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The marine transgression in the Middle Carboniferous of BrOggerhalvOya (Svalbard)

PETRA LUDWIG

Ludwig, Petra 1991: The marine transgression in the Middle Carboniferous of BrQggerhalvGya (Svalbard). Polar Research 9(1), 65-16. The change from continental to marine conditions in the Middle Carboniferous on Breggerhalv0ya started at the end of the Bashkirian with short-term transgressive events at the top of the Breggertinden Formation. Local basin was responsible for the pulsatory nature of the transgression. The establishment of a shallow marine carbonate-dominated environment is represented by the Moscovian Scheteligfjellet Member which overlies the post-Caledonian red beds of the Br~ggertindenFormation. The Scheteligfjellet Member is the lowermost member of the Nordenskioldbreen Formation and shows distinct lateral variations. Three facies associations can be distinguished: lagoonal facies, facies and open marine facies. The succeeding two members were deposited in subtidal areas of the carbonate platform. A basin subsidence event at the Carboniferous/Permian boundary was responsible for a short shift into deeper depositional environments during a time of worldwide regression. After this a continuous regression led to supratidal conditions at the top of the Nordenskioldbreen Formation. Petra Ludwig, Spiegel-Verlag, Dokumentation, Brandstwiete 19, 0-2000 Hamburg 11, Germany

Metamorphic rocks (Hecla Hoek), which were Upper Palaeozoic of Svalbard, will be described folded during the Caledonian orogenesis, are and interpreted in terms of their microfacies. unconformably overlaid by Upper Palaeozoic rocks on the Br~ggerhalvOyapeninsula, situated in the NW of Svalbard (Fig. 1). These post-Cale- donian consist of a terrigenous redbed Stratigraphical setting succession overlaid by shallow marine platform The Upper Palaeozoic sediments on Brcdgger- carbonates. The carbonates, which mark the halvoya were first described by Holtedahl (1911, establishment of marine environment in the 1913) and in more detail by Orvin (1934). For the investigations presented in this paper the revision of the slratigraphical scheme by Cutbill & Chal- linor (1965) is used (Fig. 2). The base of the Upper Palaeozoic succession on Brcdggerhalv~yais mainly represented by the Middle Carboniferous Br~ggertindenFormation which rests unconformably on Hecla Hoek rocks. The presence of the Lower Carboniferous Orustdalen Formation on the SW of Brcdg- gerhalvcdya led Barbaroux (1966, fig. 4) to the incorrect assumption that the Orustdalen For- mation is present throughout the entire . The terrigenous red beds of the Br~ggertinden Formation, deposited in a local half-graben (Lud- wig 1989), are overlaid by the Nordenskioldbreen Formation which is of Moscovian to Sakmarian age and therefore spans the Carboniferous/ Permian boundary (Cutbill & Challinor 1965). II The Nordenskioldbreen Formation on Br~g- gerhalvcbya is about 370m in thickness and is Fig. I. Location of Breggerhalv0ya on Svalbard divided into three members: Scheteligfjellet 66 P. Ludwig

Mitlrithecopora syrinx (Etheridge 1900; Oeken- Stage Croup Formation Member torp, pers. comm.) is defined as the boundary upper 1 1,prden] Kapp Starostin between the Broggertinden Formation and the Permian Kungur GrouD Formation I Scheteligfjellet Member in this investigation. This syringoporid coral (Oekentorp & Kaever 1970), Lower JArtinsk I Formation which occurs in situ, presumably was the fossil Tyrrellfjellei Permian Member identified by Holtedahl (1911) as Syringopora 1-1 1-1 Assel hordenskleld- parullefu Fischer. This limestone forms an easily breen Msrebreer Member perceptible marker horizon on Broggerhalv0ya, ferous CY- Formation .--_--__and after the recommendations of the Norwegian dalen Scheteligfjellet - Member Committee on (Nystuen 1989), it is Croup Middle suggested as being an informal unit. Broggertinden Carbon11 The upper boundary of the Scheteligfjellet /Bashkir ferous , Formation Member corresponds to the top of the uppermost siliciclastic bed. Where these beds are missing, Lower the Scheteligfjellet Member consists solely of fos- ferous siliferous limestone, and the transition to the overlying Morebreen Member is gradual. In this case the base of the Morebreen Member is only FI,~.2. Stratigraphical scheme for the Permo-Carhomferoub indicated by the appearance of dolomites. Though succewon on Br~gpcrhdlvoya.Mgdificd after Cutbill 8; Chal- this might be a postdepositional characteristic, it linor {IW). is useful for mapping purposes. The thickness of Scheteligfjellet Member was estimated at 150 m by Challinor (1967) and 160m by Barbaroux Member. Morebreen Member. and Tyrrellfjellet (1967). This investigation shows lateral thickness Member (Cutbill & Challinor 1965; Challinor variations from a little over 10 m to 100 m. 1967). The type localities of the two lower members are situated on Broggerhalvoya. The Scheteligfjellet Member and the underlying Petrography and niicrofacies Broggertinden Formation together represent the The Scheteligfjellet Member displays significant Middle Carboniferous of Hrclggerhalvoya. facies variations between the different outcrops This investigation concentrates on the Schet- on Br@ggerhalv@ya. The successions can be eligfjellet Member and the establishment of mar- grouped into three facies associations: L, S, and ine environment on Broggerhalv~ya. 0 (Fig. 3). Their original relative position was changed by Tertiary thrust (Ludwig 1988).

The Scheteligfjellet Member Facie5 associarion L. - This facies overlies a typi- cal succession of the uppermost Broggertinden L ith olog? Formation, which is characterized by alternating The Scheteligfjellet Member is a fossiliferous beds of bluegrey limestone, black calcrete - both limestone succession with locally intercalated sil- of intertidal origin (Ludwig 1989) - and coarse iciclastics and dolomites. alluvial fan conglomerates. Based on fossils Moscovian age was first pro- The Multithecopora Limestone forms the base posed for the Scheteligfjellet Member by Hol- of facies association L. This massive limestone is tedahl (1911. 1913). Challinor (1967) mapped characterized by layers with abundant Mu/- Broggerhalvoya using the stratigraphical scheme rirhecopora sp. (Fig. 4) and some single chal- of Cutbill & Challinor (1965) and described the cedony nodules with concentric structure and Scheteligfjellet Member. but he did not define its diameters of from 10 to 30 cm. Thin layers of red exact boundaries. jasper (4 to l0cm thick) with irregular lower For lithological and palaeoenvironmental and upper boundary surfaces occur between the reasons the base of a blue-grey limestone con- individual limestone banks. The Multithecopora taining abundant Multithecopora sp. probably Limestone shows the following microfacies: A The marine transgression in the Middle Carboniferous of BrgggerhalVQya (Svalbard) 67

1 Facies L Facies 5 Facies 0 Fig. 3. The three facies association of the Scheteligfjellet Member exemplified by three profiles of the Br~ggerhalv~ya

crumbly micritic matrix containing echinoderms, In this facies association the Multithecopora brachiopods, bryozoans and corals (Multithec- Limestone is succeeded by thin dolomites and opora sp. and probably Caninia sp.) as coarse bituminous limestones, partly by a sparitic lime- -sized bioclasts (Fig. 5). The smaller-sized stone with fragments of echinoderms, bryozoans bioclasts are forams, pellets and Kamaena sp. and brachiopods that are well-rounded and (Buggisch, pers. comm.) (Fig. 6). Some whole sorted. The overlying laminated dark limestone ostracod shells also occur. contains a poor fauna dominated by ostracods. The brachiopods are dominated by productids Irregular laminae reflect the probable devel- which are mostly preserved as whole shells (Fig. opment of algal mats. The dark limestone is 7) which have been altered to red jasper. In overlaid by a massive arkosic litharenite showing addition the athyridine brachiopod Composita sp. thin layers with well-rounded -. occurs (Fig. 8). It is succeeded by bituminous dolomitic mud- Most of the delicately branching multithec- stones with wavy lamination and with intercalated opores are altered to red jasper and are restricted red and green fine-grained (lithic to several intercalated thin horizons in the basal arkose). -sized, angular quartz grains partly part of the Multithecopora Limestone. Small occur as thin layers in the laminated mudstone. sparitic particles with a lanceolate shape occur Besides scattered carbonaceous plant remnants, dispersed around their stems. These are probably ostracods and gastropods are the only fossils that calcitic elements into which the outer shells of the are found (Fig. 9). Irregular white nodules of multithecopores disintegrated. length-slow chalcedony are abundant. The multithecopores covered wide areas and Feldspars, though lacking in the underlying red built up colonies. They are associated with solitary beds of the Br~ggertindenFormation, make up a corals. No real bioherms are found, but small relatively high portion of the sandstones in the patch reefs, up to 20 cm in height, appear in thin Scheteligfjellet Member, and they show authi- horizons between the Multithecopora-bearing genic overgrowth. Facies association L shows layers. varying lithologies and its thickness varies from 68 P. Ludwig

Fry J Bcds Hith .Llu/rirhPcoportr sp. in the lower part of the basal limestone (Multithecopora Limestone) of the Schetcligfjellel Mcmhsr.

Fig. 5. Cross-section of Muhhecopora sp. A central cavity filled with internal sediment or micrite is surrounded by a shell that began to ahinto red jasper outwards Scale. 1 mm. The marine transgression in the Middle Carboniferous of Br@ggerhalu@ya(Sualbard) 69

Fig. 6. Kumuena sp. (Buggisch pers. comm.) which is very abundant in the Scheteligfjellet Member limestone. Scale: 1 mm

Fig. 7. Basal limestone of the Scheteligfjellet Member (Multithecopora Limestone); middle part of a productid brachiopod. Normal foliated structure of the shell and the cross sections of the spines are typical. Scale: 1 mm. 70 P. Ludwig

Fig. 8. Cross-section of Compositn sp. in the basal limestone of the Schctcligfjellet Member (Multithecopora Limestone). The prismatic \tructure of the shell differs from the normal hrachiopod striictiirc Scale: 1 mm.

Fig. 9. Upper layers of the Schetehgfjellet Member, facies association L. Dark limestone with ostracods and some gastropods deposited in restricted areas. Scale: 1 mm. The marine transgression in the Middle Carboniferous of Br0ggerhalu0yu (Sualbard) 71

30 m to 100 m. It is exposed in the mountainous Multithecopora Limestone corresponds to SMF- center of Brcbggerhalv~ya(Brcbggerfjellet, Zep- type 8 and 9 of Wilson (1975) (Fig. 3). The mul- pelinfjellet and Traudalen (Ludwig 1989)). tithecopores appear to build up extensive bio- stromes (German term ‘Rasenriffe’) in a shallow Facies association S. - Facies association S is or with sea grass around and with characterized by a 2 m thick boundstone rep- open circulation seawards but only little water resenting the Multithecopora Limestone (Fig. 3). agitation (Facies Belt 7, Wilson 1975). Such an This build-up was established on a hardground environment can explain the often parallel bend and consists mainly of Chaetetes radians Fischer of all individual tubes of a Multithecopora colony. and Campophyllurn kiaeri Holtedahl (Holtedahl Coral tubes in similar environments today grow 1913). Multithecopora sp. is rare. The overlying upwards even if the colony turns over in the soft fossiliferous limestones are several metres thick substrate (Kiihlmann 1984). The quartz grains and of shallow marine origin. They are in turn in the Multithecopora Limestone as well as the overlaid by red and green fine-grained sandstones associated sandstones display considerable ter- (arkosic litharenites) and locally also by thin con- rigenous influx from nearby land areas. The deli- glomeratic layers. Though not fully exposed, it cately branching growth of the multithecopores appears that facies association S is only a little prevented them from being buried by sediment. more than 10m thick. It is only found on the Associated with the multithecopores, spherically SW coast of the Brcbggerhalvcbya at Kjarstranda, shaped coral colonies which colonized where it was described by Barbaroux (1967). It clasts occur. Such corals can be rolled over by the overlies a condensed section of the Brcbggertinden slightly agitated water of shallow , so that Formation, represented by a debris flow breccia each individual receives light and nutrients from of shallow marine origin with calcrete lenses (Lud- time to time (Kuhlmann 1984). This steady move- wig 1989). ment protects the corals from sediment cover. Algal laminites. dismicrites, and limestones Facies association 0. - Facies association 0 rests with well-rounded bioclasts from open marine directly on a supratidal calcrete horizon (Fig. 3) fauna as well as feldspar-rich sandstones with that forms the top of the Brcbggertinden For- layers of well-rounded pebbles (facies association mation (Ludwig 1990). The basal layer is a re- L) were probably deposited in shoal or worked marine horizon with small intraclasts environments (Facies Belt 6 or 8 of Wilson mainly derived from the calcrete limestone. This (1975)). Their occurrence indicates that after horizon grades upwards into the Multithecopora deposition of the Multithecopora Limestone, Limestone which shows similarities to the de- lagoonal areas became shallower and were spor- velopment in facies association L. A bryozoan- adically and locally cut off from open circulation. echinoderm-packstone is deposited on top of the A similar environment today seems to be limestone. This in turn is followed by micritic Florida Bay, a shoaling bay protected from the limestones with bryozoans, productids, and ostra- open sea by a rim of coral (Enos & cods as whole shells together with fragments of Perkins 1979). Sediments consist of lime mud with echinoderms. These packstones, rudstones, and molluscs, forams and ostracods (Ginsburg 1956). floatstones are overlaid by different wackestones Many small mud-mounds, fixed by algae and with abundant chalcedony nodules (up to 40 cm partly showing algal laminates, are surrounded by in diameter) of concentric structure. delicately branching corals and red algae This facies association is differentiated because (Bosence et al. 1985). of its lack of siliciclastic and dolomitic interbeds. A comparable shoaling of the bay in the Schet- It is found along the north-west coast of Brcbg- eligfjellet Member was caused by rapid carbonate gerhalvcbya. deposition so that basin subsidence could not keep pace. The Scheteligfjellet Member therefore forms a fining-upward sequence. Dark limestones Facies interpretation with algal mats and laminated dolomitic mud- During the Middle Carboniferous, Brcbgger- stones succeed the beach deposits. Nodules of halvcbya was situated at about 30” North and the length-slow chalcedony suggest an evaporitic ori- climate was semi-arid (Steel & Worsley 1984). gin (Folk & Pittman 1971), an interpretation sup- The microfacies and faunal content of the ported by the feldspar overgrowth in the 72 P. Ludwig intercalated sandstones (Kastner & Siever 1979). fluctuations or basin infilling could cause These uppermost beds of facies association L considerable facies changes in the coastal area. were deposited in higher intertidal to supratical This is exemplified by a typical tidal flat profile in regimes (Facies Belt 8 of Wilson (1975)), sug- the center of Br~ggerhalv~ya(Traudalen) gested by James ( 1984) to represent the upper- assigned to facies association L, where vertical most part of a shallowing-upward sequence. and lateral facies changes occur within deci- Above the shoal deposits ostracods represent the metres. dominating fauna: below, forams are more abun- Facies association L represents a lagoonal facies dant. Thornton et al. (1980) conclude from an which developed from normal marine open investigation of a recent lagoon in Tunisia that lagoons to restricted tidal flat areas with evaporitic ostracods dominate over forams in restricted mar- conditions. ine areas, while the opposite is the case in open On barriers or that protected the lagoons marine environments. The carbonates in the from the open sea, a low sediment supply allowed lower part of the Scheteligfjellet Member rep- a hardground to develop on which a coral build- resent open marine, well-aerated lagoons in the up could grow (SMF-type 7 of Wilson 1975)). process of a slow shoaling. The carbonates in Hence facies association S represents a shoal the upper part of facies association L display a facies that is reduced in thickness compared to temporary cut-off of the lagoons from the open facies association L. Upward-shallowing is indi- sea as a result of this shoaling. cated by siliciclastic above the . Since the Multithecopora Limestone can be In facies association 0, open marine platform found in all the profiles, its depositional environ- conditions prevail above the Multithecopora ment must have been an extensive shallow bay. Limestone. The echinoderm-bryozoan-pack- The water depth of such an environment was stones with brachiopods are typical for a flank probably not more than 10m (Fliigel 1978). In facies of mud-mounds (Wilson 1975). The lime facies association L the irregular laterally thinning mud was fixed by bryozoans and subsequently layers of red jasper are possibly of pedogenic colonized by crinoids and productids. The depo- origin (silcrete) and therefore may be attributed sitional area was situated outside the lagoons to a periodical emergence of the limestone. The beyond the coral shoals in the open bay. In facies underlying red sandstones, as well as dust from association 0 deposition took place in subtidal nearby land areas, could have supplied the silica areas after deposition of the Multithecopora and iron-oxides. Periodic changes of the environ- Limestone. mental conditions in the Multithecopora Lime- stone are also indicated by the confinement of the multithecopores to several thin horizons. Sea-level fluctuations and tectonics In conclusion. the microfacies of the Schet- eligfjellet Member suggests stillwater conditions, The distinct environmental change in the Middle the depositional environment being a shallow bay Carboniferous of Br~ggerhalv~ya- terrigenous with lagoons along the coast protected by shoals to marine sedimentation - reflects sea-level rise. or barriers from the open sea (Facies Belt 7 of This rise was not confined to Svalbard but was Wilson (1975)). The bay was characterized by sea responsible for similar sedimentation patterns in grass and a faunal association of forams. bryo- the whole American-European arctic province. zoans. algae, brachiopods. and species of corals In the Sverdrup Basin, Beauchamp et al. (1989) which were protected from being buried by sedi- recorded a marine succession over red beds which ment because of their shape and which were also they explained by a substantial transgression with able to adapt to sudden changes of temperature a culmination in middle Moscovian times. Stem- and salinity. merik & Worsley (1989) found as characteristic Due to the high rate of sediment accumulation for the Middle Carboniferous of the European that exceeded the rate of basin subsidence, the arctic a sea-level rise due to second order sea- lagoonal areas progressively shoaled and devel- level fluctuations that resulted in extensive shal- oped into restricted and finally evaporitic sup- low-shelf and lagoonal sedimentation by mid- ratidal areas (Facies Belt 8 of Wilson (1975)). Moscovian time. This was possible mainly because extensive According to Crowell (1978). the large-scale coastal regions were so shallow that insignificant transgression in the Carboniferous of NW Europe The marine transgression in the Middle Carboniferous of Br@ggerhalu~ya(Sualbard) 73

Fig 10. Sea-level curve of the Nordenskioldbreen Formation on Br~ggerhalv@yacompared with a global sea-level curve (Ross & Ross 1987). a sea-level curve of the Russian platform (Veevers & Powell 1987). and a sea-level curve of Svalhard and Greenland (Stemmerik & Worsley 1989). 74 P. Ludwig

(Ramsbotton 1979) was triggered by the melting followed by renewed coarse terrestrial sedi- of the continental ice cap in an interim period. In mentation (Ludwig 1989). The intercalated pedo- contrast. Gjelberg & Steel (1981) explain the genic horizons of intertidal origin (Ludwig 1990) transgressional stage in the Middle Carboniferous suggests a high amplitude of relative sea-level by an uplift of the Hercynian Europe that con- oscillations. According to Read et al. (1986) a temporaneously forced the NW Barents Shelf to sea-level fall faster than the subsidence of tidal subside. Rats causes unconforrnities and a thick vadose The sea-level curve of the Nordenskioldbreen profile. Formation on Broggerhalvcbya is compared with The relatively rapid environmental shifts, the following local and regional sea-level curves especially in facies association 0,from a tidal flat in Fig. 10: characterized by non-deposition at the top of the Brcbggertinden Formation to intertidal carbonates 1. Third-order curve. global (Ross & Ross 1987) at the base of the Scheteligfjellet Member perhaps 2. Third-order curve. Russian platform (Veevers do not implicitly reflect the real transgressional & Powell 1987) (tectonically controlled) patterns. A time lag can 3. Second-order curve. Svalbard and Greenland exist after a transgression until carbonate pro- (Stemmerik & Worsley 1989) duction reaches its full potential (Read et al. These three curves have several similar trends: 1986). The marine environment finally was established -a beginning sea-level rise in early Moscovian, with the beginning of the Moscovian. High sedi- -highstand in the middle Moscovian. ment accumulation rates in the shallow water -lowstand around the Permo-Carboniferous regimes led to autocyclical upward-shallowing of boundary. the Scheteligfjellet Member (Fig. 10) still slightly -sea-level rise starting in the earliest Permian. influenced by tectonical subsidence. -sea-level fall in the late Sakmarian. Local tectonic movements in the Middle Car- A significant difference of the Nordenskioldbreen boniferous of Svalbard are not restricted to Br~g- Formation on Brsggerhalvcbya to the compared gerhalvcbya. Gjelberg & Steel (1983) recorded a sea-level curves is the sea-level highstand at the similar development with a continental to marine top of the Merebreen Member. Veevers 6i Powell transition on Bjorncbya. Superimposed on this (1987) found a major regression during the Ste- long-term transition they found several sub- phanian which they relate to the highest amount mergence-emergence events which they inter- of ice volume of the glaciation during preted as basin floor sinking. In the south of that time. The contradicting sea-level highstand Svalbard Birkenmajer (1984a) described mid- at the end of the Stephanian (Uralian) on Breg- Carboniferous Red Beds (Hyrnefjellet Forma- gerhalvaya is obviously due to renewed basin tion) with an age corresponding to that of subsidence. Local movements at that time (upper the upper Br~ggertinden Formation and the Msrebreen Member) are suggested by a syn- Scheteligfjellet Member. In his opinion the basin diagenetic breccia described by Sidow (1988). In for the sediment accumulation was formed by contrast Worsley & Aga (1986) mention dis- mid-Carboniferous tectonics (Adriabukta phase). continuity surfaces and intraformational car- The overlying Upper Carboniferous to Lower bonates caused by minor uplift around the Permian sediments (Treskelodden Formation) Carboniferous/Permian transition elsewhere on have a cyclical character which Birkenmajer Svalbard. (1984b) explains with glacial-eustatic sea-level The sea-level curves do, however. show some fluctuations. Nevertheless a fan-delta sequence similarities, as the curve of the Nordenskiold- in the southwest of Svalbard deposited in Late breen Formation on Br~ggerhalvcbya also dis- carboniferous to Early Permian times reflects plays a regression in the Sakmarian and the sporadic fault movements also after the Middle beginning of a transgression in the early Mosco- Carboniferous (Kleinspehn et al. 1984). Micro- vian. More precisely this transgression started tectonic analysis by Lepvrier et al. (1989) sug- already in the late Bashkirian and had a distinct gest several faulting episodes in the Middle and cyclical or pulsatory pattern. The two cycles at Upper Carboniferous of Bjcbrnsya and indicate the top of the Braggertinden Formation display strike-slip motions also on the northwest of Sval- short-term transgressions due to basin subsidence bard. The marine transgression in the Middle Carboniferous of Br0ggerhaloiya (Svalbard) 75

Intense faulting was emphasized already for tinental positioning, and climatic change. Am. Jour. of Sci. the Late Devonian (Svalbardian deformations). 278, 134551372, characterized by oblique-slip movements (Har- Enos, P. & Perkins, R. D. 1979: Evolution of Florida Bay from stratigraphy. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 90, SW3. land et al. 1979; Steel & Worsley 1984). Obviously Fairchild. I. J. 1982: The Orustdalen Formation of Br0g- local faulting episodes, creating and controlling gcrhalveya, Svalbard: A fan delta complex of Dinantian/ sedimentary basins on Svalbard. also occurred in Namurian age. Polar Research 1, 17-34. the Early Carboniferous (Fairchild 1982), con- Flugel, E. 1978: Mikrofarielle Untersuchungsmethoden uon Kal- tinued through to the Middle Carboniferous ken. Springer, Heidelbcrg. 454 pp. Folk, R. L., Pittman, J. S. 1971: Length-slow chalcedony: A (Ludwig 1989; Worsley & Aga 1986), and locally new testament for vanishcd evaporites. Jour. Sediment. were also active in the Late Carboniferous Perrul. 41, 1045-1058. (Kleinspehn et al. 1984). Ginsburg, R. N. 1956: Environmental relationship of grain sizc Steel & Worsley (1984) suggested oblique-slip and constituent particles in some south Florida carbonate sediments. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 40, 2384-2427. dominated movements for the Middle Car- Gjelberg. J. & Steel. R. J. 1981: An outlinc of lowcr Middlc boniferous of Svalbard and underlined the con- Carboniferous sedimentation on Svalbard: effects of climatic siderable record of tectonic movements, strike- tectonic and sea-level changcs in rift basin scquenccs. Mem. slip to dip-slip, for the entire Carboniferous. Can. Soc. Petrol. 7, S4.F.561, Together with sea-level fluctuations and sedi- Gjelberg. J. & Stccl. R. J. 1983: Middle Carboniferous marine transgression, Bjmnoya, Svalbard: Facies sequences from an mentational controls these movements induced interplay of sea-level changes and tectonics. Geol. 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