control of dependence in increase the considerable net wasa effect herethe communities; Estonian non- and Estonian the both base of approach resource theeconomic considerably altered transition market in of as aresult country the changes see economic they minority. Secondly, Estonian would citizens and their wasfocus an segmentation descendants essential opening steptoward of non- the on restrict them, movesFor automaticcitizenship to 1991toonly after Estonian pre-1940 the system, the linkage is penetrative in character: the superordinate segment extracts what itextracts segment the superordinate in is character: linkage penetrative the system, consociational system those take the form of political or material exchanges; in the control Ibid. 330. Ian Lustick, “Stability inDeeply Divided Societies: Consociatonalism versus Control”, Ibid. 506. Secondlymentioned twosub-units thelinkagesbetween are segmentsinthe the or In order to establish a clear conceptual distinction between two approaches, Lustick approaches, between two distinction conceptual clear establish a to In order Lustick by made difference the outline to important is it analysis theoretical the For 46 19 45 World Politics, 47 Vol. CEU eTD Collection unit: elites must strike bargains that do not jeopardize not unit: must integrity strike bargainsthatas awhole; dothe system elites of the sub- each for symmetrical is problem the system, consociational the In feature. distinguishing legitimacy by an andelaborate group-specific well-articulated ideology. with be endowed to likely is system control the contrast, By breakdown. consociational of for eachsegment, consequences, chaotic the of warnings detailed and specific by sub-units,both and of common welfare tothe references and byvaguegeneral legitimized segment. subordinate of expense the implementation and interpretation inthe is available discretion useswhat segments, from superordinate the of officialstaffed by of state, personnel the overwhelmingly apparatus by represented bureaucratic the regulationsrules without andenforce these procedure, andeffective legislation administrative intoelites appropriate to discriminating,benefit sub-unit reachedbetween the compromises must translate system in one consociational the the sub-unit while whichthe role it representsof the official at theregime in the control system 51 50 49 48 maintained. breakdownthe of control as meansthe by which political the stability of system the is being between bargaining however, life;signal would political hard inelites approach, control the between systems.sub-unit is In approach,hard-bargaining elites fact of first the a necessary itsees fit. delivers what needsfrom one subordinate the labor,(property, support, and/orinformation) political and Ibid. 332. Ibid. 332. Ibid. 331. Ibid. 331. The character of the central strategic problem that faces sub-unit elites isadditional elites faces sub-unit that problem strategic central the of The character Lustick claims that in the consociational society, the political status quo is likely to be to likely is quo status political the society, consociational in the that claims Lustick The regimes. official the of role the in seen is Lustick by distinction proposed Another Afterwards appears the significance of bargaining that is very different in is two the that different very bargaining of significance appearsthe Afterwards 49 48 50 20 51 CEU eTD Collection Multiethnic Societies, control control system is a manipulatingpuppeteer his string puppet.” consociational system is a delicately but securely balanced scale, while that appropriate for a 54 53 52 veto. minority the and areproportionality characteristics secondary The groups. these all significant groups of representatives of the participation the are primary characteristics two The characteristics. in the government of the country and a highin implemented andthepolicies each in of system approaches the a real life. degree of autonomy for subordination, and toevaluate opportunities for bargaining or resistance may which appear. of consequences with aspossible assatisfactorily which cope groups superordinate unit elites (if central the they exist)devise strategicis problem to responsesto policiesthe of whilesub-manipulating group, subordinate the the for effective techniquesfor subordinate segments: for superordinate sub-unitelites, the main strategic problem is todevise cost- andsubordinate to thefirst superordinate is system,all of respect asymmetric with though, of central units. inthecontrol the sub-unit problemfacing Thecharacter elites strategic sub- both for challenge political constant and a crucial is discipline group internal therefore, appropriate forVahi responded: Estonia, appropriate more was model homogenous) (nationally French the or autonomy) having pillar cultural each Prime Minister, Tiit Vahi cited by David Laitin.When asked whether the Belgian model (with as terms his two between interview see the to is interesting it Inthis respect Baltic States. the of any in process state-building in the present been has characteristics these of none that clear Arendt Lijphart, “The Power-Sharing Approach”, in Joseph Montville (ed.) Montville Joseph in Approach”, Power-Sharing “The Lijphart, Arendt Ibid. 332. Ibid. 332. Finally, out,“the asLustick points visual metaphor appropriate for a“perfect” According Lijphart power-sharingthe to canbe definedin four of terms These conceptual distinctions, indeed, help to see the clear difference between two the seetheclearindeed, between help to difference distinctions, These conceptual Still I would propose for Estonia the French model. (…) I see the Estonian state as a model as amodel for such where is a nation dominantnationality the Estonian, state, Lexington Books, (1990), 494. 21 53 Conflict and Peacemaking in 54 It is It 52 CEU eTD Collection International Dimensions 57 56 University Press, (1998), 94. Russian-speakers) were belonging to the pro-Soviet movement.Russian-speakers)belonging pro-Soviet the were to independence, (mainly whilenon-titulars state majority supporting people were titular of they could only respond to the situations in which they would appear. such andinitiatives, take to noorganizational resources had populations Russian-speaking Meanwhile, the establish passnew newnation-states. laws, to to to call and referenda, of initiative, had They theelites power too. local the national aboutBaltic The samewastrue set the national agenda. to opportunity historical and apparatuses the gained state inherited the 2.2. Restoration ofState Sovereignty actions. of moreand elements (consociational)control approach couldbeapproach intheir mentioned independent republics completely anypossibility refused thepower-sharingof using nevertheless,itis obvious thatBaltic elites national while statehood of restoring their society and to state that it uses the pure model of any of the above mentioned two systems, 55 accept a “pillared” society! accept member Academy wouldScience, insistednever Baldunciks of Latvian the Latvians that of Nils Muiznieks, “Government Policy and the Russian Minority,” in Ibid, 94. David D. Laitin, The independence struggle at the end of coloring:had anethnic anabsolute end the The independence 1980s strugglethe of at At the final stage of existence of the USSR, the titular elites in the union republics Although it is very difficult to characterize any country with divided and segmented and divided with country any characterize to difficult very is it Although As Laitin reports, whenAs Laitin he posed reports, samequestionthe Juris a then Baldunciks, to Estonia, Estonian culture andlanguage – I thinkis very important. rights, and human also granted economicbeen have rights. (…) non-Estonians Thewhere integration is Estonian, of language non-Estonians state the with Identity inFormation. TheRussian-Speaking Populations in theNear Abroad , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, (2006), 14. 56 22 Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and 57 Järve and Wellmann believe Wellmann and Järve 55 , Cornell CEU eTD Collection on the the on Threshold of EU,March 1999, European Centre for Minority Issues, 6. 63 Economy-point.org, http://www.economy-point.org/d/descending-principle.html principle, Descending (See state. ofthis citizens are parents one orat least ) parents whose children, to nationality 62 61 60 University, 9. 59 the on Threshold of EU,March 1999, European Centre for Minority Issues, 7. 58 in weightof the decision-making. Russian-speakers that demographic fears and political suspicions gave ammunition to those who wanted to limit influence ondecision-making. their reduce therefore would and in theparliament, elite national of the representation of representatives of in this group national the legislature; in this, wouldturn, limit Russian-speaking people, granting citizenship to rights them leadwould toahigh proportion life. social and of newforms establish political itself dominant in toensureits position set political country, to the elite a twofold and task: the republicsthe invaded were by Sovietthe troops, would be givencitizenship. wasa citizen ancestors whose Estonia Republic Republic or the Latvia by of of 1940 when least atone of or citizens, were the whocountries two of these residents current only those that meant this explain, Wellmann and Järve As legislation. citizenship intheir naturalization of principles the follow and to thecitizenship restore to also republics but independent Latvian and Estonian pre-war the restore to only not was Union Soviet the possibility of dual incitizenship is future…This the noway acceptable totheLatvians”. state will entail introduction the language,a second of state of equal and…the rights, political nation- rather than a state a two-community of “thein creation early 1993 that stressed Latvia, citizen with non- of position in the no countries Baltic two these political of residents thousands of hundreds left rights and accordingly no opportunity to take part in the decision- Priit Järve and ChristianWellmann, Report # 2, Minorities and Majorities in Estonia: Problems of Integration IusSanguinis – Ibid. 9. Ibid. 9. Andris Spruds, “Minority Issues in the Baltic States in the Context of the NATO Enlargement”, Riga Stradina Priit Järve and ChristianWellmann, Report # 2, Minorities and Majorities in Estonia: Problems of Integration That was why the political choice that Estonia and Latvia made during the collapse of collapse the Latvia madeduring Estonia and that choice political That waswhy the (lat. Right of the blood), 60 Valdis Birkavs, the former Prime and Foreign Minister of designates the principle, according to which a state lends its lends state a which to according principle, the designates 23 59 He explains that given the high proportion of 58 As Spruds reports, the new nationalistic new the reports, AsSpruds ius sanguinis 63 This process This 61 62 and CEU eTD Collection 66 65 publications, London, (2001), 278. a person is a stateless one. This declaration is a positive one in its legal nature, of is oneinits of a positive course. is legal nature, one. Thisa person declaration a stateless importance when the state official authority declares that non-citizen status does not mean that 64 whois nota Latvian citizen or a non-citizen of Latvia. Law–alienisa person, Immigration 1 of in Section the with because– accordance persons, status”; inmentions addition, Court the thatnon-citizensbe shall not regardedas stateless legal specific "a with as persons but persons stateless and aliens the nor citizens, asthe neither non-citizens,comply not does status.Latvianwith any other non-citizens canberegarded as acts, legal international beeninwhich has established rate of the determined for rights, of beentity, Latviannon-citizenscitizens; status withaphysical anyother compared cannot Citizen Lawappearedanew,uptothattime unknown Latvian non-category persons of – of as certain persons” forces.group external by potential interested the columnists” “fifth the state-building in process beginningof the 1990s,the also fear the of possibility the using “a of impacthistorical of experience ofcontinuity importance and on statehood the of pre-1940 the argumentation given by Constitutionalthe Court of Latvia in one ofits judgments: incases. of wholethe population both the nearly constituted 40% residents measuresthenon-citizen In making proportional the process. Ibid. Judgment of Constitutionalthe Court of Latviaon Case No. 2004-15-0106, (http://www.satv.tiesa.gov.lv/) Graeme P. Herd and Joan Lofgren, Joan and Herd P. Graeme In the concluding part of itsafterIn theconcluding passing Courtstatesthat partof judgment,the Non-the of This legal by Constitutional argumentation given Court clearly the shows thegreat Latvia. of Republic of the of Independence ofthe Renewal the Declaration legal is basisof continuity May of Latvia fixedin Council 4, 1990Supreme the automatically granting the status of the citizen a to certain group of persons. The fornot thelegal basis created legal subject of asinternational Continuity Latvia Latvia. of aggregate citizen the determine to possibility the legislator the Latviagave of occupation of independence period the after Regainingof legal and official consider the to itis interesting extremely In this respect Societal Security, the Baltic States and EU Integration 64 24 66 The last statement is, indeed, of is,indeed, of great Thelaststatement , SAGE 65 CEU eTD Collection 69 President, the Latvian National Community “West Russians”, onApril 15, 2008; Nils Muiznieks. 3 (2004), # 20, paper 68 Working ECMI Union”, European ofthe threshold 67 number ethnic of Lithuanians (approximately 80%) time of re-establishing independence. This couldstance be explainedby relatively the high on Lithuanian nationality territory regardless of without any and language requirements atthe citizenship,approach to option” a“zero adopting policy allof citizenshipgranting to residents by the act of the State Soviet of the USSR under the signature of Mikhail Gorbachev (then the threerepublics independenceall of state of the official recognition brought region Baltic the policies. citizenship implementing while be neverpopulation could satisfied with them, state’s the policy especially official towards well. as citizenship prewar restore sofree to not was Lithuania sovereignty, state the restoring is while that why inhabitedwere werenot by those citizenspeople the of Lithuanianthe republic; independent Klaipedaparts not region) of which were pre-warLithuanianthe Republic. Theseterritories factor, Lithuania besideshand, Asiton thedemographic was outlined, one the onanother. and Lithuania in Latvia andEstonia policies of the forcitizenship difference between the explanation an additional result ofsovereignty.my During interviews with andscholars politicians in Latvia and IfoundEstonia, Soviet incorporation gained the territories (Vilnius and have Russian citizenship as well, as citizenship Russian have dissatisfied by the politics of the new state and one of theoption explanations was that they didand not grant citizenship to all her residents, some of the Russian-speakers were still Nadezhda Lebedeva, Nadezhda Interview with Axel Kirch; Nil Ushakov, Member of Saeima, on April 15, 2008; Dmitrijs Nikolajevs, Van Peter Elsuwege,“Russian-Speaking MinoritiesEstonia in andLatvia: Problems of Integration atthe Lithuania, with its minority,Lithuania, much integrated with inclusive and choseamoresmaller better As Lebedeva points out, the strong national movement for the state independence in independence state the for movement national strong the out, points Lebedeva As However, it must be mentioned that even with its decision to choose the so-called zero theso-calledchoose itsto even decision with mustit that be mentioned However, 68 Novaia Russkaia Diaspora (New Russian Diaspora) 69 which shows that some part of the Russian-speaking 25 67 for the moment of restoration of state . , Moscow. (1997), 184. CEU eTD Collection with the State ofLatvia. theState with is enduring legal the thatLatvian a person stipulates of amendments) connection citizenship 22 June1994andby proclaimed1994(withUlmanis President on11August the several both Latvia and Estonia. The Citizenship Law adopted by the Saeima (Latvian Parliament) on currentrepublics. continuity and pre-occupation between the and ties Constitutional Assembly February on 15, 1922,thus, more once emphasizing legal the 1992, while livesby its still of constitution Latvia underthe adopted pre-warrepublic, the accordinglyexistandnew constitutions adopted under 22,1992, on June 28, on October is the story with establishing Latvian republic residents andthe leftwith non-citizen status. http://www.unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNTC/UNPAN018407.pdf 73 72 (Estonian Parliament) and former Ministerof ForeignAffairs –Kristiina Ojuland. 71 70 have registered in accordancecitizens were Latvianpersons, those who citizens17 June on 1940, and who their descendants with the procedures set out in law, except persons who have naturalization process. madethrough obtain citizenship to legislation that possible created from Estonia its side, adds,that Veedla citizenship. leftwithout were citizens) dissolution inUSSR December,of 1991 hundreds of of sovietthousands (former people the beblamed Hence,heEstoniashould not Republic. after that Estonian argues, as (September, 1991), there appeared the citizens of Estonia and the citizens of USSR residing in moment of official recognition of state independence of the Baltic States by the Soviet Union by highlighted Aarne Veedla SeptemberPresident 7,1991. USSR) on of the See Section 1, Citizenship Law of Latvia, proclaimed on August 11, 1994, Interview with Aarne Veedla, April 12, 2008. of Riigikogu member the to advisor nowadays and movement independence the in involved actively figure A Ibid. 124. It is also worthtoanalyze thelegal framework regarding the citizenship existingin itHere, is important tomention and and Lithuania that adopted Estonia nowadays 73 Among several other provisions, the law declares the Latvian law declares the provisions, Among several other 71 during aninterview with him. Ashe forunderlined, the 26 70 The importance of this historical fact was fact historical this of importance The 72 The same The CEU eTD Collection rule of receiving Estonian citizenship for special service: the states which article special the contains also process, for naturalization set preconditions 19, 1995and proclaimed by PresidentLennartthe Meri on January 31, 1995besides usual indecrease significantly nearfuture. the placepermanent isLatvia, of residence shall be as if acknowledged aLatvian he/shecitizen is person andhis/her a stateless by positivelaw stated child trend in isthefact this a born August that Latvia after 21,1991 through the naturalization process in order to be granted the citizenship. From the other side, a citizenship, while thebe seen,being Latvian Livis ethnically or for enough person the to obtain Latvian the former citizens of Soviet Union of different ethnic origin have to go citizenshipif (nationality), issuch forby permit provided lawsof the state. that former of their from state the permit anexpatriation have who received or state, another of have (nationality) not citizenship who do in law setout and procedures the with accordance are Latvians and Livs are Latvians and http://www.uta.edu/cpsees/estoncit.htm 78 http://www.unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNTC/UNPAN018407.pdf 77 http://www.unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNTC/UNPAN018407.pdf 76 Encyclopedia Britannica Online, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9048608/Livonia) 75 http://www.unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNTC/UNPAN018407.pdf 74 acquired the citizenship (nationality) of another state after 4 May 1990. See Article 10, Law on Citizenship of Estonia, proclaimed on January 31, 1995 See Section3.1., Citizenship Law of Latvia, proclaimed on August11, 1994, See Section1 and 2, Citizenship Law of Latvia, proclaimed onAugust 11, 1994, (See ofLatvia, Republic of today’s part of Livonia, inhabitants indigenous the are Livs or Livonians The See Section1 and 2, Citizenship Law of Latvia, proclaimed onAugust 11, 1994, Impact of this special article is outlined by Laitin as well: as Laitin by is outlined article special this of Impact of Republic.the of Estonian citizenship for special service must bejustified by Governmentthe grantEstonian for granting specialservice. citizenshipThe maketo aproposal persons in year.any Anymemberone of Government of the Republicthe may Estonian citizenship special for service may be givennoto more fivethan Estonia’s international sphere, haveto other reputation. which contributed some sports or culture, inscience, beaccomplishments shall Special service by The Law on adopted RiigikoguCitizenship the (Estonian onJanuary Parliament) 75 78 whose permanent place of residence is Latvia, who have registered in have registered who isLatvia, place of residence whosepermanent 77 that naturally means that number of non-citizens will non-citizens of number that means naturally that 27 74 Latvian citizens also citizens Latvian 76 As it could it As CEU eTD Collection Minority Protection in the CEECs”, in the Protection Minority 81 80 University Press, (1998), 5. (2003), 22. 79 were who denied citizenship. population Russian-speaking the from minorities national its of majority vast the Autonomy for Minorities” National Estonian waslimitedwhich citizens, to excluding thus, “Cultural as 1993on pointan example out legislation,Lawof October Estonia’s exclusive of Sasse and Hughes organizations. rights human international various by mentioned was this state-buildingthe inboth process Latvia policies andEstonia state stayed quite restrictive and state. whole Latvian in the establishment political local change could they that mean would them to right voting bewhile inLatvia, spreadall formed), they are (non-citizens) country the over and granting and would no wouldpractically vote not one beable accordingly, self-government to local the that mean would right voting without them leaving why was (that regions those in majority Russian-speakers compactly live in two northern regions of the country Nikolajevs and constituteDmitrijs non-citizens. a of clearportion less no has country the though, in Latvia, happened not has same The positions. council local the be for elected ableto not meantthey were that right electoral passive granted the not were still they however, non-citizens; the to elections local in the right voting active granting of James Hughes and Gwendolyn Sasse, “Monitoring the Monitors: EU Enlargement Conditionality and Conditionality Enlargement EU Monitors: the “Monitoring Sasse, Gwendolyn and Hughes James Interview with Dmitrijs Nikolajevs. David D. Laitin, Nevertheless, despite the positive provisions in the legislation, for the initial period of period initial the for legislation, the in provisions positive the despite Nevertheless, As an additional from factor positive legislation,Estonian could bementioned thefact abusing the practice. Nonetheless, neither Vahi nor Laar gave citizenship to potentialcitizenship gave fifth Laar nor columnists.Vahi neither Nonetheless, practice. the abusing Russians in cultivate “his” to hepower, sought Laar cameto the leaderMart opposition the same manner,But when the opposition. bargainingmuch the chagrin of to had relations, good and Vahi,Prime then Ministerout of office, Tiit Vahicriticized gave the Laargift forof citizenship to people with whom he Identity inFormation. TheRussian-Speaking Populations in theNear Abroad 81 80 Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe(JEMIE), 79 28 explained that in Estonia non-citizens, mainly non-citizens, in Estonia that explained , Cornell No. 1, No. CEU eTD Collection processes taking manyprocesses insummer thepicture place feared 1993anddescribes bring would some and settledtowns regionscompactly with ethnic DavidLaitin minorities. outlines the despite of existence states unitary thecentralized tendencytowards wasastrong Republics and languageculture, Estonian andnationitself. was ethnically nation-state forconsidered defined theonly survival the Latvian of possibility forits Russia exert influenceperceived instrument newstates. asaonthe to potential minority and Balticsocieties; national was entrenched grievances within Russian-speaking the anddeeply victimization feelings of largely tothe formation of that contributed experiences by historical strengthened survivalwere national to the of threat perceptions the demographic Latvians that wereabout tobecome in a minority republic. own their comparatively unfavorable demographic among the Latvians, figures tendencies suggested 86 85 84 83 University, 6. 82 Latvian to come to power and to annex Latvia to Russia”. asituation create asafifth arenot forces to [her diaspora] seeking enabling which column…is 1993 theAndrejevsstated Foreign “Russia,that by using Affiars,Latvian Minister of Georgs population. co-existence Russian-speaking with towards number ratherunenthusiastic titular considerable of among the people approach promoted constitutingand of 0.5% total the 0.4% population, respectively. by had ownrepublics, nominally their which among nationalities fifteen smallest were the inclusive in citizenship legislation and Latvia in LatviansEstonia; the USSR and Estonians Ibid. 8. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 7. Andris Spruds, “Minority Issues in the Baltic States in the Context of the NATO Enlargement”, Riga Stradina Spruds claimsSpruds demographic animportant thatthe role situation played less in adopting Another important characteristic of the state-building process in ofBaltic three the all process of state-building characteristic the important Another An beliefs. mentioned above the from derived largely state and nation of Perceptions 29 86 84 Furthermore, Spruds argues,that Furthermore, Spruds 82 He shows that given 83 This situation This 85 In CEU eTD Collection 2008. 90 89 Learned 88 University Press, (1998), 181. countries, in their minorities Russian-speaking the against policy" reprehensible thepower-sharing one. than process building inthestate- approach more ethnic control using of approval onemore presents unitary states centralized the for establishing aspiration elites’ Baltic political the Therefore, country. certain unity divisionto the isthe state theof threat using of be federal system arguedthat cannot it in causing hence, ethnicfederalism; cleavages only factor these countries the was ethnic itfact is that the the not However, intheir tensions countries. by ethnic caused time bloodshed Serbiathe and Montenegro. and Federation Russian the Azerbaijan, Georgia, 1,1993,were byJanuary communist area promising: not formed 4of new of 22 states, ethnic on the grounds the in federalism post the 87 all includingof minority the thegroups, biggest one, Russian, areprovided with fundingthe ghettos?..’ are the monitoring groups coming toLatvia after having seen the real situation, are asking: ‘so, where international “the out: points Aboltina, Solvita Parliament, of member nowadays and Latvia, inside the society from the both majority and minority sides. The former Minister of Justice of processes andtheintegrative inclusive policies, more citizenship couldthere beobserved from present negative currently picture the prospective, to a very attemptRussia’s general state. was a unitary Estonia that stipulated already had constitution the that illegal grounds the on referenda the declared Estonian the butgovernment on autonomy areferenda Russian-speakers) organized by settled (compactly cities of Estonia north-east the when of brink war, the to Estonia Interview with Solvita Aboltina, memberof Saeima and former minister of Justice of Latvia, on April Bush denounces 15, Soviet domination, BBC NEWS, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4521663.stm Valerie Bunce, “Is Ethnofederalism the Solution or the Problem?”, in David D. Laitin, , ed., Alina Mungiu-Pippidi and Ivan Krastev,CEU Press, (2004), 187. Despite President Putin’s claim that the Baltic States carried out a "discriminatory, Identity inFormation, TheRussian-Speaking Populations in theNear Abroad 90 87 ViraKonyk, Chairman of Ukrainiansthe Congress in Estonia, reports that In this case modern historical experience of other post-Soviet states was historical post-Sovietstates In experience modern of other this case 88 Allfaced four experiencedperiod had in or already of a short 30 Nationalism after Communism. Lessons , Cornell 89 and CEU eTD Collection Central andCentral Eastern Europe 94 York, 427. 93 92 91 citizenship. these, 127786individuals,including 13572underage children, hadbeen granted Latvian of persons; 138 074 concerning naturalization applications had Board received Naturalization organizations. Lithuania, asFreedom ethnicHouse reports, communities have active cultural and political their cultural distinctiveness, organize various meetings, festivals and events. from thus, Estonian the givinggovernment, freely minorities chancetothese the to express minorities, especially Russian-speakers in their political rights and freedoms. and rights political in their Russian-speakers especially minorities, restricting and hand, one on goals important these guaranteeing policies implemented titularthe language, nation, carry and culture anddesirableout the to foreign well,policy as of dominance ensureorder andto preserve in of The governments Latvia andEstonia). those ethnicthe andcitizenship policies of independent newly-restored the (especially Baltic States elaborating weredecisive while picture historical demographic andtemporary experience that is true it republics, new of formation of stage initial the at existing policy state and situation the of evaluation the Concerning rights. minorities’ Russian-Speaking particularly minorities, preserving not nations’culture titular anddo intoself-identity turn theviolation ethnic the of assessing the citizenship applications. Community “West by ethnic Russians”,his Russian (an origin). National Latvian the of President the Nikolaevs, Dmitrijs by confirmed is trend same the David J. Galbreath and Nils Muiznieks, “Latvia: managing post-imperial minorities”, in Interview with Dmitrijs Nikolaevs. Interview with Vira Konyk,Chairman of Ukrainians the Congress in Estonia. OnApril 11, 2008. Nations in Transit 2007, Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia Hence, itHence,could be concludedcurrently that citizenship while policies protecting and 94 This data, indeed, demonstrates a positive attitude from the state side apositive from state the indeed, while attitude Thisdata, demonstrates 93 According Galbreath to Muiznieks,and asof December 2007,the , ed. Bernd Rechel,Routledge, (2008), 12. 31 , Freedom House, (2007),New 92 Concerning the situation in Concerning the situation Minority Rights in 91 Existence of CEU eTD Collection 97 96 University Press, (1998), X. 95 diaspora given by William Safran: solution possible The seems minorities”. “migrant the or minorities” characterize to to “indigenous term the by beeither them difficult is it to states, uselocal with ties the citizenship and termlegal without “diaspora”.States Baltic Here I will quote the defining criteria of done. have conditions, political formed underspecial that groups conglomerate both justnationality, Palestinians asthe in and Hispanics Middlethe the East in UnitedStates, the a of feel the on take will it that think to is reason there but a nationality, not is population republics outside their national homelands. putative Belarusans, Ukrainians, Poles, and speakJews, all Russianwho as languagetheirfirst in includesconglomerate identity Russians, this population”, outthat Laitin points David identity problems intheBaltic States 2.3. Genesis of the new stratum – the “Russian-speaking population” and their fate).” one of the great threats to their future in Latvia, and feel that they all suffer from this common mass),homologous andBelarusans(wholanguagelawsee Russians,Ukrainians, and as the asa see nonnatives (who Latvians nationalist scene, among ethnic the foreigners observing reports: “In Latvia,the “Russian-speaking population” is ina term common use among Ibid. 283. Ibid. X. David D. Laitin, 97 1) they, or their ancestors, have been dispersed from a specific original “center” While the sovietcitizens, in former Russian-speakers with particularly dealing the While ofidentity, emergence “Russian-speaking the discussing the a newcategory of they should, collectively, be committed to the maintenance or restoration of restoration or maintenance the to committed be collectively, should, that they believe they 5) appropriate; are conditions –when return eventually should) true,their as homeland idealancestral their regard they 4) it; homefrom insulated andand alienated as the place to whichfeel partly therefore society and host by their accepted be –fully cannot perhaps theyand – not are they or that theirbelieve they 3) descendantsachievements; and history, would (or memory, vision, or myth about their original homeland collective a retain 2)they – itsregions; foreign, or “peripheral”, more physical or to two location, Identity inFormation, TheRussian-Speaking Populations in theNear Abroad 32 95 Hebelieves thatthe Russian-speaking , Cornell 96 Laitin CEU eTD Collection Audentes, Tallinn, (2008), 1. 99 31. Identity in Formation,The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad 98 feeling decadesof the beaminority after whentheyappearedto trauma Russian-speakers for psychological and shock cultural the to wasequal process this that mention to necessary Itisin Sovietminority the Union Russian-speaking to the particular newnation-state. the over all majority the from changed suddenly been had status their USSR, the of dissolution after realizethe that Federation to living Russian the outside but andlanguage culture Russians. ethnic reachingits in1989 –30%of 20.1%, Russians peak wholethe was already amongpopulation share of total the re-occupation, Soviet the years of fifteen in only 1917; 1959,after and inrise numbers causedby Russia from was emigration the theafter Revolution Bolshevik of called Staroveri andof small Tsaristpart officials;in were8.2% 1922 there of Russians –this composed 3.3% of total the andpopulation of mainly Estonia they were religiousthe groups in Russians note that 1881 AhmetLensmentand Forexample, Occupation (from 1940s). the (18 period Tsarist Balticthe region: into of Russian-speakers periods main settlement three are there report, authors Asmost entireas the entity. be characterized not could Russian-speakers that with them, than “indigenous” or “migrant” minorities. In addition, itis important to mention in relation “diaspora” term use the to precise is more it thus, and people, these with relation Russian-speaking population butI believe inmostits of parts this definition could be used in Anzela Lensment and Ilzija Ahmet, “Peculiarities of Russians’ Identity in Estonia”, International University William Safran, “Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return”, quoted in David D. Laitin, Of course, it is difficult to argue that this definition fully meets the nature of of the nature the meets fully definition this argue that to isit difficult Of course, It was,indeed,believe difficultto forthe people identifying with themselves Russian of a relationship. such existence the by defined importantly are solidarity and consciousness their ethnocommunal relate, personallytheir original homeland andor to vicariously,its safety and prosperity; and 6) theyto continue that to homeland in one way or another, and th and 19 99 th centuries), after the Bolshevik revolution Bolshevik the centuries), after revolution 1920s),and the Soviet(the 98 33 , Cornell University Press, (1998), CEU eTD Collection Latvian legislation, according to which the name and surname of Latvian legislation, both whichaccording thenamesurnameof and the citizen and non- to ethno-cultural survival and dominance of titularthe language andin culture their states. suggested by inMuiznieks implementing policies,their citizenship secured the Baltic States which was under threat. under which was side nations’ titular from the self-identification national the and preserve protect to established –as – “defensivethis nationalism” trend andevennamesanewconcept phenomena the legal or changes”. and for political push state the challenge to some pose people those when especially are different, who by those andfeel (…), threatened states, their with themselves identify who majorities of nationalism “the Mungiu-Pippidi: by nationalism” “conformist is called what world, communist post in the nationalisms of 102 (2004), 70. in 101 100 “alien”, etc. outcast”, “social citizen”, “second-sort –“occupants”, themselves towards theRussian-speakers of side from the characteristics negative and self-segregation the transition – was deeply offensive Russianto ears.As Lebedeva points out, there also appeared in the roles key played had who and independence for pressed actively most had who radicals those from coming that especially – state nationalizing the of discourse semi-official and official the addition, In them. for natural very was it and inRussian only communicate to languageused whenthey state another studying of necessity the understand difficultto itwas very in late ages, especially their for some of people, one.Ofthe theircourse, native Estonian iswhich from a completely –Finno-Ugricdifferent languagesgroup)which was not (especially learn alanguage had to and Union, Soviet the home spaceof be entire at the on to Interview with Nils Muiznieks. Alina Mungiu-Pippidi, “Milosevic’s Voters: Explaining Grassroots Nationalism in Postcommunist Lebedeva, Europe,” Nadezhda Nationalism after Communism. Lessons Learned It could be concluded that Russian-speaking minorities faced most widespread variety One factor showingOne factor the possible violation of self-identity isone’s in presented the Novaia Russkaia Diaspora (New russian diaspora), 102 It could be with deduced that notion the of “defensive nationalism” , ed. Alina Mungiu-Pippidi and IvanKrastev, CEU Press, 34 101 Moscow. (1997),133. Muiznieks also agrees with agrees also Muiznieks 100 CEU eTD Collection 103 Latvianbe rules, written languageaccording citizen to grammar Latvia has to of 106 International Dimensions 105 104 Protection.The European Context “Trojan Horse” asthe treated they were often positively voted andevenaconsiderable inindependence part of referendum them the Usakovs. Nils is spelled nowadays name official his him; with interview an during Russian) ethnic (an Ushakov Nil Parliament, Latvian the of member the by out pointed was issue This one. original the from spelling different completely means fact 107 rse&first=1&max_to_show=10&hilite=50258582se1) http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50258582/50258582se1?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=trojan+ho undermines from within. “ legislation was elaborated and Estonia and Latvia decided to keep the continuity with their parliamentary election of March 1990, Neil Melvin reports, Armed Forces and the KGB (Stateanti-constitutional by SupremeCouncilthe Latvia on of August 23,1991) Security Committee declared was (which Party theCommunist of representatives former some with accordance in the former Soviet Union). In the enter Troy; Speaking Populations in theNear Abroad 108 International Dimensions Boris Koltchanov, “Ethnic Statistics and data Protection in Latvia,” in “ Nils Muiznieks, “Government Policy and the Russian Minority,” in Interview with Nil Ushakov. Janis Ikstens, “Eastern Slavic Political Parties in Latvia,” in Latvia,” in Parties Political Slavic “Eastern Ikstens, Janis Neil Melvin, “Russians Beyond Russia”, quoted in David D. Laitin, Trojan horse However, the problems in inter-ethnic relations appeared as soon as the new as the soon as appeared relations ininter-ethnic problems the However, Indeed, not all the representatives of the ethnic minorities were against the state security forcessecurity launched their attacks. internal Soviet the Rigawhen in barricades be on the to werereported non-Letts In many January All-LatvianInterfornt and1991, Committee. the Salvation indicated among declining support for the Russians the Soviet-inspired in inJanuary poll same 1991. The Riga daysbeforetwo Soviet the crackdown for support Latvianthe andSupreme Soviet Council inof Ministers a poll taken indicated Russian-speakers…Latvia’s Russianresidents other of Two-thirds represent ethnicbetter theirintereststhan Latviansindependence to andtrusted for voted had clearly Latvians; deputies Russian-speakers the were ethnic putupby Russian new74% of candidates Inthe Equal parliamentRights. ethnic the for than Front Popular of the candidates for Latvian ethnic the voted farRussian-speakers more that indicates deputies of the distribution The ethnic fig. a person, device, etc., insinuated to bring about an enemy's downfall; a person or thing that thing or a person downfall; enemy's an about bring to insinuated etc., device, person, a – according to epic tradition, the hollow wooden horse in which Greeks were concealed to concealed were Greeks which in horse wooden hollow the tradition, epic to –according , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, 2006, 14. , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, 2006, 41. (See Oxford(See English Dictionary, , ed. Andrea Krizsan, CEU Press, (2001), 227. , Cornell University Press,(1998), 95. 108 35 entry on Trojan horse, 106 and the overall picture was drawn in drawn was picture overall the and Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and Identity in Formation, The Russian- Ethnic Monitoring and Data 104 107 , the Soviet , the 103 which in which 105 , still , CEU eTD Collection 113 112 111 University Audentes, Tallinn, (2007), 335. Europe after Historical Enlargement 110 University Press, (1998), 275. 109 don’tknow how to writelaws, but the Russians don’tknow how to read them”. “We MPs: of putbyLaitinEstonian the Estonians with nicelyone of issuea quote pointed is residents living bythemoment of restoring independence. state All complexitythe of the pre-war republics, thus,granting onlythecertain citizenship to permanentthe category of willing to gain success in the individual process of socialization. of process individual in the success gain to willing valuesitlife; individual’simportant of an standards developsthose who for social also are opinion. ecological, psychological, anddevelopment and cultural environment, of an unbiased favorable of creation a activities, in participation political is atsocial contacts, aimed family, provide for andone’s oneself material security and to physical pressure andobligation within the standards of the quality life.of between socialinequality groups ethnic they whetherand whether are essential cause they quality the life is of important.If very ethnic it doexist, is differences know necessary to examines thethreemodels of ethnic by stratification suggested Rothschild behavior andattitudestothe dominantvalues andstandards of life the quality. division labor between of minorities,Latvians and and ethnicas differentiation ofsocial and social stratification; this phenomenon has a historical foundation in the system of the Ibid. 353. Ibid. 352. Ibid. 335. Vladislav Volkov, “The Perception of Quality of Life of Latvians and of Russians Living in Latvia”, in David D. Laitin, 1. According to Vladislav Volkov, the quality of life of a person, who is free from the In the given situation the question concerning possible national or ethnic differences in In ethnic given question situation possiblethe the national or concerning differences As Volkov finds, the case of Latvia shows the interconnection of stratification ethnic of interconnection showsthe Latvia of case the finds, As Volkov groups intoeconomic life, as well as into the system of political power; ethnic of subordination the on based is stratification ethnic in which model, vertical 110 At the same time, the quality of life is not just a growing interest in the social Identity inFormation, TheRussian-Speaking Populations in theNear Abroad , editors: Tanel Kerikmae, Aksel Kirch and Mait Talts, International Talts, Mait and Kirch Aksel Kerikmae, Tanel editors: , 36 111 113 : 112 109 Scholar also Scholar , Cornell CEU eTD Collection 115 114 and segmented society. ethnically divided for factor and peaceful remainsthe themain coexistence inany positive development differences in social equality and quality of life due Russian-speakers. Nevertheless,to asthe and research suggests, survey arenotbig data there ethnic stratification of the society that appeared among which self-segregation forces andsometimes of political some nationalistic actions and statements by and hand, one on reality legal and political new with accommodate fact they that problem realization haveof to the Union of caused by psychological of dissolution Soviet the the after facedRussian-speakingtrauma double population that of Baltic States. the cities in getjob capital in sector business the areoften language to bankandother the refused they titular population, especially young the of dueto generation, lack the of knowledge of Russian of the for representatives evenworse is sometimes situation the that out Ivaskina, pointed of Department Market inFiguresEstonia. byStatistics 2006,published Similarfield in in in results the of employment of are Estonia presented data Labour the origins. ethnic duetotheir segregated andpeople are inLatvia is stratification vertical there is toclaim there possiblethat arguethat anysupport isit to hence, not of stratification, ethnic Interview with Irina Ivaskina. Statistics Estonia, 3. 2. Coming from the examination of the above mentioned information it could be stated be could it information mentioned above the of examination the from Coming The results of the sociological research conducted by Volkov shows different elements ethnic differentgroups. of includes members sector and category each economic and specialties, and functions economic has of arange group ethnic each in which reticulation, cross-patterned communities; political and economic, existas social, whenparallel segments, ethnicrelatively groups autonomous Labour Market in Figures 2006. 115 Tallinn, (2007). 37 114 In addition, Irina addition, In CEU eTD Collection inside the multiethnic communities. multiethnic the inside societies, and what kind of role media could play in the developmentlocal the on of media integration process (Russian-speaking) minority ethnic particularly, and mass-media of impact newly-restoredthe independent Baltic republics, itis extremelyimportant todiscuss the After analyzing the citizenship policies and development of inter-ethnic relations in relations inter-ethnic of development and policies citizenship the analyzing After 38 CEU eTD Collection opposing ethnicities and dissolveethnic tensions in independentlysociety. Hence, run in toconsolidate media order manner, However, be usedinaconstructive also can conflict. ethnic inmedia lead and ethnic could to group, of even groups different confrontation manner,destructivefeed feelings nationalist to andminority support of either majority or and ethnic minority, canbe either conflict provoking or consolidating. Media canbe usedin a in in andisa elites. success involved key the political politics, of element these is population wider the where advantage political an enormous bestows therefore television, especially media, mass of ownership or control role; vital a play information over control and ininformation arguesthat political and ethnic conflicts, the context domestic strengthening Gagnonvarious interestwhile groups. role speaking aboutthe of elitespolitical in provoking achievefor carry in into politicians the goalsto and it,powerful turn could weapon selfish both minority and majority day groups by isday. It obvious theimportance,that the media of those feelwho somehow tobe minority in theirhome-state, is gaining a growing impact on concerns and needs interests, representing and reflecting media, minority Ethnic worldwide. in inter-ethnic relations. inclusive trend the more support also policies state official that show I addition, In journalists. media militant for the less leaving andlessspace therefore, trends, than rather opposite integrationist more nowadays shows Baltic the society out that Ipoint Nevertheless, segregate society. the to past in the more did media (minority) Russian-language and (majority) mainstream both that level. suggest thelocal (Baltic) I to conceptual broader from relations media oninter-ethnic 116 Security, Valere Philip Gagnon, “Ethnic Nationalism and International Conflict: The Case of Serbia”, Chapter 3: Impact of Mass Media on Inter-ethnic Relations Inter-ethnic on Media ofMass 3: Impact Chapter In this chapter I examine the impact of mass media, and particularly ethnic minority ethnic particularly and media, mass impactof Iexamine chapter In the this In multi-ethnic and ethnically heterogeneous states the role of media, both mainstream both media, of role states the heterogeneous andethnically In multi-ethnic It is an un-deniable fact thatthe role played bymediain public affairs isincreasing Vol. 19,No.3, (Winter,1994-95), 137. 39 116 International CEU eTD Collection Publications,London, (1992), 8. communication”, in 118 Lazar, CEU Press,(2003), 196. percentage of the population holding such occupations declines and more people are required more are people and declines such occupations holding population the percentage of likely be the are modernize, However, associeties engagedmanual to labor. in unskilled fluency in themajority language. media state control would reach those who had not achieved functional bilingualism or minority couldbethrough political It assumedthat independence. also curtail trends toward if necessary, and, more minorities easily monitor wouldto beable same state the At the time institution. benevolent a as state the perceive to them encourage would policies such because life, national into minorities integrate better but state the fragment not would media minority in 117 strategies on which developmentthe of ethnic minority media depends: media. minority by the problems minority of dramatization constant the describe to used is often neurosis” “minority term The too. themselves minority and majority the for problems potential out carry definitely could media minority run separately agendathe of media,minority and from accordingly this independently prospective and on trends separatist and kindpromotingrebellious some of lead could to andguarantees legal Nevertheless, some kind limitlessof freedom basedexpression of onfinancial sustainability ofthe society. part major to the pose could they fewerproblems the self-expression, cultural their with satisfied and protected more feel they as and minority to given are rights free while From operating. themajority trend this couldas benefit because many well as minority media could bring positive outcomes for the minority to feel more independent and Reinventing Media. Media Policy Reform in East-Central Europe Stephen Harold Riggins, “The Media Imperative: Ethnic Minority Survival in the Age of Mass Tivadar Magyari, “Hungarian Minority Mediain Romania: Toward a Policy of Professional Improvement”, Due to their economic deprivation and often high rates of illiteracy, ratesof high minorities Due totheirand often economic deprivation ethnic In the In Riggins five outlines models might conceptualizethose the multicultural state’s Integrationist Model Ethnic Minority Media. Aninternational Perspective, ed.. 118 it might be assumed by state authorities that subsidizing that authorities state by assumed be might it 40 . eds. Miklos Sukosd and PeterBajomi- Stephen Harold Riggins, SAGE Harold Riggins, Stephen 117 CEU eTD Collection 122 121 120 119 is it sometimes however, affairs; in public participation full and integration be should media both. incorporate or two the of one on concentrate can States aid. financial provide or special regulations guarantee accessthrough the state: from the sideof the Model. Economic the to according its consequences, oneof as being are perceived that advantages economic the to but se per multiculturalism be to not may commitment state’s the Thus, students. minority develop inreaching more to effective are secondary schools andensure primary that to literacy and helps it because beneficial educationally as multiculturalism view may state The whocan in work necessitatingpositions higherlevels of education and professional training. devise appropriate meansdevise appropriate for reaching in minority audiences language.their own organization may promote explicitly attempt to values through massthe media andthus and roleAlgeria becameindependent, the of be channel hadthe reconsidered. to when ambivalence createdgreat this surprisingly, byencouragingethnic rivalry. Not country in disunity foster colonized the a plan of to aspart by French authorities channel devised eitherin the contextof Algeriacolonialism orgeopolitical order. inherited aKabyle radio control social of objective own its further to a country in rivalry and tension of levels some independent of the state. minority media to preempt minorities from founding organizations which would be Ibid. 11. Ibid. 10. Ibid. 10. Ibid. 9. Generally, it could be deduced that the ultimate goal in inclusion the minorities’ goal ultimate of that it the Generally, be deduced could In general,main two how tosupportoptions minority initiative inmedia areshown The DivisiveModel The PreemptiveModel According to 119 The Proselytism Model The Proselytism 121 suggests that suggests claims that it is not unusual for the state to establish its own the state can also use ethnicity to maintain or , it is believed that the state or atransnational or state the that is itbelieved , 41 120 122 create CEU eTD Collection 124 International Dimensions 123 idiotic”. looks of Russia, influence finds inscholar out, “Latvia, wrote by caseaRussian that one newspaper fleeing from the as moreover establishments; political Latvian characterize all to Russophobes” “Latvian con-citizens).” country’s the to wordapplied latter (the “Negroes” and citizens”, “second-class – “occupants”, identification a negativepresent self- andsarcastic have newspapers to continued Russian language of Latvianlanguagethe longer nodailies use negative such concepts “occupant”, but as also while evaluating the policies of the nationalizing states as well. As she reports, “nearly all and times Soviet the assessing when occupation versus liberation – memories Russian and society. has inside intheBaltic donemoresegregation mediaminority States sources the towards to ethnic consolidation in society and is notdesirable.therefore leading channels, papers andsegregation factbroadcast that the to amajorbecomes obstacle minorities. of distinctiveness cultural the damage will which values, equalization minoritiesof with the rest of the society, through the adoption of dominant social within themainly overall on the survivalconcentrates Segregation assimilation. or from segregation integration distinguish to difficult society. of the culture Assimilation, and it pays little attention on tothe minorities’ other integrationhand, emphasizes too much the Kremlin. official from the driven often inrhetoric political the an part active buttakes Republics in media as only medianot acts Baltic a minority language the Russian becould deducedthat Ibid. 71. Ilze Sulmane, “The Russian language Media in Latvia”, in Media language Russian “The Sulmane, Ilze Sulmane shows that there is a conflict in the media space between collective Latvian collective between space media in the conflict is a there that shows Sulmane It could somemedia mass representing mentionedIt especially sources, that the be separate arepromoting policies whenmedia is greatest segregation of The threat , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, (2006), 71. 123 Russian media also uses terms such as “Nazis” and “Nazis” as such terms uses also media Russian 124 From this last remark and other general examples it 42 in Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and CEU eTD Collection increased quickly over the last few years; as she reports the percentage of Latvian and non- of thepercentage Latvian few shereports years; as last the over quickly increased has in Latvia users internet of percentage Sulmane, the to according example, For minority. of information for an cheapersource independentethnic moreaccessible, andrelatively media internet could easily effective, appearasavery side state, the nationalizing the of ethnic media. minority Indeed, inconditions lackof with funding and restrictive from policies 127 126 125 FHRUL –For Human andRights United Latvia) representing the Russo-phone intensions. (especially, politicalthe parties of aremembers of editors press all Russian-language the factmedia that tothe by such Russian-speaking the connects taken an approach Nikolajevs community,their narrow own, unabletotakeawider, arethus and civic-mindedapproach.” sidelines,the (…), Russianthat journalists only defend the interests andformer privileges of for theiraccuse part, Russian colleagues of being“outsiders”, of taking look analienated from specialists, media and journalists “Latvian out, points Sulmane As communities. two forms does not contribute to moreelections. local tool a propaganda government during integrative as used been even has in Russian, processesalso PIK, Radio owned privately the in Russian; broadcasts in the society and two SWH+ Radio channel information commercial 4; the Channel on for Russian-speakers talk shows spaces Russian for differentsocial andgroups ethnicminorities; Radio hasnews, Latvia music and Latvian various Television (LTV7) produces inprograms, including adaily news broadcast the Russian language programs on official state broadcast: for example, the second channel of fromby Federation) Russian supporting Russian broadcasted which numerous channels offers gain mainly thecabletelevision attention to (given to speaking wants their population and and Russian- the needsof interests the accommodate to aswell)Baltic tries republics two Interview with Dmitrijs Nikolaevs. Ibid. 73. Ibid. 73. There is a need to mention about the rapidly growing internet media and its role for the for role its and media internet growing rapidly the about mention to need is a There As Sulmane reports, currently the Latvian state (the same could be said about other about said be could same (the state Latvian the currently reports, Sulmane As 43 125 Nevertheless, sometimes this trend this sometimes Nevertheless, 127 126 CEU eTD Collection Sukosd and PeterBajomi-Lazar, CEU Press, (2003), 227. “mother” Russia. to re-join relentless threat from the Russians, who might subvert the Lithuanian government and attempt published of tone is andreports outlines, characteristic inmainstream the articles of one press in Lithuania Mass Media”, in Media”, Mass Lithuania in 132 131 Press University 130 129 International Dimensions were a people total of 22 stories of in ethnicityabout livingRussian Lithuaniain published there adds, Tereskinas As problems. minor some of overestimation often and counter-blaming aboutlocal andnews more anddevelopments. real picture gain objective Russian-speakers will that fact the to society due in Estonian the stance integrative facilitate greatly could but beneficial commercially be not will this though, importance, immense torun that programs, especially newsin Russian mainstreamon Estonian media channels is of Foundation member concludes,Round TableMinorities and onNational President’s the of for finding those most obnoxious to its readers. andhadaknack from press Estonian the of column translations languagepress hadaregular Russian- the Laitin, to According discourse. political official the emphasizing and interpreting state. And Russian language media often contribute to the clash between the two groups while majority within aSoviet tothe of Union ethnic status an minority newwithin nationalizing a of privileged the from position the has changed been status new the Their reality. to adjusting 128 overthesocio-political debate andpublications. issues online publish shows that this growing resource is used by the both sides (majority and minority) tomeet and is respectively Latvian among the respondents. 43%and36%, Internet portals users of Arturas Tereskinas, “Toward a New Politics of Citizenship: Representations of Ethnic and Sexual Minorities Interview with Tanel Mätlik, Director of IntegrationFoundation, April 11, 2008. David D. Laitin, Ibid. 72. Ilze Sulmane, “The Russian language Media in Latvia”, in Media language Russian “The Sulmane, Ilze In Lithuania, where are fewer number of Russian-speakers, still, asTereskinas of number Russian-speakers, fewer are where In Lithuania, Pretty much the same picture exists in Estonia. Russian-speakers have difficulties Russian-speakers in Estonia. exists same picture much the Pretty , (1998), 97. Identity inFormation. TheRussian-Speaking Populations in theNear Abroad, Cornell , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, (2006), 72. Reinventing Media. Media Policy Reform in East-Central Europe 132 The response from the Russian-speaking media’s side is the is side media’s Russian-speaking the from response The 44 130 in Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and As Tanel Mätlik, Director of Integration 129 131 . eds. Miklos 128 She CEU eTD Collection Transit 2007. Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia. 136 135 International Dimensions 134 133 justice. historical with two seven dealtwith active Lithuanian-Russian four withpoliticians, culture and education, and researched of period November 27,2000–May9,2001; nineof those, focused on crimes, Lietuvos Rytas bastion timesof changes.during great as a sphereand access the public to media asaresource language see Russian who mainly) specificinterests and needs but also non-citizens and aliens (citizens of Russian Federation typical minority media outlets as it represent not society. insideconstructive segregated the dialogue just the citizens of a with certainculture and education couldwhich mostly be integrativesocially for and the beneficial minority with national press national Russian-language directgovernmental of rise editions of of the regulation, the portions free operate of of to media ability the in continuing developments in2006werethe Estonia Russian-speakingminorities. As amongFreedom House reports, the most positive moreinclusive begantotake and approach policies towards governments the state’s the Organization (NATO) by all of the three Baltic Republics in 2004, the official discourse of and position. objective could more neutral as taking beconsidered while Sevodnia” Today) “Telegraph” the (News “Vesti newspaper the on sensations “hunter” and “hard-liner” more asthe characterizes be she and could the outlined so-called theRussian-language moderates; hard-liners press Eesti Paevaleht joined Postimees in putting out a Russian-language edition Interview of its with Irinadaily Ivaskina. paper. See Ilze Sulmane, “The Russian language Media in Latvia”, in Media language Russian “The Sulmane, Ilze Ibid. 226. Sulmane notes that the Russian language media in Latvia do not fulfill the functions of functions the fulfill not do Latvia in media language Russian the that notes Sulmane Nevertheless, with the joining of the European Union (EU) and North Atlantic Treaty 136 , the appearance of a special series entitled Remaining Russian on the state, onthe Russian Remaining entitled series of a special appearance , the (The of Morning biggestmainstreamLithuania) –the thedaily during , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, (2006), 64. 135 133 As it could be seen only a small part of press coverage deals 134 However, as Ivaskina points out, even among the 45 in Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and Freedom House.(2007), New York, 265. Nations in CEU eTD Collection external national external forhomelandnational in Russian-speaking the population coming chapter. the an as Russia review to is worth it Therefore, there. living minorities Russian-speaking mass-media is one of the consistent Russian-speaking minority mediais intheregion. existing It usingthat obvious impact of parts of Russia’s – Russianboth in media mainstream and broadcast Balticthe through cable States networks, policies towards the Baltic States and is, for sure, greatly beneficial for thefurther integration inside disintegratedthe society. combination of combination the of couldnowadayshereby,Riggins, there bemore that Iconclude useof mentioned the prospective of fivethe models strategies of state targeting theminority media, by proposed willingsplit to society the in the twoopposing communities.Accordingly,from the journalists media militant the for space less and less leaving therefore, integrationist, more a shows nowadays society Baltic the Hence, EU. the in especially organizations, mentioned, financialthe and social benefits suggested by countries’the membership in above the in an is it lifeandget to take civil part the active that muchbetter realized speakers havealso Russian- side, their From minority. Russian-speaking Estonia’s of integration of process York, 265. 137 incountries theworld. and the continued growth of Internet use in what Estonia is already one of the most online Freedom House, Freedom It is clear that Russiainfluences internal public affairs in the Baltic region by means of Nations Nations in Transit 2007, Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia, Integrationist 137 All of this contributed to a lively press and helped to strengthen the andhelpedto toalively All press contributed this of and the and Economic 46 models from the Baltic states’ side, that states’ Baltic from the models (2007), New CEU eTD Collection 140 139 Cambridge University Press, (1996), 57. 138 abroad. namethe ofmonitoring, promoting, and protecting the interests itsof ethnonational kin in actually takeaction does and state when by the and state; the promoted protected interests andthe monitored must be condition theirthat and assert state, the to insome sense, belong, ethnonational kinan external in other national states homelandaction,given not and by of only facts the ethnic demography. as formembers its ethnic ofdiaspora one andwhen thepolitical same ornation, in cultural Baltic region. the relations nexus of inter-ethnic existence triadic elitesargue to claimin order presented homelands) definenational external and thatminorities, national states, they Ibid. 58. Ibid. 58. Rogers Brubaker, Chapter 4: Russia – external national “homeland” for “Russian- “homeland” national –external 4: Russia Chapter According to Brubaker external national homelands are constructed homelandsBrubakerpolitical through constructed areAccording national external to It is obvious thatthereareall andall grounds essentialthree the factors (nationalizing Rogers Brubaker notes: 140 obligation, todefendinterests. their vigorously protest alleged violations of their rights, and assert the right, even the co-ethnics inthenewstates, situation the of monitor degrees) closely their external national“homelands” processesperceived or of policies ordiscrimination;assimilation and the states, whose leaders demand cultural or territorial autonomy and resist actual or alienated and politically degrees)organized varying and nominally self-conscious, the (to substantial,state-bearing nation; the culture, demographicflourishing, political economic position, or hegemony of varyinglanguage, (to degrees)the promote dominantelites whose nation-states, reconfigured newly new or asetof between interplay – dynamic explosive actually like confronts interwar Europe, a potentially explosive –andin some cases is conflictual,In newEurope, deeply thecases where the triangular relationship As Brubaker finds, homeland’s politics takes a variety of forms, ranging from speakers”, and its role and place in the triadic nexus triadic the in place and itsrole and speakers”, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and theNational Question in theNew Europe nationalizing states of the minorities, whose elites (again to varying , ethnically heterogeneous yetas conceived heterogeneous , ethnically 138 47 national minorities 139 As he claims, a state becomes inthose , CEU eTD Collection countryman. See Oxford English Dictionary, entry compatriot on fellow- entry a Dictionary, another; English See Oxford with country countryman. same the of is who One - Compatriot abroad. residing ‘Russian-speakers’ “compatriots” 143 Press, (1998), 124. Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation 142 141 stopas of EUaffiliation; 1999, Russia the NATOand third, stream theiralsotowards to them diplomatically, isolate and policies change their to BalticStates pressurethe on exertto raised issue the of Russian-speaking in minorities various international organizations, seeking Estonian policy and eventhreatening military from action; second, 1992 tothe present, Russia Russians inLatvia, attempting tolink the issue withdrawaltroop of changesto in Latvian and of affectmilitary use its a status the August through Russiaas to tool soughtto 1994, between majority and minority may groups be undermined”. bargains implicit existing grows, columns” “fifth Russian of fear the as Alternatively, commitment problem between majority and minority becould subsequently activated. the that risk the raising thus “Russian-speakers”, for option secessionist or military of value the raise might policy irredentist openly and actively more “A – actions Russia’s state. homeland asthe whileacting actions and discourse un-official and official Russia’s examine to valuable and important is extremely itin as represented homeland theHence, Balticnational region. Russian-speakers external for Russia is that deduction the lead to States, Baltic in the population Russian-speaking the of interests of the be only the protector to its intentions and Union, of Soviet the collapse the its co-ethnics. influencepoliciesvarious states’ other towards attempts to through diaspora, of members for ethnic the returning immigration andcitizenship privileges James D. Fearon, “Commitment Problems and the Spread of Ethnic Conflict”, in Ibid. 58. Sootechestvenniki As Muiznieks outlines, the policy of the Russian Federation towards its Fearon mentions that the biggest challenge to the relative peace could come due to indeed,And, all actions andthe by politics implemented Russian the Federation since 143 in the Baltic States has taken place in three separate arenas: first, from from 1992 arenas:first, has inthreeseparate in taken place States Baltic the (compatriots) –termused by Russianauthoritiesthe towards ethnic Russians and other eds. David Lake and Donald Rothchild, PrincetonUniversity 48 http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50045445?) 142 The International Spread of 141 CEU eTD Collection support the Russian-speakers in the Baltic States: Russian-speakerssupport the inthe Baltic firstthe States: one was citizenship, granting and aswell to measures other take to tried Russiahas also its compatriots. towards support cultural and economic of programs implements also and forum, international of level every make a claim about violation of the Russian-Speaking population’s basic human rights at every to opportunity though,Russia uses States; Baltic the of ininterfere affairs thedomestic the Baltic countries, citizens”. of such interests the defend Russia did lawful interestsnot of Russian citizens in other countries would permit the use militaryof make force to anyfreedoms and of rights, the “the oppression stating that were accepted RussianFederation” the direct threats of using military means to 147 Domestic and International Dimensions 146 International Dimensions 145 Domestic and International Dimensions 144 unavoidable”. access to weapons. If apartheid againstinhabitants of Russian nationality continues, conflict is barely “One threat: veiled should forget not that[Russia’s] military in Latviahave personnel long 1992, Sergei time –in Russia’s October Zatov, chiefnegotiator with Latvia, issueda Quite strictfrom make responseRussian offensive not and forto waitside a Baltic States did and symbolic (never ratified) promises made independence fortactical soon Baltic leaders after most reasons reinterpreted treaties, freely citizenship,as individuals choose both sidesallow should to that Federation stated which the logic of restoring January alonginter-state with1991, Latvia treaties signed Estonia with Yeltsin’s Russian independence played out. andcompatriots maintaining theirlink Russia. to of categories certain assisting at aimed measures policy of apackage implemented Ibid. 121. Nils Muiznieks, “RussianForeign Policy Towards “Compatriots” in Latvia,” in Nils Muiznieks, “Government Policy and the Russian Minority,” in Nils Muiznieks, “RussianForeign Policy Towards “Compatriots” in Latvia,” in As it was mentioned above, after the withdrawal of the Russian military troops from It is important to mention that at the height of tensions with Gorbachev’s USSR in 146 In early November 1993, the “Main Provisions of the Military Doctrine of , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, 2006, 15. , ed.Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, 2006, 120. , ed.Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, 2006, 119. 147 49 144 Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and Latvian-Russian Relations: Latvian-Russian Relations: 145 CEU eTD Collection 153 152 Cambridge University Press, (1996), 68. return. to chance any have not did therefore, state, Estonian with conditions;poor manyof return butthey to them hadwanted their legal alreadyquitted ties most of these people were taken to Lipetsk Oblast (district) of Russian Federation and left in 151 April 12, 2008. 150 149 (2008), 7. 148 stances. competing arena struggle among of homeland be each should asafield conceived and ofdifferentiated competing asan positions, controversial results of the Russian policy towards its compatriots in the Baltic States. overwhelming majority moved the East(Russia). them of to fromduring 1996, anet theperiod of total 1990 to the leftEstonia, 80, 000people applicants among former any republics. other Soviet obtain RussianFederation citizenship, highest making with proportion Estonia such the of to citizens for ex-Soviet procedure ofRussia’s simplified hadadvantage taken population, mid-1990s,the some 100,000non-citizens residing in Estonia, roughly the 13% of by show, Kallas and As Pettai Federation. Russian the to resettlement –offering one another potentially disloyal, or the “homeland” as actually or potentially irredentist. potentially or actually as “homeland” the or disloyal, potentially or as actually minority national the represent mayseekto of nationalization proponents conversely, one; oppressive nationally or as state” a nationalizing “host the represent the author, the mobilizestruggle to national minority a a strugglemay belinked to to objectthe in of struggles amongrepresentational actors agivenfield. becomes often fields that two other the of ineach andactions relations monitor continuously triangular relational nexusis interfiled reciprocal monitoring: in actors fieldeach closely and Ibid. 68. Ibid. 68. Rogers Brubaker, Interview with Aarne Veedla, advisorto the memberof Riigikogu (Estonian Parliament) Kristiina Ojuland, Ibid. 7. Vello Pettai and Kristina Kallas. Estonia: conditionality amidst alegal straightjacket, unpublished manuscript, Brubaker argues that a national minority, a nationalizing state and Brubaker thatanational minority, an national argues anationalizing state external Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and theNational Question in theNew Europe 50 151 As he suggests, a central aspect of the 148 Pettai and Kallas also point out that 149 As Aarne Veedla Asreported, Veedla Aarne 150 This clearly shows the 152 Thus, according to 153 Indeed,it could , CEU eTD Collection manuscript, (2008), 20. 155 University Press, (1998), 329. and foreign (Russian) influence on domestic and international affairs. cleavages, of ethnic sponsorship of werecausedpotential external bythethreat Baltic States in powers state the of nationalization and centralization is that itclear arena, Baltic the on 154 capital. Estonians’ thattheKremlin preconceptions was behindin disturbances the Estonian the many to factonly and added Soldier, this to theSoviet statue of bronzereplacement of problem the over crisis in the interfered also Russia Moscow, in embassy Estonian the Balticwhen States, by allowing activistsfrom pro-presidentialthe movementNashi to besiege Kallas clearly interests Russia’s outlines current andinvolvementin domesticthe issues of the speaking minorities and the governments of the Baltic States. An example given by Pettai and Russian- between relations in the interferes actively it and path middle than more remains external national homeland’s government the following: nexus. relational of triangular with definition this accordance interethnic bein in relations of concludedthatthebeginning exactly 1990sdeveloped the Vello Pettai and Kristina Kallas, “Estonia: conditionality amidst a legal straightjacket”, unpublished David D. Laitin, 155 After analyzing peculiarities of the relations between the actors of the triangular nexus It is difficult not to agree with Laitin’s recommendation; however, Russia’s policy still policy Russia’s however, recommendation; Laitin’s with agree to not is difficult It peace. guarantee to best its done logic, this to according has, it states, nationalizing in living now brethren ethnic their to indifference complete and support solid between if of Consequently, national the government the homelanda middle takes path minority. that to commitments Thissecurity their on torenege the courage an state nationalizing little the too of couldleaders the shows giving be would it homeland minority, heightennational in the national the interest if Yet territory. tensions their reincorporate and raise martyrs, produce and thereby inthe drawing of armies to the homeland national the to in order violence, probabilityinitiate to incentive an minority that give will it minority, national in the interest an great of too shows homeland ethnicnational the of government war. if outthat the field points triadic complex this of analysis A more strategic Laitin finds difficult the positions of each in this triadic nexus and recommends for the Identity inFormation, TheRussian-Speaking Populations in theNear Abroad 154 51 , Cornell CEU eTD Collection 156 regions rebellious the sideof the with Russian so-called peace-keepers andinvolvement Russia’sopen in armedthe conflicton 158 publications, London, (2001), 274. 157 after Communism. Lessons Learned the of part the become and themselves transform to in order do to less have Lithuania) (Latvia and its neighbors Baltic Estonia and argues that and countries, “non-European” other with in comparison character European Estonia’s contrasts clearly in Estonia, integration freedom of and whichhasbeen democracy, basis the of restoration the independence”. of (parliament) inFebruary joining2000: “When theUnion,Lithuania it bring will love its with RomanoProdi such reinforced in a perception address the Lithuanian an to Seimas Country. European and open becomedemocratic a to forever, from thathad Latvia its realm backandwalkedaway stated turned post-Soviet the to Union Helsinki Summit’s indecision 1999 December to open upnegotiations with she Latvia, following European the perception when, this underscored explicitly Vaira Vike-Freiberga their natural and rightful restoration it alogical some,of has beenconsidered or Latviareassertion andLithuania. For position within of Estonia, elites political by different the conceptualized which hasbeenvariously project a “common European home”. President of NATOLatvia, and the EU. security provided “security the under and stability bythemembershipin umbrella” guarantees Charles King, “The Benefits of Ethnic War: Understanding Eurasia’s Unrecognized States,” in States,” Unrecognized Eurasia’s Understanding War: ofEthnic Benefits “The King, Charles Ibid. 274. Lofgren, Joan and Herd P. Graeme Chapter 5: Accession to the EU and NATO: Facilitating the Facilitating NATO: EU and the to Accession 5: Chapter Taking into account the contemporary “positive” experience of Moldova Georgia and of experience “positive” contemporary account the intoTaking Rein Taagepera, an academic actively involved in designing the policies ofethnic in involved policies designing the Rein an actively academic Taagepera, The Baltic States have all sought to “return to Europe” in the post-Soviet period, a integration inside the societies of the Baltic States Baltic the of societies the inside integration , ed. Alina Mungiu-Pippidi and IvanKrastev, CEU Press,(2004), 160. Societal Security, the Baltic States and EU Integration, 156 , Baltic political leaders were strongly pushed to seeknew pushed strongly leaderswereto , Baltic political 52 157 European Commission President Commission European SAGE Nationalism 158 CEU eTD Collection Domestic and International Dimensions 161 3. Identity in Formation,The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad 160 Research, 159 Serbia. or Russia European Community than seeming promises of seeming promises of whooccupy bandits the White House!” the is acountry frightened idiots of – imagine paying huge such amounts of money for the clear: “Latvia picture which makesthe an internet-forum at leftby comment Russian-speaker naturally meanwould that NATO, especially organizations, Western the entering against strongly forces were for them to by often minorities. Russo-phone Onthehand,Russian-speakers driven political the one be cut off frommain both challenges,and were directly with connected problem the Russian-speakingof the “motherland” – Russia. States. for theall Baltic of three stability andpolitical economic, societal, Tabuns quotes been of paramountimportance for strengthening the state sovereignty, integrity, territorial a reality joining the European Union (EU) and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) had Kirch, when she defines the cultural border and distinctiveness between Estonia and Russia: aleading Marika sociologist, Estonian DavidLaitin quotes one. theRussian over cultures manifest shows streamingbeginning superiority nations’ to and Baltic the of the of 1990s the in the academics and politicians the of some of intentions nationalistic the of deepness NATO promoting democracy worldwide could not let themselves to accept states let to themselves not could worldwide democracy NATO promoting Aivars Tabuns, “Attitudes Towards the State and Latvian Foreign Policy,” in Policy,” Foreign Latvian and State the Towards “Attitudes Tabuns, Aivars Marika Kirch, ed., Changing Identities in Estonia: SociologicalFacts and Commentaries, inDavid D. Laitin, Merje Kuus, “European Integration inIdentity Narratives in Estonia: A Quest forSecurity”, However, the process towards membership in Euro-Atlantic organizations faced process membership two inHowever, the Euro-Atlantic organizations towards in family”, “European entire the to belonging of idea and narratives identity Besides of Slavic-Orthodox cultural traditions. Western Europe; on the other [in Ivangorod], a primeval fortress as an exponent of traditions cultural the with in accordance Germans and Danes Swedes, of two confrontation” civilizational “overt the cultures:carefully witness and river… Narva Russia is anachronistic or negligible,on one need only standthe on the and bridgeEstonia between border civilizational the that hesitatingly, If onesupposes over the Estonian side there is an historic fortress built by the Vol. 39, No. 1, (2002), 97. , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, 2006, 31. 160 53 159 Taagepera’s claim clearly presents all the 161 , Cornell University Press, (1998), On the other hand, EU and EU hand, other the On Latvian-Russian Relations: Journal of Peace CEU eTD Collection 165 164 University, 5. 163 threshold of the European Union”, ECMI Working paper #20,(2004), 3. 162 European Convention, and concluded Latvian the that “oversteppedauthorities theirmargin Silvenko inArticle found of a violation Casewhen Court the 8of principlesthe stated the the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). One of the prominent cases was the so-called was deprived than (more citizenship. 60%) of population non-titular the of majority the legislation, this of result as crime; international for aterm one yearforan had beensentenced exceeding their who persons and spouses, and Forces Armed of USSR the officers retired services, andsecurity KGB of the employees fascist,national-socialist,propagated totalitarian other chauvinist,communist ideas,former or who those independence, persons againstLatvian who acted to onnaturalization restrictions couldgroups starttoapply years.in different age persons -thismeant that from different system andwas introduced window so-called the internationalinvolvementof organizations and system the President, the quota was abandoned year. benaturalizedeach non-citizens to only of 0.1% initially system Latvian legislature alawwhichenvisagedquota passed allow which would the out, points Spruds As moment. that by criteria these meeting fully was Latvia nor Estonia minorities”. for andpromotion andof law, rights rule of respect human Copenhagen European Council. implied This stable institutions “guarantying democracy, the by 1993 June identifiedthe accession as for criteria economic and political satisfy had the to rights. minorities’ ethnic the towards policies citizenship restrictive with andLatvia) Estonia (particularly, Ibid. 5. Ibid. 5. Andris Spruds, “Minority Issues in the Baltic States in the Context of the NATO Enlargement”, Riga Stradina PeterVan Elsuwege, “Russian-Speaking Minorities inEstonia and Latvia: Problems of Integrationat the Besides protests andBesides protests Russian-speakerslodgedat civil several complaints, complaints Balticcountries the becoming States, EUMember of objective To reach their ultimate 165 54 164 According the scholar, the law According scholar, the the stipulated 163 Spruds reports that after the 162 Indeed, neither Indeed, CEU eTD Collection (2008), 15. Pettai and Kristina Kallas, “Estonia: conditionality amidst a legal straightjacket”, unpublished manuscript, 170 manuscript, (2008), 13. 169 University Press, (1998), 178. 168 167 threshold of the European Union”, ECMI Working paper #20,(2004), 46. 166 Stoel. by Vander out carried Laitin too North Estonian inhabitedtowns (mostly byRussian-Speakers) insummeris 1993 by outlined the of councils bylocal held referenda of theme the over dispute tense the during particularly escalation. violent of possibility combinationHuman Rights,Maxvan As monitoring,der Stoel.Van Elsuwege points out,this in constant with missionsthe in Riga and Tallinn, operating in close co-operation with the High Commissioner for High Commissioner’s for Security Organization in decidedand Cooperation establish (OSCE) to Europe permanent family). diplomatic (Silvenko applicants each EUR of to 10.000 the amount and awardedacompensation of appreciation” recommendations, decreased the streaming towards the entire “European family” played a very positive role and contributed to andcontributed role positive very family” a “European played entire the towards streaming conditionality.” and interplay persuasion to the of thegovernments side-by-side exposing organizations worked times.other often the However, conditionality, the CoE Estonia:straddled “while the OSCE relied mostly on persuasion, and the EU was masterthe of political the in divideinclusive more them make and norms legislative the improving using for Europe) of Council persuasion at times, and –European – EU for inUnion,– OrganizationEurope, CoE Security Cooperation and conditionality at (OSCE organizations of European work impact of united the of showimportance to the order JudithKelley, “Does Domestic Politics Limit the Influence of External Actors on Ethnic Politics?”, in Vello Vello Pettai and Kristina Kallas, “Estonia: conditionality amidst a legal straightjacket”, unpublished David L. Laitin, Ibid. 5. the at Integration of Problems Latvia: and inEstonia Minorities “Russian-Speaking Elsuwege, Van Peter It could not be denied that pressure from Western society keen from society Baltic’s and the becouldpressure Western deniednot It that This course of of This course international demandedaclearresponseevents from community. The 168 . Pettai and Kallas also underline the positive recommendations and activities and recommendations positive the underline also Kallas and . Pettai Identity inFormation,The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad 166 169 In addition, Pettai In Kallas Kelley’sandaddition, quote Pettai in conclusion 167 Van der Stoel’s positive involvement in this process, 55 170 , Cornell CEU eTD Collection 175 174 University, 11. 173 threshold of the European Union”, ECMI Working paper #20,(2004), 11. 172 University, 10. 171 identity”. national own their preserve to right the has minority national each and nation, Latvian the resident, every which in state is Latvianational ademocratic, prospects… future situation and current the account country. has into “Latvia mustthat, take neverbeenan Society homogenous ethnically indicated which Latvia” in Society of integration “The Programme National the approved pharmacists. and staff, airline fighters, Latvian governmenteliminated restrictions non-citizensfrom preventing asfire-working referendum. easier atthe citizenship obtain to naturalization procedure Latvian the idea ethnic of citizens (most ofmaking supported them Latvians) the the beginning of integration processes in the Baltic countries. As a result, in October 1998, the appearing of new stratum newappearing of “European – the stratum Russians” economic ofbeingmembers Besides direct benefits European the Community of and “Trojan in Horse” Russia’s hands, which longerwas no attractive in as much as Europe. the column” or “fifth the with than to beassociated Europe” movingtowards “Baltic Train the “Aliens Law”. controversial andmodified for local candidates election requirements language the removed wasalso there facilitate inter-ethnic to inunderstanding; order “RoundtableonMinorities” the Meri established PresidentLenart endof the 1993, Estonian moreinstances, tendency inclusivetowards happened policy in than earlier Latvia. Already at the result of the European Parliament elections in 2004. The Russian political alliance – For – alliance political The Russian 2004. in elections Parliament theEuropean of resultthe and therefore more protect their rights. The clear examplethis new environment they bewould internationalize betterable to their own ethnic problems of this “thinking in a right way” is Interview with Tanel Mätlik. Ibid. 12. Andris Spruds, “Minority Issues in the Baltic States in the Context of the NATO Enlargement”, Riga the at Stradina Integration of Problems Latvia: and inEstonia Minorities “Russian-Speaking Elsuwege, Van Peter Andris Spruds, “Minority Issues in the Baltic States in the Context of the NATO Enlargement”, Riga Stradina From the side of Russian-speakers it was also clear that it was better to take a seat in aseat take to itwas better that clear also itwas Russian-speakers of side the From 173 In Estonia, similar processes have taken place and, in some 172 At end the of Latvian 1998 the government 56 175 , they also strongly realized that within 171 Furthermore, the Furthermore, 174 CEU eTD Collection with their non-citizens’ passports. non-citizens’ their with country became affiliatedmentionedmany that Russian-speakers hadlost incentive to obtain citizenshipLatvian after with the EU as they membership inside integration on the processes the Latvian society. particularly He Baltic, could travel freelya potential indirectshortcomings.negative Ushakov impactof out EU Nil the pointed inside the EU zone even more inclusive. legislation from the possibility made by provided feel security theBaltic States guarantees to this organization, more secure of external influence on domestic affairs, and accordingly to make the 176 naturalization for incentive economic apowerful Latvia’s non-citizens, to have been opened too, when they sinceshow that January 2007 the labor markets ofmany memberEU states Russia. status of language Russian the in EU,aswellthe closer promote as links the between EU and goal was to defend in the European countries, signed amanifestoestablishing a party.Prague such rights of Russian-speakers a pan-European Russian party and inJune 2004,together with politicians from five other in allFHRUL with another platform as EUwell - Mrs. Zhdanok publicly membercalled for the establishment of states, Parliament. European memberof the a became Zhdanok Tatyana strengthen the in andHuman Rights awell,United Latvia (FHRUL) did vote the 10.66%of receiving 179 178 177 International Dimensions Janis Ikstens, “Eastern Slavic Political Parties in Latvia,” in Latvia,” in Parties Political Slavic “Eastern Ikstens, Janis Interview with Nil Ushakov. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 46. 178 From the prospective of be init of membership From NATO, deducedthatcollective could prospective the However, no process could be outlined in its nature without potential potential and drawbacks its without nature in outlined be could However, noprocess , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, 2006, 45. 179 This is by supported deduction Muiznieks Galbreath and 57 Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and 176 This resultprovided 177 Party’s stated CEU eTD Collection 182 of LatviaAcademic Publishers,(2008), 6. 181 andCentral Eastern Europe politicians and NGO activists with whom I had meetings and interviews during myfield trip. findings, these with agrees also period, accession forMinister Special Assignmentsfor Society AffairsIntegration during the Euro-Atlantic the was who issue, this on scholar well-known the Muiznieks, Nils inclusive; more legislation citizenship making of process the in especially isclear, society Baltic the inside groups majority minority the and between in processes integrative (EUandNATO) the organizations Euro-Atlantic membership inthetwo of role positive overall the andprocess, naturalization Union. by European set the andcommon policy cooperation in of theframes and refugees migrants non-citizens)Russian-speaking highinorder forto have refusing anargument additional keep migrants(inthis localthe the(Latvian numberof government inthiscase)to own case 180 burden-sharing”. “solidarity accept setby in of (EU)for to interestof and quota Latvia Brussels refugees the the about mentions Muiznieks scenarios, Inall three process. for thenaturalization obstacle by Iseeminor moreone Muiznieks, andvery hypothetic butstill and a potential drawback well. as impacts negative was eliminated. Interview with Nils Muiznieks. University Ulnicane-Ozolina, Inga in Scenarios”, Three 2020: in Latvia in Relations “Ethnic Muiznieks, Nils David J. Galbreath, and Nils Muiznieks, “Latvia: managing post-imperial minorities”, in Nevertheless, despite the possible drawbacks of Euro-integration on the integration the on Euro-integration of drawbacks possible the despite Nevertheless, After having three scenariosread the of by ethnic inLatvia relations 2020 suggested 180 181 Therefore, it is true that accession to the EU could bring some minor some bring could EU the to accession that is true it Therefore, Thus, hereby, I argue that in there future hereby,could Thus, incentive for appearan Iarguethat the , ed. Bernd Rechel,Routledge, (2008), 14. 58 182 as do all the other scholars, active Minority Rights in CEU eTD Collection Dimensions 186 185 soviet_war_statue/ http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2007/04/28/violence_continues_over_estonias_removal_of_ 184 183 from Federation,and coming Russian Russian citizens statue of Sovietthe weremainly Soldierin Tallinn, protesters the when Russian-speakers country. fordemocratization of the a guarantee the is in not membership NATO andcitizens non- of situation the with changed nothing has NATO, into Latvia of affiliation despite even if former Russian President Vladimir Putin thinks in another way and makes a claim that societies, Baltic the inside inter-relations andpositive integration more facilitated role and Conclusion involvement of ethnic minorities (who could be possible threats for the final goals of national of goals final the for threats be possible could (who minorities ethnic of involvement andaccordingly independence themainstream foreign the of policy defined without elites ensured theirpositions in beginning dominant years statethe of restored the interests”. legitimate with co-citizens than column, rather from remains isolated of Latvian the seeinsociety, whichtends part itto of evidence a fifth nostalgia Russia, “Combinedthat and with towards orientation Soviet the this activism of Balticthe countries. IjabsRussian speaks civil about organizations activities mentions and disappeared in the society, and that Russia is always ready to interfere in the domestic policiesnot has basis this on cleavages and history common the of interpretation the around nations Ivars Ijabs, “Russians and Civil Society”, in Nashi’s one-trick pony, Baltatlantis.com, http://www.baltlantis.com/?id=10682 Violence continues over Estonia’s removal of Soviet war statue, war of Soviet removal Estonia’s over continues Violence President Putin’s Press-conference. NATO Summit. Bucharest, Romania. April 4, 2008. Nevertheless, the April, 2007 street clashes against moving Nevertheless, April,protests the the 2007street and of the The ofaffiliation Western process with organizations hasreally played aproductive 183 , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, 2006, 82. Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and International 59 The Boston Globe 185 186 , shows that the dispute between On the other hand, Baltic national Baltic hand, other Onthe 184 CEU eTD Collection majority of African-Americansare. speak English, the same as thenot obvious thattheir and attitudes wouldbeanymore opinions similar than they majoritycurrently of other Americans, however, even notes that she if and itis have Russian-speakers language, same the Estonians importance outthe of speaking thesamelanguage; generation. alsopoints future Maimone the to belongs clearly which role very is the differences, political of because mainly but ethnic historicaldue to controversial pastwithout tensionsnotwhich interpretation the onthe was of generation. young the among law and state the of concepts main the of understanding and legal-awareness education youth, andof believes thatschool should takeamore active part in raisingthe of respect to the rule of law, democracy, equal rights, etc. He also finds very keen the problem of asthe issuessuch problematic other intoconsideration be taken also should language, there inThus, hewhile mind deducesthat importancethe of keeping of knowledge the state the well. as leg only the on stay to impossible is it argues, Tsybulenko time, same the At steady. legs, heis believes, theknowledge language; of state and withoutleg one be the chair cannot legs. four on standing chair avery simple itcompares with Centre, Rights (18% in the Latvian case non-citizen remain andEstonia of Latvia both of residents ahighnumber interests, welfare social and economic with ideas in nationalistic comparison towards of population interest Survey Data”, Stanford University, (2003), 24. (2003), University, Stanford Data”, Survey 192 191 190 189 International Dimensions 188 University, 10. 187 elites). Cristina Mainone, “The Estonian Russian Divide: Examining Social Diversity in Estonia 2007. Ibid.with Cross-National24, October Estonia). 4(Tallinn, Radio on Tsybulenko byEvhen made Comment Statistics Estonia http://www.stat.ee/censuses Nils Miuznieks, “Government Policy and the Russian Minority,” in Andris Spruds, “Minority Issues in the Baltic States in the Context of the NATO Enlargement”, Riga Stradina 192 And, she makes a comparison with the situation in the United States where vast the States in United the situation the with acomparison And, makes she 187 While process speakingabout the Evhen of integration, Head Tsybulenko, of Human Finally, even after significant improvements in the legislation and general loss of loss general and legislation in the improvements significant after even Finally, 191 I absolutely agree with this, because building the common society and state, , ed. Nils Muiznieks, Latvijas Universitate, 2006, 17. 188 , and 12% in the Estonian one 60 189 Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and ). 190 One of these CEU eTD Collection Freedom House, Freedom (source: year. given in a tracked categories the for of ratings anaverage is Score Democracy The lowest. the 195 manuscript, (2008), 20. 194 193 scale the on score improvedfurthermain for the components democratic the governanceandstrengthened its protection and democracy. The overall Democracy Score for Latvia shows that country be onhuman mainwatchdogs by Freedom the oneof to whichisrights considered House, countries three the of for given each Score Democracy isthe stance this positive approval of policiesin accordance high with standards the setupby community. civilized the Theclear apartof Estonian society.nearly themselves considered 70% still wrong, was Soldier” “Bronze the move to decision the believed 80% almost that showed althoughKallas’s is polls that amongRussian-speakers and important, report extremely economic development of the country, where they all social the welfare and live about caresmore youngwhich generation the especially, framework, and co-exist. In this respect, Pettai Nowadays both of parts society are buildinginterethnicin relations constructive legal and beenavoided. hasalready interethnicrelations scenario possible worst of - the important and Russian-speaking minorities will live in an harmony,absolute fact one remains mostthe titular the when time concrete any claim definitely could one no and on going still is process integration Though as the column”. bea “fifth and treated not shouldnot they are therefore, where live in; states they belong intolocal tothe andfeel they the societies integrated already Estonian, Lithuanian Latvianor society itisbut obvious many also that haveof these people Americans. and between African-Americans larger much than that differences arenot andEstonians of Russian-speakers intheattitudes differences and thatthe concludes The ratings are based on a scale of 1 o 7, with 1 representing the highest level of democratic progress and 7 and progress democratic of level highest the 1 representing with of1 o7, scale on a based are ratings The Vello Pettai and Kristina Kallas, “Estonia: conditionality amidst a legal straightjacket”, unpublished Ibid. 24. From From have Baltictheir side, the States tomakeensured also theirlegislation and an Undoubtedly,constitute integral some donot Russian-Speakers of local part the – Nations Transit,in Democratization from Central Europe to Eurasia 195 from in 2.29 1999 to2.07by January 1, 2007. 61 194 196 ThefactLithuania that , (2007), New 391.York, 193 CEU eTD Collection speaking population in Baltic States despitethe all challengesthe desire faced, agreat and “fifth column” society?; oranintegral of have thatRussian- shown local part the and I nexus. in this Russia of role the and Region Baltic in the relations nexus triadic and of 4 while confirmedin importance the the Chapterdiscussing waselaborated the affairs, external of andforeignsponsorship ethnic cleavages, influenceon domestic andinternational of potential by powers threat were caused the of state nationalization and centralization independent My policies newly-restored that Baltic of the argument, States. second indeed,that, historical was experience decisive while elaborating the ethnic andcitizenship showed 2 clearly and 1 Chapters the in given Explanation validity. theoretical and empirical non-titular and in populations.both shown two this arguments have presented other The their thesis also titular both including society Baltic entire the of integration and legislation citizenship inclusive more for factor facilitating a strong became EU and NATO the Slovenia did better former(only states among USSRand Yugoslav NewEUand representing 29countries the 200 House. ofFreedom web-site official the on 199 198 197 196 1, 2007. isfrom theleader region in from its Baltic the score and 1.96 by raised 2.25 1999 to January scale. the lower on score overall makes the that points 4.00 with assessed for democracy butitevaluation, could be by explained high level relatively the of corruption withconnected conditions minority existingpoor for self-expression other general or criteria improvementshowed no is significant andhad thesame scorenot asin overall 1999 (2.29), Freedom House, Freedom even yet, been announced not have 2008 1, January to 2007 1, January from period the for scores latest The Ibid. 255. Ibid. 415. Ibid. 391. I began with a question: are the Russian-speaking population in the Baltic States a in States population Baltic the Russian-speaking aquestion: arethe I began with This democratic development is one more piece of empirical support that accession to accession that support empirical of moreis piece one development This democratic 198 With these Democracy Scores Democracy these With Nations Nations in Transit, Democratization from Central Europe toEurasia 200 ). 199 62 the Baltic States have the leading positions have the States Baltic the 197 , (2007), New York, 42. As for Estonia, it Estonia, for As CEU eTD Collection (2007), 19. 202 201 in column” speakers asa“fifth States. Baltic the destructivesociety, threat to leaving thus, noroom for anyfurther threat of using Russian- majority minority andthough groups, these intoa distinctions willnot turn dangerous and will for alongexist periodlines of along distinctions time between theethno-cultural the This allow citizenswill inclusive. more even policies government make will changes legislative and discourse official the believe I However, assimilation. mean not should and not does integration speakers; Russian- the and nations titular the of representatives the between opinions and beliefs insidethesociety. integrative peaceful processes and towards direction cohabitation have avoidmanaged to destructive andbloody interethnicof development relations, andhave gota (Russian-Speaking), minority and (titular) majority society, Baltic the of parts both formation, state of way the on obstacles and challenges visible drawbacks, the despite that the “fifth column” as used and into turned been not have againstforces, political external interested the the by made efforts states of their citizenship and/or residence. 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