196 Technical Review February 2012

The Australian Wine A W R I Research Institute

Technical Review

No196 February 2012

Registered by Australia Post PP 531629/00034 Table of contents

In this issue 1 AWRI notes 7

Grapegrowers and wineries in Greater Victoria to benefit from new AWRI node 7

Technical notes 9

What are some of the beneficial effects of low to moderate alcohol consumption? 9

Grape tannin extractability and rapid measurement tackled by AWRI phenolics team 11

Current literature 15 AWRI publications 58 AWRI events and information extension calendar 63

Editor: Michael Major, Michael Major Media All enquiries: Rae Blair; email [email protected] Copyright: Reprints and quotations of articles published herein are permitted on condition that full credit is given to both The Australian Wine Research Institute Technical Review and the author/s, and that the date of publication and issue number are stated.

ISSN 0816-0805

Cnr Hartley and Paratoo Rd PO Box 197 T +61 8 8313 6600 Published by The Australian Urrbrae Glen Osmond F +61 8 8313 6601 Wine Research Institute South Australia 5064 South Australia 5064 [email protected] ABN 83 007 558 296 Australia Australia www.awri.com.au In this issue

AWRI notes Grapegrowers and wineries in Greater Victoria to benefit from new AWRI node The Australian Wine Research Institute (AWRI), the Department of Primary Industries Victoria (DPI Victoria), the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC) and Wine Victoria have established a partnership to support grapegrowers and wineries in the Greater Victoria area. technical notes What are some of the beneficial effects of low to moderate alcohol consumption? It has been suggested that although the negative impact of alcohol consumption varies from person to person, the adverse effects of alcohol on cardiovascular disease and cancer, for example, outweigh any protective effect by between two and three-fold. This is inaccurate. This article describes the impact of low to moderate alcohol consumption on human health and on the risk of death from all causes.

Grape tannin extractability and rapid measurement tackled by AWRI phenolics team Grape phenolic composition and extraction of tannins during vinification critically influences the astringency and colour attributes of red wine. One of the major challenges in tannin research is understanding and predicting how much grape tannin is extracted into wine during the fermentation process. Although we don’t yet fully understand grape tannin extractability, we are developing tools to help grapegrowers and winemakers monitor grape tannin content and have significantly improved the fundamental knowledge about how it is extracted and modulated.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 1 CURRENT LITERATURE Oenology

General (page 15) Influence of grape-harvesting steps on varietal thiol aromas in Sauvignon Blanc wines

Juice and wine handling (page 16) Effect of cofermentation of grape varieties on aroma profiles of La Mancha red wines Sequential harvesting linked to tannin extraction in AWRI trials Olfactory perception of oak-derived compounds Monitoring the oxygen uptake during different micro-oxygenation regimes in Pinot Noir How much oxygen do we need? Influence of copper treatments in viticulture on fermentation and typicity of the varieties ‘Sauvignon blanc’ and ‘Gewürtztraminer’

Microbiology (page 18) Enhancement of flavour properties in wines using sequential inoculations of non-Saccharomyces (Hansenula and Torulaspora) and Saccharomyces yeast starter Yeast/bacterial co-inoculation in wine

Analysis and composition (page 19) Partial dealcoholisation of red wines by membrane contactor technique: influence on colour, phenolic compounds and saliva precipitation index Determination of residual egg white proteins in red wines during and after fining Detailed characterization of proanthocyanidins in skin, seeds and wine of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon wine grapes (Vitis vinifera) The relationship between sensory attributes and wine composition for Australian Cabernet Sauvignon wines Mechanism of autoxidation of polyphenols and participation of sulfite in wine: key role of iron Impact of headspace oxygen and closure on sulfur dioxide, color, and hydrogen sulfide levels in a Riesling wine The protective role of dissolved carbon dioxide against wine oxidation: a simple and rational approach Seed tannin: a necessary evil?

Marketing and packaging (page 23) Noninvasive identification of tainted corks in full intact wine bottles: a low-pressure room temperature study Screwcap acclaimed but still finding its identity Impact of bottle closures on wine style/shelf-life

Environment (page 24) Putting wine into (carbon) neutral

2 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Viticulture

General (page 25) On-the-go sensing of grape berry anthocyanins during commercial harvest: development and prospects Improving vineyard sampling efficiency via dynamic spatially explicit optimisation On-vine grape drying enhances red wines quality Selective harvesting is a feasible and profitable strategy even when grape and wine production is geared towards large fermentation volumes The world’s oldest living grapevine specimen and its genetic relationships Wine in transit at risk of quality loss Wine vigor affects fruit/wine chemistry Consulting mission impossible? Estimating wine quality before harvest… Vineyard mechanization: a status report The hangover – the effect of last season on this season Vineyard preparation for season 2011–12 New Zealand considers costs of mothballing Covercrop study reveals mixed approach delivers top outcomes Organic ‘Mission’ looks at costs of conversion Predicting harvest time

Physiology and biotechnology (page 31) Varietal relationship between instrumental skin hardness and climate for grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) Survey of polyphenol constituents in grapes and grape-derived products Varietal differences among the phenolic profiles and antioxidant activities of seven table grape cultivars grown in the south of Italy based on chemometrics Occurrence, sensory impact, formation, and fate of damascenone in grapes, wines, and other foods and beverages Effect of delaying budburst on shoot development and yield of Vitis vinifera L. Chardonnay ‘Mendoza’ after a spring freeze event Shoot thinning effects on seasonal whole-canopy photosynthesis and vine performance in Vitis vinifera L. cv. Barbera Water movement through the surfaces of the grape berry and its stem Influence of bunch exposure on anthocyanins extractability from grapes skins Vitis( vinifera L.) Project reviews the best strategies of vintage 2011 Botanical adaptation to drought: plant-based indicators of water stress for irrigation scheduling

Climate and soils (page 36) Grapevine phenology and climate change: relationships and trends in the Veneto region of Italy for 1964–2009 History helps reveal changing maturity dates

Vineyard management systems (page 37) The semi-minimal-pruned hedge: a novel mechanized grapevine training system Influence of thinning methods on yield, bunch morphology and sensitivity against grey mould on the grape variety Gamay The effect of cluster thinning on phenolic maturity of Vitis vinifera cv. Xinomavro grapes Thinning intensity and water regime affect the impact cluster thinning has on grape quality

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 3 Timing of cluster-zone leaf removal and its impact on canopy morphology, cluster structure and bunch rot susceptibility of grapes Double-pruning of ‘Syrah’ grapevines: a management strategy to harvest wine grapes during the winter in the Brazilian Southeast Machine harvesting or hand picking winegrapes Under-vine management research reveals fruitzone temperature controls Canopy management offers solutions to variable climate

Pests and diseases (page 40) Susceptibility of 44 grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) varieties to downy mildew in the field Spatial variation in response to ‘reduced input’ spray programs for powdery mildew and Botrytis identified through whole-of-block experimentation Grape root cell features related to phylloxera resistance and changes of anatomy and endogenous hormones during nodosity and tuberosity formation Natural infection of Run1-positive vines by naïve genotypes of Erysiphe necator Leaf thickness and structure of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Albariño clones and its possible relation with susceptibility to downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) infection Spray seminar clears the air Developing new biologically-based products for control of Botrytis bunch rot Developing new biologically-based products for control of Botrytis bunch rot (part 2) Answers about leafroll virus A rapid technique for evaluating treatments for eutypa dieback control Comparison of virus infection in Austrian vineyards with simulated ones and some conclusions about transmission

Vine improvement and varieties (page 45) Characterisation and evolution of grape polyphenol profiles ofVitis vinifera L. cv. Tannat during ripening and vinification Determination of genetic relationships of Albariño and Loureira cultivars with the Caíño group by microsatellites Ampelography – an old technique with future uses: the case of minor varieties of Vitis vinifera L. from the Balearic Islands Straightforward Verdelho How a strange bird was hatched A new Southern classic Varietal report: Vermentino Genetically modified wine yeasts: actual situation and risk assessment Greco – fit for the king of the high Cs Vermentino hailed as new Riverland hero Riverland group takes the alternate route Vermentino wines a major drawcard for Chalmers family Ensuring trueness to type of some alternative varieties Alpine valleys where the weird and wonderful abound New rootstocks targeting drought tolerance, improved water use and wine quality Influence of foliar fertilization with P and K on chemical constituents of grape cv. ‘Cardinal’ Cover crop, rootstock, and root restriction regulate vegetative growth of Cabernet Sauvignon in a humid environment Uptake, transportation, accumulation and retranslocation of potassium in grapevine rootstocks (Vitis)

4 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Vine water status as a parameter of the ‘terroir’ effect under the non-irrigated conditions of the Vaud viticultural area (Switzerland) Irrigating with wastewater: is it all crystal clear? Chloride and sodium concentrations in grape juice and wine Winery wastewater may affect soil structure

Wine and health

Epidemiology (page 52) Association of moderate alcohol use and binge drinking during pregnancy with neonatal health Diet and bone mineral density study in postmenopausal women from the TwinsUK registry shows a negative association with a traditional English dietary pattern and a positive association with wine Trends in alcohol use among women with and without myocardial infarction in the United States: 1997–2008 Wine, beer or spirit drinking in relation to fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular events: a meta- analysis Beverage-specific alcohol intake and bone loss in older men and women: a longitudinal study The fraction of cancer attributable to lifestyle and environmental factors in the UK in 2010: summary and conclusions General and cancer mortality in a large cohort of Italian alcoholics The legacy of minimum legal drinking age law changes: long-term effects on suicide and homicide deaths among women Controlling for high-density lipoprotein cholesterol does not affect the magnitude of the relationship between alcohol and coronary heart disease

Human clinical (page 56) Effects of alcoholism and continued abstinence on brain volumes in both genders Childhood risk factors for early onset drinking Alcohol effects on performance monitoring and adjustment: affect modulation and impairment of evaluative cognitive control A moderate red wine intake improves blood lipid parameters and erythrocytes membrane fluidity in post myocardial infarct patients

Public health policy (page 57) The association between alcohol consumption patterns and adherence to food consumption guidelines Is brief motivational intervention effective in reducing alcohol use among young men voluntarily receiving it? A randomized controlled trial Using taxes to curb drinking: a report card on the Australian government’s alcopops tax Alcohol tax reform: now is the time What place, if any, does information on putative cardioprotective effects of moderate alcohol use have in safer drinking guidelines?

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 5 AWRI publications (page 58)

Ensure top chemical results with right adjuvants Steering clear of sulfidic smells in the cellar The burning questions on smoke taint New breed of infrared analysis instruments A promising enzyme for the stabilisation of white wines 2011 AWRI Report: putting industry first Trehalose promotes the survival of Saccharomyces cerevisiae during lethal ethanol stress, but does not influence growth under sublethal ethanol stress Controlling the highs and lows of alcohol in wine Classification of smoke tainted wines using mid-infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics The ethanol stress response and ethanol tolerance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Healthy or harmful? the public and public health perception of wine versus the reality Editorial Advancing the frontline against Brett: AWRI breakthrough offers potential to transform the battle against Brett Start preparing now for 2012 Adaptive evolution of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to generate strains with enhanced glycerol production

6 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 AWRI notes Grapegrowers and wineries in Greater Victoria to benefit from new AWRI node

A partnership has been established to support grapegrowers and wineries in the Greater Victoria area, announced by The Australian Wine Research Institute (AWRI), the Department of Primary Industries Victoria (DPI Victoria), the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC) and Wine Victoria.

“The aim of this partnership is to keep industry members up-to-date on topical research and industry relevant outcomes,” said AWRI Managing Director, Dr Dan Johnson. “It will also form the basis for a new, Greater Victorian node of the AWRI.”

“After a recruitment process conducted by the AWRI, I am delighted that Mark Krstic has accepted the position to manage the node. Initially, his focus will be on delivering an extension and activity plan as developed in conjunction with the Victorian grape and wine sector. Key areas will include communicating with industry on smoke taint issues, climate change adaptation, improving grape and wine quality and agrochemical usage within Greater Victoria.”

Ron Harris, Executive Director Farm Services Victoria, said, “Grape and wine producers will benefit through increased uptake of the latest technologies and by being assisted to adopt best management and climate change adaptation practices.”

“The appointment of Mark Krstic to the role of Extension Services Manager – Victoria is a wonderful outcome for the joining of forces of Wine Victoria, DPI Vic, GWRDC and the AWRI,” said Chris Pfeiffer, President of Wine Victoria. “This gives us the opportunity of maximizing outcomes from the available resources and removing the duplication, so important in these challenging times. We look forward to Mark taking up the challenges of delivering the outcomes to Victoria’s 21 wine regions.”

While the node will draw directly on world-class research, development, extension and commercialisation resources from the AWRI, the annual work plan and activities will be directed by an ‘Industry Steering Committee’ which includes a representative from each of Wine Victoria, DPI Victoria, the GWRDC and the AWRI.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 7 The AWRI’s Victorian node complements its existing operations in Adelaide and nodes in Griffith and Hobart.

The partnership has been established through cooperative funding by cash and in-kind contributions from DPI Victoria, GWRDC and the AWRI.

Rae Blair, Communications Manager [email protected]

8 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Technical notes What are some of the beneficial effects of low to moderate alcohol consumption?

In addition to reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and certain cancers, light-to- moderate alcohol consumption reduces the risk of dying from all or any causes (all-cause mortality). A recent study of 16,958 individuals in the USA followed for 18 years by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) examined the relationship between four low-risk behaviors and mortality. ‘Moderate consumption of alcohol’ was considered as one of ‘four healthy lifestyle behaviors that exert a powerful and beneficial effect on mortality’ (Ford et al. 2011). Moderate or low-risk alcohol consumption was defined as less than or equal to 2 drinks/day but more than 0 for men and less than or equal to 1 drink/day but more than 0 for women. The other low-risk behaviors were not smoking, eating a healthy diet, and physical activity. These CDC study authors stated that: ‘The number of low-risk behaviors was inversely related to the risk for mortality. Compared with participants who had no low-risk behaviors, which included abstinence from alcohol as well as excessive alcohol consumption, those who had all four experienced significantly reduced all-cause mortality, mortality from malignant neoplasms [cancers], major cardiovascular disease, and other causes’, that is, the men and women were 63% less likely to die, 66% less likely to die from a malignant neoplasm, 65% less likely to die from major cardiovascular disease and 57% less likely to die from other causes. Considering the potential dangers of excessive drinking, these CDC study authors also conducted sensitivity analyses omitting moderate alcohol use; the mortality risk for those who also consumed alcohol was significantly lower than for those having only the three other behaviors. Chiuve et al. (2006) also included light-to- moderate alcohol consumption (5 to 30 g/day or ½ to 3 drinks/day) as one of five low-risk behaviors associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease irrespective of concurrent medication for hypertension or hypercholesterolemia. These behaviors were based on the Healthy Eating Index (HEI), created by the US Department of Agriculture to assess how well the US population met dietary recommendations based on the Food Guide Pyramid and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. The HEI defined moderate alcohol consumption of 1.5 to 2.5 drinks/day as ideal servings for men and 0.5 to 1.5 drinks/day as ideal for women on the basis of the lower risk of cardiovascular disease associated with moderate alcohol consumption (McCullough et al. 2002).

A similar, little publicised Australian study of 7,989 individuals aged 65–83 years followed for five years showed consistent results with this CDC study (Spencer et al. 2005). The eight selected low-risk behaviors included having no more than two alcoholic (total 20 g alcohol)

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 9 drinks/day. Individuals with five or more of the selected low-risk behaviors had a lower risk of death from any cause within five years compared with those having less than five. More importantly the study showed that while most individuals already have some healthy habits, almost all could make changes to their diet and lifestyle to improve their health. The study did not suggest abstinence from alcohol, and avoidance of heavier alcohol consumption is also inferred.

Furthermore, Sun et al. (2011) recently showed that in addition to lower mortality, female moderate alcohol consumers surviving to age 70 years and older generally had less disability and disease, and more signs of ‘successful ageing.’ For ‘regular’ light-to-moderate alcohol consumers (on 5–7 days/week), there was an approximately 50% greater chance of such successful ageing compared with non-drinkers.

In Australia, between now and 2050, the number of older individuals (65 to 84 years) is expected to more than double; and very old individuals (85 and over) are expected to more than quadruple from 0.4 million people today to 1.8 million in 2050 (www.treasury.gov. au/igr/igr2010/Overview/html/overview). Therefore, simple dietary measures such as the moderate consumption of alcohol to supplement a healthy exercise and nutrition routine, or as an adjunct to prescription medicines when appropriate, may be needed to maintain an ageing population.

References Chiuve, S.E., McCullough, M.L., Sacks, F.M., Rimm, E.B. (2006) Healthy lifestyle factors in the primary prevention of coronary heart disease among men. Benefits among users and nonusers of lipid-lowering and antihypertensive medications. Circulation 114: 160-167. Ford, E.S., Zhao, G., Tsai, K., Li, C. (2011) Low-risk lifestyle behaviors and all-cause mortality: Findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III Mortality Study. Am. J. Pub. Health, 10.2105/AJPH.2011.300167. McCullough, M., Feskanich, D., Stampfer, M.J., Giovannucci, E.L., Rimm, E.B., Hu, F.B., Spiegelman, D., Hunter, D.J., Colditz, G.A., Willett, W.C. (2002) Diet quality and major chronic disease risk in men and women: moving toward improved dietary guidance. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76: 1261–1271. Spencer, C.A., Jamrozik, K., Norman, P.E., Lawrence-Brown, M. (2005) A simple lifestyle score predicts survival in healthy elderly men. Prev. Med. 40(6): 712–717. Sun, Q., Townsend, M.K., Okereke, O.I., Rimm, E.B., Hu, F.B., Stampfer, M.J., Grodstein, F. (2011) Alcohol consumption at midlife and successful ageing in women: A prospective cohort analysis in the Nurses’ Health Study. PLoS. Med. 8(9): e1001090. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001090.

Creina Stockley, Health and Regulatory Information Manager [email protected]

10 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Grape tannin extractability and rapid measurement tackled by AWRI phenolics team

Grape phenolic composition and extraction of tannins during vinification critically influences the astringency and colour attributes of red wine. One of the major challenges in tannin research is understanding and predicting how much grape tannin is extracted into wine during the fermentation process. Unlike simple, predictable solutes like sugar and colour, tannin extractability is complex and influenced by physiological status of the grape berry, and fermentation conditions such as temperature, alcohol, yeast and cap management. Although we don’t yet fully understand grape tannin extractability, we are developing tools to help grapegrowers and winemakers monitor grape tannin content and have significantly improved the fundamental knowledge about how it is extracted and modulated.

Rapid tannin measurement in grapes In an extension of AWRI’s ongoing project on innovative phenolic analysis techniques, we have further progressed a calibration developed to measure grape tannin. A UV-Vis spectral calibration for prediction of tannin in 50% ethanol homogenate extract in grapes has been validated and shown to perform very well. The calibration is a multiple linear regression (MLR) calibration that uses only three wavelengths, and was developed by Dr Bob Dambergs using samples from the 2008 vintage from Riverland, Langhorne Creek, Coonawarra, Padthaway and Barossa Valley (n= 98). The validation set (n=69) gives an 2R =0.93 and a standard error of prediction (SEP) of 0.03 g/L. It is interesting to note that using only one wavelength, A280 nm (used to measure total phenolics), gives only an R2=0.51, demonstrating that total phenolics measurements do not necessarily predict tannin well. The development and validation of this calibration for grape tannin may now allow far simpler access to grape tannin concentration and allow winemakers and viticulturists to monitor tannin development during the growing season.

Grape tannin portal under development The development of a grape tannin calibration has enabled the planning and development of an additional module for the AWRI Tannin portal. The ‘grape tannin’ module is being developed at the moment, in consultation with industry and is soon to be launched. It will enable both colour and tannin measurements to be obtained rapidly on samples prepared from the widely used 50% ethanol homogenate extract process.

Knowledge of grape tannin concentration can help to inform winemaking strategy based on experience of results from previous seasons (built up over time at individual winery level). Knowledge of grape tannin concentration can also complement the ferment monitoring

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 11 capability of the portal and help understand vintage to vintage variation and trends. It can allow harvest schedules to be managed to optimise picking of fruit with desired characteristics and assist understanding of the impact of winemaking on colour/tannin retention. If you are interested in learning more, please contact [email protected].

Tannin extractability Dr Keren Bindon has recently completed a study of the interaction of grape skin and flesh cell walls with grape tannins, collected from Cabernet Sauvignon grapes over two seasons. This work was part of a broader project which has sought to understand cell wall-tannin interactions in regulating tannin extractability from grapes to wine. Model studies of cell wall interaction with tannin, sourced from pre-veraison (green) grape skins and ripe skins were performed. The use of two tannin types was based on earlier findings that the interaction with cell walls differs depending upon tannin ripeness (AWRI Publication #1280). The findings to date have shown that changes in flesh cell wall structure during ripening have a limited effect on its binding affinity for tannin. This is in contrast to skin cell wall material, where larger differences were found, as the skin cell wall properties changed with grape ripening (see Figure 1). Riper skins were found to have a higher affinity for tannins of both types tested, over two seasons. A detailed study of selectivity of skin cell walls for tannin showed that as the skin cell walls ripened, there was increased selection for tannins of higher molecular size. A collaboration has been undertaken with Professor Tony Bacic at the University of Melbourne, where Dr Bindon undertook linkage analysis of cell walls. The findings have shown that, in agreement with previous research on grape ripening, the progression of ripening caused a

50 45 Preveraison skin tannin Ripe skin tannin a 40 a 35 30 b cd c 25 cd a de 20 a e 15 bc bc bc b 10 c d Decrease in tannin from control (%) 5 0 15-1 26-1 9-2 16-2 23-2 2-3 10-3 17-3 Sampling date Tannin bound shown as % lost from a 2 mg/mL solution by 10 mg skin cell wall extract. Sampling dates are for the 2010 season: preveraison (green) grapes on 15-1, and veraison on 26-1. The final sampling date was at commercial harvest on 17-3. Histograms show mean ± standard error; ANOVA; n =3; different letters indicate significant differences where P<0.05.

Figure 1. Decrease in tannin following reaction of skin cell wall extracts from different ripeness stages with either preveraison or ripe skin tannin in model wine solution.

12 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 progressive loss of pectic polysaccharides, namely galacturonic acid and arabinogalactan I. This trend was consistent for both flesh and skin cell wall materials. A complicating factor in the interpretation of results is that skin cell wall affinity for tannin increased as ripening progressed, while for flesh it did not. Additional analysis of the cell walls looked at lignin composition and insoluble tannin; neither changed significantly during ripening but both were significantly higher in skin cell walls. These factors may influence the changes in skin cell wall porosity and flexibility, and thus surface area for tannin binding, in addition to the loss of pectic polysaccharides. The significance of cell walls in the winemaking process is two-fold. Cell wall tannin interactions may control tannin extractability from the skins, but may also selectively remove tannins solubilised during vinification (AWRI Publication #1236). This concept has been used recently to explore the use of organic waste materials from vinification, i.e. fibre extracted from grape marc, as an alternative fining agent for wine phenolics. The preliminary results are positive, and the work has been extended to a recent arrival from Spain, Dr Raul Guerrero, who has a postdoctoral scholarship from the European Union. He is currently undertaking experiments to verify preliminary data, and optimise the use of grape fibre as a novel, ‘green’ fining agent.

The project has also sought to explore relationships between grape maturity and wine composition. Results show that the extractability of grape skin tannins changes with ripeness, and correlates positively with the concentration of total tannin in wines. Further experiments will incorporate additional factors which influence this relationship, in order to build an extraction model, particularly tannin-polysaccharide interactions. The experimental wines have undergone a suite of chemical analyses: organic acids, colour, tannin concentration and composition, polysaccharides, methoxypyrazines, norisoprenoids, monoterpenes, fermentation-derived alcohols and esters, low molecular weight sulfur-containing compounds; and glycerol. Sensory and consumer studies have been conducted on the wines and the data collated with the chemical data. The preliminary results are promising.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 13 References AWRI Publication #1280. Bindon, K.A., and Kennedy, J.A. (2011) Ripening-induced changes in grape skin proanthocyanidins modify their interaction with cell walls. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59 (6): 2696–2707. AWRI Publication #1236. Bindon, K.A., Smith, P.A. Holt, H. and Kennedy, J.A. (2010) Interaction between grape- derived proanthocyanidins and cell wall material 2. Implications for vinification. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58 (19): 10736–10746.

Paul Smith, Research Manager – Chemistry [email protected] Keren Bindon, Research Scientist Eric Wilkes, Research Manager – Industry Applications Neil Scrimgeour, Senior Process Scientist

14 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Highlights this issue

Grapegrowers and wineries in Greater Victoria to benefit from new AWRI node...... 7

What are some of the beneficial effects of low to moderate alcohol consumption?...... 9

Grape tannin extractability and rapid measurement tackled by AWRI phenolics team.... 11 Photocopy requests

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In compliance with copyright legislation, abstracts are reproduced here exactly as originally printed. Oenology General

196.01 Allen, T., Herbst-Johnstone, M., Girault, M., Butler, P., Logan, G., Jouanneau, S., Nicolau, L., Kilmartin, P.A. Influence of grape-harvesting steps on varietal thiol aromas in Sauvignon Blanc wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(19), 10641–10650; 2011.

The intense tropical fruit aroma of Sauvignon Blanc wines has been associated with the varietal thiols 3-mercaptohexanol (3MH), derived from odorless precursors in the grape, and 3-mercaptohexyl acetate (3MHA), arising from 3MH during fermentation. Grapes and juice were sourced from five locations in Marlborough, New Zealand, taking hand-picked grapes and samples at four stages during the mechanical harvesting process and pressing, which were then fermented in replicated 750 mL bottles. With each set of juices, the highest concentrations of Cys-3MHand Glut-3MH were found in the juices pressed to 1 bar, but these juices produced wines with lower 3MH and 3MHA concentrations. With three of the juices, there was an increase in varietal thiol content for wines made from juices that had been machine harvested compared to the hand-picked samples, which matched earlier findings of lower 3MH and 3MHA levels in wines made from hand-picked grapes. Juices that were more oxidized, and which showed a higher absorbance at 420 nm, were found to produce wines with lower 3MH and 3MHA concentrations.

© Reprinted with permission from Allen, T., Herbst-Johnstone, M., Girault, M., Butler, P., Logan, G., Jouanneau, S., Nicolau, L., Kilmartin, P.A. Influence of grape-harvesting steps on varietal thiol aromas in Sauvignon Blanc wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(19), 10641–10650; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 15 Juice and wine handling

196.02 García-Carpintero, E.G., Sánchez-Palomo, E., Gómez Gallego, M.A., González-Viñas, M.A. Effect of cofermentation of grape varieties on aroma profiles of La Mancha red wines. J. Food Sci. 76(8), 1169–1180; 2011.

The effect of winemaking using blends of red grape varieties cultivated in La Mancha region (Spain) on the aroma profile of wines was researched by chemical characterization. Free and glycosidically bound aroma compounds were isolated by solid phase extraction using dichloromethane and ethyl acetate, respectively, as solvents in elution and then analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Free and bound volatile compounds were analyzed in Cencibel, Bobal, and Moravia Agria monovarietal wines, and in 3 wines obtained with the blending of grapes: Cencibel (50%) + Bobal (50%); Cencibel (50%) + Moravía Agria (50%); Cencibel (33%) + Bobal (33%) + Moravía Agria (33%). Aroma compounds were studied in terms of odor activity values (OAVs). Ninety free aroma compounds and sixty-five bound aroma compounds were identified and quantified. The odor activity values for the different compounds were classified into 7 odorant series. The fruity and sweet series contributed most strongly to the aroma profile of all wines, independently of the winemaking technique used. In general, co-winemaking wines present a more complex chemical profile than monovarietal wines.

© Reprinted with permission from García-Carpintero, E.G., Sánchez-Palomo, E., Gómez Gallego, M.A., González-Viñas, M.A. Effect of cofermentation of grape varieties on aroma profiles of La Mancha red wines. J. Food Sci. 76(8), 1169–1180; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institute of Food Technologists.

196.03 Costley, D. Sequential harvesting linked to tannin extraction in AWRI trials. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 72–73; 2011.

This article looks at a research project led by AWRI research scientist, Dr Keren Bindon, who began looking at the role grape cell walls have in modifying how tannins are extracted during winemaking. The research has since led her into a study on the link between consumer preference and the grape-ripening process. Initially, the research looked primarily at tannin extraction in Cabernet Sauvignon grapes, with early results indicating a strong increase in wine tannin with grape maturity.

196.04 Prida, A., Chatonnet, P. Olfactory perception of oak-derived compounds. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(4), 72–80; 2011.

Barrel-aged wine is a complex mixture and its olfactory perception results from the interaction of many aromas. To estimate the role of oak-derived aroma compounds, it is necessary to consider odor activity values (OAV) and to perform a correlation study to assess the impact of individual aroma compounds on the aroma attributes. Twenty Spanish and French wines, each aged in

16 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 different types of barrels, were studied using both sensory (descriptive) and chemical (GC-MS) analysis. Paired-sample t-tests were used to assess whether there were consistent differences in the concentrations of oak-derived compounds between wines aged in different barrels and receiving different sensory scores. Despite their low OAVs in the wines, furanic compounds (furfural, furfuryl alcohol, and 5-methylfurfural) increased the perceived overall oak intensity rating and decreased the fruity intensity rating. It is hypothesized that these different compounds indirectly impacted the respective overall oak and fruit intensities. The presence of cis- and trans-whisky lactones, eugenol, and vanillin increased the intensity rating of the vanilla/pastry descriptor, while furfural and 5-methylfurfural diminished it. Although the volatile phenols (guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, eugenol) are described as smoky and spicy in their pure state, no reliable links were found between these compounds and their respective sensory descriptors in wines. Samples described as having higher olfactory persistence were richer in relatively heavy volatiles, such as trans- and cis-whisky lactone, moltol, eugenol, and vanillin, than their paired samples. This would explain their retronasal persistence.

© Reprinted with permission from Prida, A., Chatonnet, P. Olfactory perception of oak-derived compounds. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(4), 72–80; 2011. Copyright 2011 Practical Winery and Vineyard Incorporated.

196.05 Durner, D., Fischer, U. Monitoring the oxygen uptake during different micro-oxygenation regimes in Pinot Noir. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 66–71; 2011.

A German research team has looked at the role of oxygen in Pinot Noir. Their early results have identified what happens when the wine is made with excessive or too little oxygen. The final aim of this research is to find the optimum oxygen dosage, to get the most out of this difficult variety.

© Reprinted with permission from Durner, D., Fischer, U. Monitoring the oxygen uptake during different micro-oxygenation regimes in Pinot Noir. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 66–71; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

196.06 Ugliano, M., Dieval, J.-B., Vidal, S. How much oxygen do we need? Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 32–39; 2011.

The Nomacorc team discusses key aspects of successful oxygen management strategies in wines with different chemical and sensory characteristics, drawing on recent findings from a study into the effects of pre- and post-bottling oxygen exposure in red and white wines.

196.07 Pedri, U., Zublasing, P. Influence of copper treatments in viticulture on fermentation and typicity of the varieties ‘Sauvignon blanc’ and ‘Gewürtztraminer’. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 61(1), 1–10; 2011.

[German] Abstract not available for reproduction

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 17 Microbiology

196.08 Izquierdo Cañas, P.M., Palacios García, A.T., García Romero, E. Enhancement of flavour properties in wines using sequential inoculations of non-Saccharomyces (Hansenula and Torulaspora) and Saccharomyces yeast starter. Vitis 50(4), 177–182; 2011.

In order to produce wines with greater complexity of aroma and taste, fermentations were carried out by sequential inoculation of non-Saccharomyces (Hansenula anomala and Torulaspora delbrueckii) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeasts in ‘Airén’ variety white grape musts. The wines made by sequential inoculation had a higher pH and higher levels of acetates, compounds that supply a fruity note. The wines inoculated with Hansenula anomala presented a lower concentration of lineal alcohols and thioalcohols, which are respectively responsible for herbaceous and cooked notes. The fermentations performed by sequential inoculation of Torulaspora delbrueckii and Saccharomyces cerevisiae produced wines with lower levels of volatile acidity, acetaldehyde and carbonyl compounds. In preference tasting, the ‘Airén’ wines obtained by co-inoculation with the species Hansenula anomala scored highest for their sensory qualities and were particularly appreciated for their floral and/or fruity notes.

© Reprinted with permission from Izquierdo Cañas, P.M., Palacios García, A.T., García Romero, E. Enhancement of flavour properties in wines using sequential inoculations of non-Saccharomyces (Hansenula and Torulaspora) and Saccharomyces yeast starter. Vitis 50(4), 177–182; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

196.09 Azzolini, M., Tosi, E., Vagnoli, P., Krieger, S., Zapparoli, G. Yeast/bacterial co-inoculation in wine. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(4), 62–71; 2011.

Inoculating selected bacteria before alcoholic fermentation (co-inoculation) to induce malolactic fermentation (MLF) was used to produce red table wines from several grape varieties. In most of the micro vinification trials, MLF was completed before or within one week after racking. The acetic acid content remained within an acceptable level (less than 0.60 g/L). In a winery vinification (200 hL), MLF induced by co-inoculation was completed before de-vatting, while in the wines inoculated after alcoholic fermentation, the total malic acid degradation was achieved 33 days later. The potential risk of increasing the volatile acidity was also evaluated by inducing MLF in partially fermented wines. The co-inoculation practice was compatible with the production of red wines. The decrease in vinification time with respect to traditional MLF management could offer a significant advantage for wineries.

© Reprinted with permission from Azzolini, M., Tosi, E., Vagnoli, P., Krieger, S., Zapparoli, G. Yeast/bacterial co-inoculation in wine. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(4), 62–71; 2011. Copyright 2011 Practical Winery and Vineyard Incorporated.

18 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Analysis and composition

196.10 Gambuti, A., Rinaldi, A., Lisanti, M.T., Pessina, R., Moio, L. Partial dealcoholisation of red wines by membrane contactor technique: influence on colour, phenolic compounds and saliva precipitation index. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 233(4), 647–655; 2011.

In this study, red wines from different grape varieties (Merlot, Aglianico and Piedirosso) and containing different alcoholic level (from 13.67 to 15.46% v/v) were treated to diminish the alcoholic percentage of 2, 3 and 5% v/v by a polypropylene hollowfibre membrane contactor apparatus. The wines were analysed before and after partial dealcoholisation. Colour indexes and phenolics were analysed by spectrophotometric methods and HPLC. Wine astringency was evaluated by an astringency index based on the ability of treated wines to precipitate salivary proteins (SPI, Saliva Precipitation Index). For all the levels of dealcoholisation studied, changes in chromatic characteristics, Folin–Ciocalteu index and vanillin reactive flavans were below the methodological errors of the analyses. A loss of malvidin 3-monoglucoside was detected after the dealcoholisation process. Decreasing the ethanol content of wines caused an increase in SPI values.

© Reprinted with permission from Gambuti, A., Rinaldi, A., Lisanti, M.T., Pessina, R., Moio, L. Partial dealcoholisation of red wines by membrane contactor technique: influence on colour, phenolic compounds and saliva precipitation index. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 233(4), 647–655; 2011. Copyright 2011 Springer.

196.11 Lacorn, M., Gößwein, C., Immer, U. Determination of residual egg white proteins in red wines during and after fining. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 382–385; 2011.

Methods are needed for detecting allergenic proteins in wine after fining processes, both for legal requirements and to estimate any risk for allergic individuals. One of the critical allergens in this case is the protein fraction from egg white. The efficacy of use of a commercial egg protein detection kit was evaluated using wines spiked with egg protein. For calibration, a whole egg powder reference material was used. There were no matrix effects and the detection limit was 0.27 mg whole egg powder/L. The intra- and interassay coefficients of variation were 7.3% and 11.9%, respectively. Recoveries of different egg preparations in spiked red wine were between 80 and 110%. A field study showed different concentrations of egg during fining, but no detectable or low values of ≤1 mg/L in the bottled wine.

© Reprinted with permission from Lacorn, M., Gößwein, C., Immer, U. Determination of residual egg white proteins in red wines during and after fining. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 382–385; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 19 196.12 Hanlin, R.L., Kelm, M., Wilkinson, K.L., Downey, M. Detailed characterization of proanthocyanidins in skin, seeds and wine of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon wine grapes (Vitis vinifera). J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(24), 13265–13276; 2011.

The distribution of proanthocyanidin (PA) polymer lengths, proanthocyanidins concentration at each polymer length and polymer composition was determined in the seed, skin and wine of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon grape berries grown in southeast Australia. PA was fractionated by semi-preparative high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and analyzed by phloroglucinolysis and HPLC to report the degree of polymerization (DP), concentration and composition at 11 DP values in seed and wine and 21 DP values in skin. In skin, the highest PA concentration was observed at a DP of 31 in Shiraz and 29 in Cabernet Sauvignon representing 15% of the total PA in both varieties. The distribution of seed PA had the highest concentration at a DP of 7 in Shiraz and 6 in Cabernet Sauvignon representing around 30% of the total PA. In the wine PA distribution, the highest concentration was observed at a DP of 11 in Shiraz and 9 in Cabernet Sauvignon representing around 26 and 32% of the distribution respectively. A second peak in wine PA concentration was observed at the largest DP of 18 in Shiraz and 15 in Cabernet Sauvignon representing around 20% of the distribution. The composition in wine did not vary at different DP, but the proportion of epicatechin gallate varied in seed PA less than 4 DP. The proportion of epigallocatechin increased with increasing DP in skin PA. Wine PA had a DP range and composition similar to the distribution of skin PA between DP 4 and 18 suggesting that larger skin PAs are not extracted into wine. This study provides information that could be used to target the important PA fractions in grapes that need to be measured to understand (or predict) PA extraction into wine and eventual mouthfeel.

© Reprinted with permission from Hanlin, R.L., Kelm, M., Wilkinson, K.L., Downey, M. Detailed characterization of proanthocyanidins in skin, seeds and wine of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon wine grapes (Vitis vinifera). J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(24), 13265–13276; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

196.13 Robinson, A.L., Adams, D.O., Boss, P.K., Heymann, H., Solomon, P.S., Trengove, R.D. The relationship between sensory attributes and wine composition for Australian Cabernet Sauvignon wines. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 327–340; 2011.

Background and Aims: The study explores the diversity in sensory characteristics of Cabernet Sauvignon wines from Australia and analyses the relationship between sensory attributes and wine composition. Methods and Results: Descriptive sensory analysis was conducted by eighteen panelists who rated the intensity of 16 aroma attributes and four taste attributes. Sensory results indicated that 15 of the 20 sensory attributes assessed were significantly different among the wines assessed. The primary differentiation was between wines that were fruity and those that exhibited vegetal and herbaceous characteristics. A recently developed analytical method (headspace solid-phase microextraction comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time-offlight mass spectrometry) was used to analyse over 350 volatile compounds in the wines assessed. Other measures of the major non-volatile components including ethanol, phenolics, acids and sugars were also determined. Compositional results were used to predict each sensory

20 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 attribute using partial least squares regression and showed that each sensory attribute could be well explained by the compositional results. Conclusions: The results of this study further demonstrate that the sensory perception of wine is complex and involves the interaction of both volatile and non-volatile components. The use of a recently developed analytical technique allows the researcher greater capacity to explore complex relationships between wine sensory characteristics and wine composition. Significance of the Study: The study increases the understanding of commercial wine composition and identifies a number of candidate components that are correlated with sensory attributes of Cabernet Sauvignon wines from Australia.

© Reprinted with permission from Robinson, A.L., Adams, D.O., Boss, P.K., Heymann, H., Solomon, P.S., Trengove, R.D. The relationship between sensory attributes and wine composition for Australian Cabernet Sauvignon wines. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 327–340; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

196.14 Danilewicz, J.C. Mechanism of autoxidation of polyphenols and participation of sulfite in wine: key role of iron. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 319–328; 2011.

The involvement of iron (Fe) in the reaction of wine with oxygen was deduced at least 80 years ago. It was observed that when wine was exposed to air, some O2 reacted rapidly, in part to oxidize the Fe to the ferric state and in part to generate what were thought to be unstable peroxides. It was proposed that it was these intermediate oxidants that oxidized wine polyphenols. In this present work the oxidation of (+)-catechin was reexamined in model wine to determine if different phases of oxidation could be observed. In the absence of sulfite, after an initial uptake of2 O very little further reaction occurred. This initial 2O uptake increased with increasing concentrations of Fe(II) and Cu(II), indicating that Fe was the initial reactant and furthermore was absent when Fe was added as Fe(III). In contrast, in the presence of sulfite, the oxidation of (+)-catechin was markedly accelerated and, again, an initial more rapid phase of oxidation, presumably due to the metals, was discernable. With (+)-catechin, insufficient O2 to oxidize all the Fe was initially taken up and formation of other oxidants such as peroxides was unlikely. Further evidence is presented that nucleophiles such as sulfite accelerate oxidation by reacting with quinones. The rate of oxidation in the presence of sulfite was found to increase in the order (+)-catechin< caffeic acid< (-)-epicatechin < gallic. It is proposed that the rate of oxidation is determined by the relative reactivity of their respective quinones. In the absence of sulfite, these additional phenols were also oxidized extremely slowly. The initial faster phase of oxidation was also observed in a white wine.

© Reprinted with permission from Danilewicz, J.C. Mechanism of autoxidation of polyphenols and participation of sulfite in wine: key role of iron. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 319–328; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 21 196.15 Dimkou, E., Ugliano, M., Dieval, J.B., Vidal, S., Aagaard, O., Rauhut, D., Jung, R. Impact of headspace oxygen and closure on sulfur dioxide, color, and hydrogen sulfide levels in a Riesling wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 261–269; 2011.

Following an experimental design replicating typical winery conditions, a Riesling wine was bottled with different headspace oxygen levels and sealed with either a coextruded closure or a screwcap to investigate the impact of headspace oxygen and closure oxygen transfer rate on wine evolution. Using luminescence technology, dissolved oxygen and headspace oxygen, as well as oxygen ingress through the closure, were monitored during 24 months of bottle storage. Under typical winery conditions, headspace oxygen introduced at bottling was found to be a major component of oxygen in bottled wine. Headspace oxygen at bottling influenced loss of sulfur dioxide during bottle storage, being the main cause of sulfur dioxide decline during the first four months after bottling in 375 mL bottles. The loss of sulfur dioxide was not correlated with the evolution of dissolved oxygen, but with the total amount of oxygen consumed by the wine. After 24 months in the bottle, color differences due to different headspace oxygen and closure oxygen transfer rate were generally minor. Conversely, differences in closure oxygen transfer rate were responsible for significant differences in the final concentration of the off-odor compound hydrogen sulfide, with screwcap generally associated with higher levels of this compound. Even if less significantly, the amount of oxygen present in the headspace at bottling also had an effect on final hydrogen sulfide, with higher concentrations observed in wines bottled with lower headspace oxygen.

© Reprinted with permission from Dimkou, E., Ugliano, M., Dieval, J.B., Vidal, S., Aagaard, O., Rauhut, D., Jung, R. Impact of headspace oxygen and closure on sulfur dioxide, color, and hydrogen sulfide levels in a Riesling wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 261–269; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

196.16 Devatine, A., Chiciuc, I., Mietton-Peuchot, M. The protective role of dissolved carbon dioxide against wine oxidation: a simple and rational approach. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 45(3), 189–197; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.jisvv.com/sommaire_dernier_numero.php?id=1040

196.17 Patterson, T. Seed tannin: a necessary evil? Wines Vines 92(10), 56–59; 2011.

Tannins from grape seeds have few fans among winemakers, but much of that bad reputation is based on misunderstanding. Among the contributions of seed tannin are shorter, less astringent polymer chains – a likely boost to wine longevity and a component in building the mid-palate of wines. Any comparison of grape seed and skin tannins is overshadowed by the changes both go through once they get into wine.

22 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Marketing and packaging

196.18 Lim, V., Harley, S.J., Augustine, M.P. Noninvasive identification of tainted corks in full intact wine bottles: a low-pressure room temperature study. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 291–297; 2011.

The design and operation of a wine bottle screening device that noninvasively and nondestructively determines the presence of 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), or cork taint, in bottle-mounted corks is described. The approach uses commercially available solid-phase microextraction fibers for reduced pressure preconcentration and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry to detect TCA in wine bottle-mounted corks. Instrument calibration experiments and data corresponding to intentionally contaminated free and wine bottle mounted corks are described. This study suggests that reduced-pressure full-bottle screening is a viable qualitative method for identifying bottle- mounted TCA tainted corks without violating the bottle or harming the bottle seal and label.

© Reprinted with permission from Lim, V., Harley, S.J., Augustine, M.P. Noninvasive identification of tainted corks in full intact wine bottles: a low-pressure room temperature study. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 291–297; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

196.19 Halstead, R. Screwcap acclaimed but still finding its identity. Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 88–91; 2011.

This is the first of a regular contribution by Wine Intelligence in which it will draw on its marketing research to present articles on a range of subjects. For its inaugural column, chief operating officer Richard Halstead draws on data collected on consumer closure preferences with specific reference to the UK, USA and Australia.

196.20 Dinn, C., Ferrier, J. Impact of bottle closures on wine style/shelf-life. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(4), 42–51; 2011.

The authors report on a follow-up study to one they conducted in 2004 regarding wine closures.

They conclude that screwcaps are as good or better than natural cork in terms of preference, SO2 retention, and uniformity bottle-to-bottle. Not all screwcaps are created equal: liner choice and headspace oxygen management are important. Closure class does not drive quality. The authors found that overall preference and ageability were functions of appropriate winemaking, oxygen at bottling, oxygen ingress over time, and uniformity of the closure. Closure characteristics drive quality. The study shows that wines aged under the right screwcap closure over five years were more well-preserved, aged well, and were deemed the highest quality choice by an expert tasting panel.

© Reprinted with permission from Dinn, C., Ferrier, J. Impact of bottle closures on wine style/shelf-life. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(4), 42–51; 2011. Copyright 2011 Practical Winery and Vineyard Incorporated.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 23 Environment

196.21 Graham, J. Putting wine into (carbon) neutral. Vineyard Winery Manage. 37(6), 86–92; 2011.

Few wineries in the United States are carbon neutral. Being carbon neutral means balancing energy inputs with energy outputs. Carbon neutrality can reduce production costs and add ‘green’ credibility. The concept of ‘carbon trading’ in the US is doing poorly.

24 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Viticulture General

196.22 Bramley, R.G.V., Le Moigne, M., Evain, S., Ouzman, J., Florin, L., Fadaili, E.M., Hinze, C.J., Cerovic, Z.G. On-the-go sensing of grape berry anthocyanins during commercial harvest: development and prospects. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 316–326; 2011.

Background and Aims: The development and adoption of Precision Viticulture approaches to grape and wine production have been hindered by the lack of a commercially available sensor for on-the-go sensing of fruit quality during harvest. In this work, we sought to deploy the Multiplex®, a fluorescence-based non-contact hand-held optical sensor on a harvester, for on- the-go sensing of berry anthocyanins during the South Australian vintage of 2010. Methods and Results: Measurements made of anthocyanin concentrations in the laboratory using the Multiplex showed high correlation (R2 > 0.9) with those made on the same grapes using the standard spectrophotogrametric method. When used in hand-held mode in the field, data collected using Multiplex demonstrated a similar spatial structure to that observed in other data layers (remotely sensed vigour, yield, elevation). Similarly, when deployed on a harvester as an on-the-go sensor, data obtained using Multiplex exhibited the expected spatial structure. Conclusions: Meaningful measurement of grape berry anthocyanins on-the-go during harvest is feasible using Multiplex. Significance of the Study: This is the first time that berry colour has been sensed on-the-go during harvest. The work therefore paves the way for a greater focus on attributes of fruit quality in the delineation of vineyard management zones and implementation of Precision Viticulture.

© Reprinted with permission from Bramley, R.G.V., Le Moigne, M., Evain, S., Ouzman, J., Florin, L., Fadaili, E.M., Hinze, C.J., Cerovic, Z.G. On-the-go sensing of grape berry anthocyanins during commercial harvest: development and prospects. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 316–326; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

196.23 Meyers, J.M., Sacks, G.L., Van Es, H.M., Heuvel, J.E.V. Improving vineyard sampling efficiency via dynamic spatially explicit optimisation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 306–315; 2011.

Background and Aims: Environmental variables within vineyards are spatially correlated, impacting the economic efficiency of cultural practices and accuracy of viticultural studies that utilise random sampling. This study aimed to test the performance of non-random sampling protocols that account for known spatial structures (‘spatially explicit protocols’) in reducing sampling requirements versus random sampling. Methods and Results: Canopy microclimate data were collected across multiple sites/seasons/training systems. Autocorrelation was found in all systems, with a periodicity generally corresponding to vine spacing. Three spatially explicit sampling models were developed to optimise the balance between minimum sample sizes and maximum fit to a known probability density function. A globally optimised explicit sampling (GOES) model, which performed multivariate optimisation to determine best-case sampling C

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 25 L locations for measuring fruit exposure, reduced fruit cluster sample size requirements versus random sampling by up to 60%. Two stratified sampling protocols were derived from GOES solutions. Spatially weighted template sampling (STS) reduced sampling requirements up to 24% when based on probabilistic panel weighting (PW), and up to 21% when preferentially selecting specific locations within canopy architecture (AW). Conclusions: GOES, PW STS and AWSTS each reduced required sample size versus random sampling. Comparative analyses suggested that optimal sampling strategies should simultaneously account for spatial variability at multiple scales. Significance of the Study: This study demonstrates that dynamically optimised sampling can decrease sample sizes required by researchers and/or wineries.

© Reprinted with permission from Meyers, J.M., Sacks, G.L., Van Es, H.M., Heuvel, J.E.V. Improving vineyard sampling efficiency via dynamic spatially explicit optimisation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 306–315; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

196.24 Rösti, J., Brégy, C.-A., Cuénat, P., Ferreti, M., Zufferey, V. On-vine grape drying enhances red wines quality. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 43(5), 298–306; 2011.

[French] On-vine grape drying with pruning of the fruit branch leads to must enrichment and has a positive effect on the wine. This technique is however linked to a yield loss and its success depends on the climatic conditions. Several trials were carried out from 2002 to 2008 in the Swiss regions of Tessin and Valais with Merlot, Pinot Noir and Gamay in order to compare on-vine with off-vine grape drying or with a strong restriction of grape yield. The benefit of on-vine grape drying on the quality of Merlot wine in Tessin was confirmed. Interesting effects were also observed on Pinot Noir in Valais although sugar accumulation can be too excessive. Off-vine grape drying under controlled conditions had similar effects to on-vine grape drying on must quality, but with lower influence on wine quality. Strong restriction of grape yield was considerably less effective on wine quality than on-vine grape drying.

© Reprinted with permission from Rösti, J., Brégy, C.-A., Cuénat, P., Ferreti, M., Zufferey, V. On-vine grape drying enhances red wines quality. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 43(5), 298–306; 2011. Copyright 2011 Association pour la mise en valeur des travaux de la recherche agronomique.

196.25 Bramley, R.G.V., Ouzman, J., Thornton, C. Selective harvesting is a feasible and profitable strategy even when grape and wine production is geared towards large fermentation volumes. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 298–305; 2011.

Background and Aims: Previous work has identified the potential for enhancing the profitability of both grapegrowing and winemaking through the implementation of selective harvesting. However, there has been a perception that such strategies may not be feasible when winery infrastructure is geared to large production volumes, such as is commonly the case in Australia’s warm irrigated regions. This work sought to examine the merits of this perception. Methods and Results: The tools of Precision Viticulture were used to identify zones of similar vineyard performance in two Cabernet Sauvignon vineyards in the Murray Valley region of Victoria such that sufficient quantities of fruit were available for commercial scale vinification into different product lines.

26 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Wines from these zones were also made in small lots. Sensory analysis demonstrated that wines derived from like zones were indeed similar, whilst those from contrasting zones were discernibly different. A partial gross margin analysis strongly suggested that selective harvesting should be highly profitable. Conclusions: If market opportunity warrants it, selective harvesting of fruit into different product streams is a feasible and profitable strategy even when production is geared to large volumes. Significance of the Study: The work demonstrates that selective harvesting can be profitably applied in situations where production is geared to large fermentation volumes. It therefore provides a counter to the view that Precision Viticulture offers opportunities only to small (boutique) producers or to large, well-resourced companies with a flexible winery infrastructure.

© Reprinted with permission from Bramley, R.G.V., Ouzman, J., Thornton, C. Selective harvesting is a feasible and profitable strategy even when grape and wine production is geared towards large fermentation volumes. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 298–305; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

196.26 Vršič, S., Ivančič, A., Šušek, A., Zagradišnik, B., Valdhuber, J., Šiško, M. The world’s oldest living grapevine specimen and its genetic relationships. Vitis 50(4), 167–171; 2011.

The Old Vine from Lent (Maribor, Slovenia) which belongs to the ‘Modra Kavčina’ group (i.e. ‘Blauer Kölner’ in the Vitis International Variety Catalogue and ‘Žametovka’ in the official varietal list of Slovenia) is considered to be the oldest living specimen of cultivated grapevine (at least 400 years old). The aim of our study was to determine the genetic relationships among different accessions of the ‘Žametovka’ group, the position of [sic] the Old Vine within this group, and the relationship between the Old Vine and other red varieties grown in Slovenia and neighbouring countries. The molecular genetic analysis was based on microsatellite data. The study shows that the ‘Žametovka’ group is genetically completely different from other red varieties studied. Among these genetically distant varieties, in our study, ‘Chasselas red’ appears to be the closest. The ‘Žametovka’ group is genetically highly homogenous, and half of the studied accessions probably belong to the same clone. The ‘old vine’ cannot be considered as a significantly different genotype. The minor differences detected by microsatellite markers are probably due to mutations accumulated over a long period of time and possibly to epigenetic changes.

© Reprinted with permission from Vršič, S., Ivančič, A., Šušek, A., Zagradišnik, B., Valdhuber, J., Šiško, M. The world’s oldest living grapevine specimen and its genetic relationships. Vitis 50(4), 167–171; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

196.27 Arbuckle, K. Wine in transit at risk of quality loss. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 120–121; 2011.

New research shows a significant proportion of Australian wine shipments to the US are vulnerable to extreme temperature stress.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 27 L 196.28 Cortell, J. Wine vigor affects fruit/wine chemistry. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(4), 96–112; 2011.

In a study conducted in the Willamette Valley in Oregon, relationships have been found between vine balance, vine vigor, sunlight exposure, fruit chemistry, wine chemistry, and sensory analyses. There were significant increases in skin tannin amount, molecular size, extraction of skin tannins, and pigmented polymer formation in wines made from fruit from moderate- to low-vigor vines. These chemical differences influenced wine quality parameters such as perception of astringency, mouthfeel, bitterness, and color.

196.29 Smart, R. Consulting mission impossible? Estimating wine quality before harvest… Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(4), 106–108; 2011.

‘Zonal vineyard management’ which others call ‘precision viticulture,’ will be the greatest technological advance of the next few years, even of the decade. This is the first of a two-part report covering a consulting project in Spain, and its implications, which alerted the author to the commercial possibilities of the approach. The second part will put some of the author’s subsequent ideas and research in perspective, along with recent U.S. experience.

© Reprinted with permission from Smart, R. Consulting mission impossible? Estimating wine quality before harvest… Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(4), 106–108; 2011. Copyright 2011 Practical Winery and Vineyard Incorporated.

196.30 Cattell, H. Vineyard mechanization: a status report. Wines Vines 92(11), 91–94; 2011.

The first comprehensive presentation of vineyard mechanization, its history, development and implementation is detailed in a new book, Vineyard Mechanization: Development and Status in the United States and in Major Grape Producing Regions of the World, by Dr Justin R. Morris, distinguished professor emeritus of the Institute of Food Science and Engineering at the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville. Much of his career of more than 40 years has focused on the development of what became the Morris-Oldridge System for Complete Vineyard Mechanization, now commercially available as the Oxbo Vineyard Mechanization System. This article reviews the book.

28 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 196.31 Hoare, T. The hangover – the effect of last season on this season. Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 83–85; 2011.

For many growers, the 2011 season was a wake-up call to be more vigilant in their management of pests and diseases, particularly the latter. The author highlights the lessons learned from 2011 and the potential ‘hangover’ effects for the coming season and discusses how to avoid over-reacting.

196.32 Kennedy, U. Vineyard preparation for season 2011–12. Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 82–82; 2011.

The author gives advice for optimising vineyard preparation for the coming season, and reflects on some of the lessons learned from the challenging 2010–11 season.

196.33 Anon. New Zealand considers costs of mothballing. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 42–43; 2011.

The issue of mothballing vines has only recently been raised in New Zealand, as more growers face uncertainty regarding contracts for their fruit. While New Zealand Winegrowers has provided information on how to physically go about mothballing, the costs are less publicised.

196.34 Barwick, J. Covercrop study reveals mixed approach delivers top outcomes. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 27–31; 2011.

A new trial method based on a whole-of-block approach is providing growers and viticulture researchers with reams of new data and practical growing advice.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 29 L 196.35 Arbuckle, K. Organic ‘Mission’ looks at costs of conversion. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 26–28; 2011.

Organic grapegrowing could save money and achieve the same benefits as conventional growing, according to the preliminary results of a unique project in New Zealand. New Zealand-based winery, Mission Estate, has just completed a one-year pilot of the Organic Focus Vineyard Project – a joint venture between Organic Winegrowers New Zealand (OWNZ) and New Zealand Winegrowers. As part of the pilot, a portion of the vineyard at Mission Estate was converted into organic management, allowing growers from around the Hawke’s Bay wine region to see a direct comparison between organic and conventional vineyards – both growing Chardonnay, Pinot Gris and Sauvignon Blanc. Over the past year, Mission Estate viticulturist Caine Thompson has been tracking the results of the project, focussing on pest and disease control, fruit quality and quantity and, most importantly, the farming costs.

196.36 Sadras, V., Petrie, P. Predicting harvest time. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 21–22; 2011.

Using data collected from Australia’s largest vineyard owner, Treasury Wine Estates, new research looks for ways to better forecast grape maturity.

30 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Physiology and biotechnology

196.37 Rolle, L., Gerbi, V., Schneider, A., Spanna, F., Río Segade, S. Varietal relationship between instrumental skin hardness and climate for grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(19), 10624–10634; 2011.

The main aims of this work were to classify 30 colored and white wine grape varieties according to the berry skin hardness, to assess the influence of annual variations in climate on the berry skin hardness, and to establish significant relationships among berry skin mechanical properties and some climatic bioclimatic indices calculated for different grape-ripening periods, close to the harvest date. The results obtained show that the most influential bioclimatic indices on the skin mechanical attributes were temperature parameters. In the same season, the influence of the production area was also evaluated, precipitation parameters being the best correlated with the berry skin hardness. This first work has permitted us to know the relationship among skin texture characteristics and seasonal climatic indices.

© Reprinted with permission from Rolle, L., Gerbi, V., Schneider, A., Spanna, F., Río Segade, S. Varietal relationship between instrumental skin hardness and climate for grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(19), 10624–10634; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

196.38 Xu, Y., Simon, J.E., Welch, C., Wightman, J.D., Ferruzzi, M.G., Ho, L., Passinetti, G.M., Wu, Q. Survey of polyphenol constituents in grapes and grape-derived products. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(19), 10586–10593; 2011.

A rapid and comprehensive qualitative method has been developed to characterize the different classes of polyphenols, such as anthocyanins, flavonols, phenolic acids, and flavanols/ proanthocyanidins, in grape products. The detection was achieved by two runs with the same LC gradient in different MS ionization modes and mobile phase modifiers (positive ionization mode and 0.4% trifluoroacetic acid for anthocyanins and flavonols; negative ionization mode and 0.1% formic acid for phenolic acids and flavanols). From an analysis of the MS and UV data and in comparison with the authenticated standards, a total of 53 compounds were identified, including 33 anthocyanins, 12 flavonols, 4 phenolic acids, and 4 flavanols/proanthocyanidins. With the method developed, a survey was then conducted to qualitatively assess the composition of polyphenols among 29 different grape products including original grape, grape juice, grape wine, and grape-derived dietary supplements, and their chemical profiles were systematically compared. This method provided a comprehensive qualitative insight into the composition of polyphenols in grape-derived products.

© Reprinted with permission from Xu, Y., Simon, J.E., Welch, C., Wightman, J.D., Ferruzzi, M.G., Ho, L., Passinetti, G.M., Wu, Q. Survey of polyphenol constituents in grapes and grape-derived products. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(19), 10586–10593; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 31 L 196.39 Baiano, A., Terracone, C. Varietal differences among the phenolic profiles and antioxidant activities of seven table grape cultivars grown in the south of Italy based on chemometrics. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(18), 9815–9826; 2011.

Seven table grape cultivars grown in Apulia region were considered: Italia, Baresana, Pizzutello, Red Globe, Michele Palieri, Crimson Seedless, and Thompson Seedless. Seeds, skins and pulps were extracted and analyzed for their phenolic profiles and antioxidant activities. The hierarchy in the phenolic contents was seeds, skins, and pulps. These results indicate that the intake of the whole berries (seeds included) must be strongly recommended. The highest phenolic contents were detected on Italia and Michele Palieri cv., respectively within the white and the red/black table grapes. Seeds gave a high contribution to the berry antioxidant activity, as they had higher phenolic content than skins and contained high quantities of proanthocyanidines, but the strongest antioxidant activity was shown by the pulp juices due to their content in hydroxycinnamyl acids. The principal component analysis applied to the phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of skins, pulps, and seeds allowed a good separation of Italia and Michele Palieri cultivars. According to the cluster analysis, cultivars were grouped into two clusters, one including Michele Palieri and the other one including Italia, Baresana, Pizzutello, and Thompson Seedless.

© Reprinted with permission from Baiano, A., Terracone, C. Varietal differences among the phenolic profiles and antioxidant activities of seven table grape cultivars grown in the south of Italy based on chemometrics. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(18), 9815–9826; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

196.40 Sefton, M.A., Skouroumounis, G.K., Elsey, G.M., Taylor, D.K. Occurrence, sensory impact, formation, and fate of damascenone in grapes, wines, and other foods and beverages. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(18), 9717–9746; 2011.

Among plant-derived odorants, damascenone is one of the most ubiquitous, sometimes occurring as an apparent natural product but more commonly occurring in processed foodstuffs and beverages. It has been widely reported as a component of alcoholic beverages, particularly of wines made from the grape Vitis vinifera. Although damascenone has one of the lowest ortho- and retronasal detection thresholds of any odorant, its contribution to the sensory properties of most products remains poorly understood. Damascenone can be formed by acid-catalyzed hydrolyses of plant-derived apocarotenoids, in both aglycon and glycoconjugated forms. These reactions can account for the formation of damascenone in some, but not all, products. In wine, damascenone can also be subject to degradation processes, particularly by reaction with sulfur dioxide.

© Reprinted with permission from Sefton, M.A., Skouroumounis, G.K., Elsey, G.M., Taylor, D.K. Occurrence, sensory impact, formation, and fate of damascenone in grapes, wines, and other foods and beverages. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(18), 9717–9746; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

32 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 196.41 Friend, A.P., Trought, M.C.T., Stushnoff, C., Wells, G.H. Effect of delaying budburst on shoot development and yield of Vitis vinifera L. Chardonnay ‘Mendoza’ after a spring freeze event. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 378–382; 2011.

Background and Aims: Spring freeze events can result in substantial grapevine yield losses in many parts of the world. Understanding vine responses following early spring freeze events will aid in the development of decision support systems for vineyards damaged by freezing temperatures. Methods and Results: The date of budburst of spur-pruned Chardonnay vines was manipulated by pruning time and/or the application of sodium alginate gel. A spring freeze event occurred at bud swell/woolly bud, killing 33% of the developing shoots. Treatments that delayed bud development expressed a lower incidence of freeze damage (as low as 3%). Where primary shoots had been killed, secondary shoots developed in their place. The yield from secondary shoots was 32% of that from primary shoots, with the majority of fruiting secondary shoots bearing only one bunch. Average bunch weight, number of berries per bunch and average berry weight of secondary shoots were comparable with those from primary shoots. Conclusions: The damage to primary shoots caused by early spring freeze events can be reduced by using treatments that delay bud development. Secondary shoots develop in response to death of the primary shoot, and although they have reduced fruitfulness, they can partially mitigate the potential yield losses associated with the death of primary shoots. Significance of the Study: The number and fruitfulness of secondary shoots that develop after a spring freeze event determine the extent of mitigation of yield losses associated with the death of primary shoots.

© Reprinted with permission from Friend, A.P., Trought, M.C.T., Stushnoff, C., Wells, G.H. Effect of delaying budburst on shoot development and yield of Vitis vinifera L. Chardonnay ‘Mendoza’ after a spring freeze event. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 378–382; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

196.42 Bernizzoni, F., Civardi, S., Zeller, M.V., Gatti, M., Poni, S. Shoot thinning effects on seasonal whole-canopy photosynthesis and vine performance in Vitis vinifera L. cv. Barbera. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 351–357; 2011.

Background and Aims: While shoot thinning is one of the most widely applied practices in the vineyard as a tool to regulate canopy density and/or crop level, its physiological bases are still fairly obscure and have been poorly investigated. Our aim was to assess seasonal modification of whole-canopy net CO2 exchange rate (NCER) in thinned and non-thinned grapevines, as well as establishing correlations with grape composition. Methods and Results: Potted, mature cv. Barbera vines were thinned (ST) to 10–15 shoots/m over the two trial years and compared with a non-thinned control (C). The data logged each season included whole-vine NCER monitored pre- and post-veraison for periods of variable lengths, vine growth, yield components and grape composition. While final leaf area per vine did not differ between treatments, ST showed reduced yield and improved berry colour and must sugar accumulation. In 2009, NCER/vine recovery in ST was 85% of C at verasion, whereas in 2010 full recovery was already reached around bloom. Conclusions: A load of 15 shoots/m maximised canopy efficiency by inducing the fastest recovery of whole-vine photosynthesis and markedly improved sugar, colour and phenolics. Retaining 10 C

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 33 L shoots/m delayed NCER recovery while improving overall grape composition as compared to C. Significance of the Study: Direct assessment of the complex seasonal canopy NCER dynamics triggered by shoot thinning indicates that the source-sink balance evolves in ST towards a higher supply of assimilates per unit of crop than that available in non-thinned canopies during the veraison-to-harvest period.

© Reprinted with permission from Bernizzoni, F., Civardi, S., Zeller, M.V., Gatti, M., Poni, S. Shoot thinning effects on seasonal whole-canopy photosynthesis and vine performance in Vitis vinifera L. Cv. Barbera. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 351–357; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

196.43 Becker, T., Knoche, M. Water movement through the surfaces of the grape berry and its stem. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 340–350; 2011.

Water uptake and transpiration of detached grape berries (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Chardonnay, Müller-Thurgau, Riesling) were determined gravimetrically. Water movement was linearly related to time. Abrading the cuticle from the berry surface increased rates of uptake and transpiration 73- and 7-fold, respectively. Restricting water movement to the berry surface by sealing the stem, including the stem/fruit juncture, decreased rates of uptake (-76%) and transpiration (-16%). Rates of uptake were weakly related and those of transpiration were closely related to the surface area of the berry. Transpiration rates were higher in the stylar (+44%) than the cheek region. The water potential of developing Riesling berries (Ψfruit) was approximately constant between 20 and 76 days after full bloom (DAFB) ranging from ‑0.52 (±0.18) to ‑0.58 (±0.15) MPa and decreased thereafter to ‑1.56 (±0.04) MPa at 131 DAFB when the solute potential was ‑3.66 (±0.01) MPa. The permeability of the cuticle of Riesling berries to water uptake decreased from 43.3 (±7.0) nm/s to 4.1 (±1.2) nm/s between 28 and 131 DAFB, respectively, and that for transpiration decreased from

7.3 (±0.3) nm/s to 1.6 (±0.0) nm/s. Water uptake was not affected by NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, FeCl3, or

AlCl3 (all at 1 to 100 mM). Only MgCl2 slightly increased water uptake. Increasing temperature from 2 to 35°C increased rates of water uptake in Riesling and Müller-Thurgau berries 2.2-fold (equiv. energy of activation 19.6 [±3.3] kJ/mol). Flow rates, fluxes, and permeabilities of stem and berry surfaces in water uptake and transpiration are discussed and a water balance for vascular and surface transport of water in a Riesling berry under hypothetical weather conditions is estimated.

© Reprinted with permission from Becker, T., Knoche, M. Water movement through the surfaces of the grape berry and its stem. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 340–350; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

196.44 Rustioni, L., Rossoni, M., Calatroni, M., Failla, O. Influence of bunch exposure on anthocyanins extractability from grapes skins (Vitis vinifera L.). Vitis 50(4), 137–143; 2011.

In relation to bunch exposure to solar irradiance (sun exposed vs. leaf shaded conditions), anthocyanin ripening and extractability were studied in two grape cultivars (‘Croatina’ and ‘Pinot Noir’) coming from three different vineyards in Northern Italy. Analysis of anthocyanin content were carried out by HPLC and spectrophotometry, and a simulated maceration process was developed. Pigments extraction occurred mainly in the first few hours of the maceration process.

34 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Anthocyanins with disubstituted B-ring showed a faster extractability than the trisubstituted ones. Bunch exposure to sunlight seemed to be important for pigment extractability timing in winemaking, showing a delay in pigments release. This delay was only partially explained by the different pigments profile, with higher percentage of disubstituted compounds in shaded berries, because all the molecules indicated a similar extraction trend during maceration.

© Reprinted with permission from Rustioni, L., Rossoni, M., Calatroni, M., Failla, O. Influence of bunch exposure on anthocyanins extractability from grapes skins (Vitis vinifera L.). Vitis 50(4), 137–143; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

196.45 Arbuckle, K. Project reviews the best strategies of vintage 2011. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 54–56; 2011.

In light of the challenges brought on by wet weather in 2011, viticulture consultant Richard Hilder assessed a number of vineyards across two states for best practice. As part of a Grassroots Solutions Project, funded by the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation, Hilder examined eight vineyards in the Hunter Valley and four vineyards in Canberra/Murrumbateman region. Hilder, in conjunction with the NSW Wine Industry Association, has just documented the findings in a paper, titled ‘Best Practice Reviews: experiences of successful growers in the 2011 season’, which he hopes will place growers in better stead for challenges in future seasons.

196.46 Guisard, Y. Botanical adaptation to drought: plant-based indicators of water stress for irrigation scheduling. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 44–46; 2011.

Water potential can be a very good indicator of water stress and can easily be used for the management of a range of irrigation strategies. The various types of measurement are all associated with specific limiting issues that the manager must include in any analysis. Most importantly, these measurements are associated with a high labour cost and are typically only justified for high value end products or in cases where the cost of water is a significant cost of production. Because of these restrictions, the plant-based irrigation scheduling approach discussed in this article has been moderately successful. The development of wireless automated devices cheaper than soil monitoring equipment is likely to considerably increase future uptake.

© Reproduced with permission from Guisard, Y. Botanical adaptation to drought: plant-based indicators of water stress for irrigation scheduling. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 44–46; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 35 L Climate and soils

196.47 Tomasi, D., Jones, G.V., Giust, M., Lovat, L., Gaiotti, F. Grapevine phenology and climate change: relationships and trends in the Veneto region of Italy for 1964–2009. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 329–339; 2011.

A long-term (1964–2009), multiple Vitis vinifera L. cultivar data set has provided a comprehensive assessment of cultivar similarities/differences in phenological timing and growth phases and relationships with climate and climate change in the Veneto region of Italy. The budbreak to harvest period for the cultivars studied covered mid-April to late September, averaging 156 days but varying 55 days across cultivars. The main phenological events and intervals between events exhibited a 25 to 45 day variation between the earliest and latest years, with the bloom to veraison growth interval showing the lowest vintage-to-vintage variation. From 1964–2009, trends of 13 to 19 days earlier were found for bloom, veraison, and harvest dates, while budbreak exhibited high interannual variation and no trend. There were similar characteristics and trends for the main phenological events for early, middle, and late maturing cultivars, although early maturing cultivars changed at a higher rate. Changes in climate in the region led to significant breakpoints in the phenology time series, averaging 1990–1991 across all cultivars, with early and middle cultivars shifting sooner than late cultivars. Growing season average temperatures warmed 2.3°C from 1964–2009, while annual and seasonal precipitation amounts did not change significantly. From 1964–2009, the growing period climate differences were 2.0°C between the years with the shortest and the longest budbreak to harvest intervals. The combined trends in phenology and climate resulted in an average shift of eight days per 1.0°C of warming. The extremely warm summer of 2003 (compressed growth intervals) and warm spring of 2007 (shifts in phenological timing) provide analog conditions to those projected for later this century.

© Reprinted with permission from Tomasi, D., Jones, G.V., Giust, M., Lovat, L., Gaiotti, F. Grapevine phenology and climate change: relationships and trends in the Veneto region of Italy for 1964–2009. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 329–339; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

196.48 Smith, F. History helps reveal changing maturity dates. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 22–24; 2011.

Early vignerons often kept meticulous records of harvest dates for individual blocks of grapes. Those records are now coming in handy in measuring how the data of grape maturation has changed through time.

36 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Vineyard management systems

196.49 Intrieri, C., Filippetti, I., Allegro, G., Valentini, G., Pastore, C., Colucci, E. The semi- minimal-pruned hedge: a novel mechanized grapevine training system. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 312–318; 2011.

A novel grapevine training system, semi-minimal-pruned hedge (SMPH), designed for mechanized pruning and harvesting was established on Sangiovese. The system was derived from adult spur- pruned cordon (SPC) vines that were modified to form a mechanically pruned hedge. SMPH heights of 80 cm and 120 cm were compared to SPC from 2005 to 2008, with an average of 332 and 479 buds per meter of row on SMPH 80 and 120, respectively, compared to 18 count nodes per meter of row on the hand-pruned SPC. The hedged vines had a larger leaf area, greater leaf area/crop ratio, and 35 to 40% yield increase compared to SPC, but there were no differences in juice soluble solids, pH, and acidity across the treatments. Berry skin anthocyanins were higher in hedged vines, notably the SMPH 120. The SMPH had more numerous but less compact and smaller clusters free of Botrytis compared to SPC. While SMPH 120 showed a tendency to alternate bearing, this effect was minimal in SMPH 80. Single-shoot growth measured in 2006 was lower in SMPH vines, and total seasonal canopy light interception was higher compared to SPC vines. SMPH single-leaf assimilation was similar to SPC vines. Mechanical harvesting of both SMPH treatments was successful. These findings suggest that the two SMPH systems warrant further commercial evaluation because of their positive response to mechanization, grape yield, and quality and low susceptibility to bunch rot.

© Reprinted with permission from Intrieri, C., Filippetti, I., Allegro, G., Valentini, G., Pastore, C., Colucci, E. The semi-minimal-pruned hedge: a novel mechanized grapevine training system. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 312–318; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

196.50 Spring, J.-L., Viret, O. Influence of thinning methods on yield, bunch morphology and sensitivity against grey mould on the grape variety Gamay. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 43(5), 280–287; 2011.

[French] The effect of different thinning methods (elimination of whole or half bunches, gibberellins or prohexadione-calcium applications) has been studied during three years on the cultivar Gamay, clone RAC10 under field conditions (experimental plots of Agroscope-ACW, Leytron VS, Switzerland). The application of gibberellins or prohexadione-calcium, as well as the half-section of bunches have significantly reduced the incidence of bunch rot. Chemical methods have caused bunch thinning by reducing flower fecundation. Gibberellins at 25 and 50 ppm has excessively reduced bloom induction. Prohexadione-calcium had no significant effect in yield reduction. Most composition was only slightly influenced by the different thinning techniques used.

© Reprinted with permission from Spring, J.-L., Viret, O. Influence of thinning methods on yield, bunch morphology and sensitivity against grey mould on the grape variety Gamay. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 43(5), 280–287; 2011. Copyright 2011 Association pour la mise en valeur des travaux de la recherche agronomique. C

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 37 L 196.51 Soufleros, E.H., Stavridou, K., Dagkli, V. The effect of cluster thinning on phenolic maturity of Vitis vinifera cv. Xinomavro grapes. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 45(3), 171–179; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.jisvv.com/sommaire_dernier_numero.php?id=1034

196.52 Santesteban, L.G., Miranda, C., Royo, J.B. Thinning intensity and water regime affect the impact cluster thinning has on grape quality. Vitis 50(4), 159–165; 2011.

Late cluster thinning is a practice frequently used in the vineyards of semiarid regions, as it is claimed to increase total soluble solids and anthocyanin concentration. However, when performed in field conditions, it often leads to relatively inconclusive results: under some circumstances, it results in a noteworthy quality gain, whereas under other circumstances, it does not convey the improvement in quality desired. The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of thinning intensity and vine water status on the impact cluster thinning has on grape quality. Late cluster thinning (CT) was performed at four ‘Tempranillo’ vineyards during four consecutive years. The major effects of CT were an increase in berry soluble solid, anthocyanin and phenolics concentration. The impact CT had on these parameters was related to thinning intensity, although it was more closely related to vine water status from veraison to harvest, particularly when compared to water status during the two weeks with the lowest water availability. An estimation of the degree of water deficit that is likely to occur between veraison and harvest (considering water management guidelines of each winegrower and water reserves available in the soil or for later irrigation) has therefore to be considered in order to make proper decisions on cluster thinning, at least in the range of yield and water conditions included in this study. In rain fed or deficit irrigated vineyards water deficit alleviation might be one of the main mechanisms that make cluster thinning an effective technique to improve grape quality.

© Reprinted with permission from Santesteban, L.G., Miranda, C., Royo, J.B. Thinning intensity and water regime affect the impact cluster thinning has on grape quality. Vitis 50(4), 159–165; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

196.53 Molitor, D., Behr, M., Fischer, S., Hoffman, L., Evers, D. Timing of cluster-zone leaf removal and its impact on canopy morphology, cluster structure and bunch rot susceptibility of grapes. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 45(3), 149–159; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.jisvv.com/sommaire_dernier_numero.php?id=1036

196.54 Favero, A.C., Angelucci De Amorim, D., Vieira Da Mota, R., Soares, A.M., De Souza, C.R., De Albuquerque Regina, M. Double-pruning of ‘Syrah’ grapevines: a management strategy to harvest wine grapes during the winter in the Brazilian Southeast. Vitis 50(4), 151–158; 2011.

Grape harvest in the major grapevine growing regions of Brazil occurs during the summer; a

38 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 period with excessive rainfall. The climatic conditions during the Brazilian summer can have an adverse effect on fruit maturation and wine quality. This study compared the performance of ‘Syrah’ grapevines cultivated in two growing seasons. A double pruning management system was employed as a technique in the vineyard and the grapevines were cultivated in summer, a cycle normally adopted in the South and Southeast of Brazil and winter during 2005 and 2006 in a non-irrigated vineyard. Vine water stress was minimal for both growing seasons and photosynthetic rates were found to be lower in the winter than the summer. However, no differences in vegetative vigor were observed. The growing season was shorter in summer than in winter. This was predominately due to a faster ripening period in the summer. During the winter harvests, grapevines had a higher yield, accumulation of sugar, anthocyanins and total phenolic compounds, and the lowest rot incidence. Double-pruning proved to be a powerful tool to improve wine grape composition in the Brazilian Southeast. This management will allow the production of quality raw materials for the production of good wines, allowing Southeastern Brazil to enter the competitive globalized wine market.

© Reprinted with permission from Favero, A.C., Angelucci De Amorim, D., Vieira Da Mota, R., Soares, A.M., De Souza, C.R., De Albuquerque Regina, M. Double-pruning of ‘Syrah’ grapevines: a management strategy to harvest wine grapes during the winter in the Brazilian Southeast. Vitis 50(4), 151–158; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

196.55 Hoare, T. Machine harvesting or hand picking winegrapes. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 44–47; 2011.

It is a long-held belief that machine harvesting winegrapes is a more cost-effective option than hand picking. On paper the cost per tonne of machine harvested fruit will represent better value than hand picking. However, is it like comparing apples with oranges?

196.56 Winter, E., Lowe, S. Under-vine management research reveals fruitzone temperature controls. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 37–42; 2011.

In a Merlot FarmReady on-farm demonstration trial site in Whitfield, with vines in a north-south row orientation and on a Smart-Dyson trellis, herbicide treated under-vine strips were compared with adjacent rows that were not mown, which, due to the high rainfall, exhibited lush undergrowth. Soil under lush vegetation covering the under-vine strip of 13-year-old Merlot was less hot and less cold all season than under a herbicide treated under-vine sward in the same vineyard. Bunchzones were less cold over the heavily vegetated under-vine strip in particular with differential canopy management providing at least one layer of foliage to the west and an open canopy to the east. The combination of differential canopy management and the grassy undervine situation resulted in enhanced pulp aroma and seed development. Grape analysis demonstrated low concentrations of YAN in juice from grapes of the grassy treatment.

© Reproduced with permission from Winter, E., Lowe, S. Under-vine management research reveals fruitzone temperature controls. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 37–42; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd. C

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 39 L 196.57 Winter, E., Lowe, S. Canopy management offers solutions to variable climate. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 38–41; 2011.

Fifteen King Valley vineyards may hold the answer to overcoming changing climatic conditions, according to a two-year on-farm research project. The trial put conventional and differential canopy management methods side-by-side, and revealed what works best in hot conditions is also good in the cold.

Pests and diseases

196.58 Boso, S., Alonso-Villaverde, V., Gago, P., Santiago, J.L., Martínez, M.C. Susceptibility of 44 grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) varieties to downy mildew in the field. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 394–400; 2011.

Background and Aims: Downy mildew, which occurs worldwide, is one of the most destructive of all grapevine diseases. Several authors have examined the host–pathogen interaction in different Vitis species, crosses and hybrids, but only a few studies comparing this in true V. vinifera varieties have been undertaken. The aim of the present study was to examine the in-field susceptibility to infection by Plasmopara viticola, the causal agent of downy mildew, of 44 grapevine varieties, all belonging to the collection of the Misión Biológica de Galicia. Methods and Results: Over a period of 2 years, the incidence and severity of downy mildew on the leaves and clusters of all 44 varieties was determined using a visual scale. Some of those examined showed high susceptibility (Chenin Blanc, Albariño and Prieto Picudo), others showed low susceptibility (Silveiriña, Caiño Bravo, Follajeiro and Brancellao Blanco), and still others showed intermediate susceptibility. Some varieties showed high disease incidence but low disease severity and vice versa. No significant correlation was detected between disease incidence and severity in either leaves or clusters, nor indeed between leaves and clusters. Neither berry colour, cluster compactness nor any other studied variable bore any clear relationship with susceptibility. Conclusion: The different grapevine varieties examined showed great variation in terms of their susceptibility to downy mildew. The susceptibility of most varieties was the same in both study years. Significance of the Study: The results of this work could help provide new material that might be of use in grapevine genetic improvement programs, and in the study of resistance to downy mildew. The selection of old varieties from the Iberian northwest may contribute towards the growth of organic viticulture in this area and even other winemaking regions around the world.

© Reprinted with permission from Boso, S., Alonso-Villaverde, V., Gago, P., Santiago, J.L., Martínez, M.C. Susceptibility of 44 grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) varieties to downy mildew in the field. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 394–400; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

40 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 196.59 Bramley, R.G.V., Evans, K.J., Dunne, K.J., Gobbett, D.L. Spatial variation in response to ‘reduced input’ spray programs for powdery mildew and Botrytis identified through whole-of-block experimentation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 341–350; 2011.

Background and Aims: Previous work has highlighted the utility of the whole-of-block approach to viticultural experimentation. Here, we use this approach as a means of evaluating alternative spray programs for managing two economically important grapevine diseases at commercial scale. Methods and Results: Two experiments were conducted in vineyards in the Coal River and Rokeby districts of Tasmania. The first, carried out in a 4.5 ha vineyard planted to Vitis vinifera L. cv. Pinot Noir, sought to evaluate fungicide programs for control of powdery mildew (Erysiphe necator), in particular with a view to reducing the amount of sulphur applied in organic production systems. The second sought to evaluate the benefit (if any) of changing the time of fungicide application from flowering to pre-bunch closure for the control of Botrytis bunch rot (Botrytis cinerea) in a 2.4 ha Chardonnay vineyard. In both cases, treatments were applied to a whole-of-block experimental design using commercial spray equipment. Disease severity and the response to the various spray treatments, was spatially variable and related to topographic variation. Botrytis severity was also related to vine vigour. The powdery mildew results supported the retention of sulphur in organic spray programs, while Switch® (Syngenta Group, Basel, Switzerland) applied at pre-bunch closure in the Botrytis experiment reduced disease severity relative to the application at flowering. Spatial variation in the response to the latter treatment, when examined four times pre-harvest, suggested that secondary spread may not have been an important mechanism for increasing disease severity over time. Conclusions: Consistent with the other work described in this series of papers, we conclude that the whole-of-block experimental approach offers both researchers and vineyard managers a means of acquiring more useful information than would be obtained from a conventional plot-based approach. Significance of the Study: This study highlights the value of collecting spatially distributed data as a means of better understanding the incidence, spread, progression and control of fungal grapevine diseases. As such, it provides a new application for this experimental approach, which enables spatial variability to be used as an experimental tool.

© Reprinted with permission from Bramley, R.G.V., Evans, K.J., Dunne, K.J., Gobbett, D.L. Spatial variation in response to ‘reduced input’ spray programs for powdery mildew and Botrytis identified through whole-of- block experimentation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 341–350; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

196.60 Du, Y.-P., Wang, Z.-S., Zhai, H. Grape root cell features related to phylloxera resistance and changes of anatomy and endogenous hormones during nodosity and tuberosity formation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 291–297; 2011.

Background and Aims: Cell wall anatomical and chemical components of different phylloxera resistant grapevine roots were examined. Changes in anatomy and endogenous hormone levels were tested during phylloxera-induced nodosity and tuberosity formation. Methods and Results: Tertiary roots of 3–5 mm diameter from 4-year-old grapevines with different phylloxera resistance C

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 41 L ratings were collected in September to examine cellular anatomy and endogenous hormones in nodosities and tuberosities. Grapevine roots with reported high phylloxera resistance had more periderm cell layers, smaller parenchyma cells, and higher lignin, cellulose and pectin contents. 140 Ruggeri periderm cell wall thickened and accumulated more polyphenolic materials after phylloxera infestation. Nodosity cells distal to the insect feeding site and tuberosity cells near the feeding site showed increased cell division and enlargement. Tuberosity cells were oriented parallel to the phylloxera stylet. Endogenous hormone levels increased during nodosity formation, with zeatin and gibberellic acid continually increasing and kinetin, indole acetic acid and abscisic acid initially increasing but later decreasing. Root dehydrogenase activity was 4.85 times higher than that of uninfested controls. Conclusions: Cell features of phylloxera-resistant Vitis species were likely physically restrictive for phylloxera feeding. Periderm cell changes of phylloxera-resistant rootstock 140 Ruggeri infested by phylloxera prevented phylloxera infestation. Cell changes during susceptible cultivars’ nodosity and tuberosity formation were beneficial for phylloxera feeding, and endogenous hormone changes during phylloxera infestation may have affected nodosity formation. Significance of the Study: A high content of cell wall chemical components could potentially be an initial, convenient assessment index in phylloxera resistance breeding. This paper revealed that endogenous hormones affected nodosity formation.

© Reprinted with permission from Du, Y.-P., Wang, Z.-S., Zhai, H. Grape root cell features related to phylloxera resistance and changes of anatomy and endogenous hormones during nodosity and tuberosity formation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 291–297; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

196.61 Cadle-Davidson, L., Mahanil, S., Gadoury, D.M., Kozma, P., Reisch, B.I. Natural infection of Run1-positive vines by naïve genotypes of Erysiphe necator. Vitis 50(4), 173–175; 2011.

TheRun1 locus for dominant resistance to powdery mildew (Erysiphe necator) has been successfully introgressed into Euvitis from Vitis rotundifolia. In the current study, Run1 vines were hybridized with breeding lines at Cornell University, and the presence of the locus was assayed using the markers GLP1-12 and VMC8g9. Signs of powdery mildew were observed on 14 of 113 Run1- positive seedlings in October 2010 in Geneva, N.Y. Severity of infection was lower for Run1- positive than for Run1-negative seedlings. Presence of mature cleistothecia suggested infection by at least two pathogen genotypes, which since V. rotundifolia is not grown within 800+ km of Geneva, N.Y., evolved from a pathogen population naive to Run1 resistance. Therefore, caution in the deployment of the Run1 locus in new resistant cultivars is suggested so the effectiveness of Run1 does not diminish over time.

© Reprinted with permission from Cadle-Davidson, L., Mahanil, S., Gadoury, D.M., Kozma, P., Reisch, B.I. Natural infection of Run1-positive vines by naïve genotypes of Erysiphe necator. Vitis 50(4), 173–175; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

42 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 196.62 Alonso-Villaverde, V., Boso, S., Santiago, J.L., Gago, P., Rodríguez-García, M.I., Martínez, M.C. Leaf thickness and structure of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Albariño clones and its possible relation with susceptibility to downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) infection. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 45(3), 161–169; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.jisvv.com/view_abstract.php?id=1038

196.63 Smith, M. Spray seminar clears the air. Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 79–81; 2011.

At a seminar held in Tasmania earlier this year, Cornell University application technology specialist Dr Andrew Landers shared his knowledge on the best means of operating a vineyard sprayer unit.

196.64 Wurnns, K., Ah Chee, A., Elmer, P., Agnew, R., Wood, P. Developing new biologically-based products for control of Botrytis bunch rot. Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 64–72; 2011.

This article describes the latest in New Zealand’s efforts to develop biologically based products for controlling Botrytis. The first product, which is based on a plant oil and is discussed in the article, is currently going through the registration process in New Zealand. This product would be most suitable for use in the more temperate grapegrowing regions of Australia. The Australian Wine Research Institute is not aware of any efforts to date to have it registered for release here. The second product is for late-season application to grapes and is still in the pre-commercialisation phase.

© Reprinted with permission from Wurnns, K., Ah Chee, A., Elmer, P., Agnew, R., Wood, P. Developing new biologically-based products for control of Botrytis bunch rot. Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 64–72; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

196.65 Parry, F., Elmer, P., Wood, P., Agnew, R., Saunders, J., Wurms, K., Hoyte, S., Ah Chee, A. Developing new biologically-based products for control of Botrytis bunch rot (part 2). Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 73–78; 2011.

The introduction in Part 1 of this article described the new plant-based, natural product (coded NP2) that New Zealand Winegrowers (NZW) and Plant & Food Research Institute of New Zealand (PFR) have been jointly developing as part of a biologically-based control program for Botrytis bunch rot in winegrapes. In Part 2, the authors describe the development of a new biological control agent for late season application to grapes (coded BCA-L1).

© Reprinted with permission from Parry, F., Elmer, P., Wood, P., Agnew, R., Saunders, J., Wurms, K., Hoyte, S., Ah Chee, A. Developing new biologically-based products for control of Botrytis bunch rot (part 2). Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 73–78; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd. C

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 43 L 196.66 McGourty, G. Answers about leafroll virus. Wines Vines 92(10), 60–63; 2011.

This article examines why leafroll virus has started to move suddenly into new vineyards planted with certified virus-free material.

196.67 Ayres, M., Sosnowski, M., Wicks, T. A rapid technique for evaluating treatments for eutypa dieback control. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 50–53; 2011.

Researchers at SARDI have developed a ‘detached cane assay’ to reduce the time needed to evaluate pruning wound treatments. It was adapted from a single-node cutting technique developed by Jeff Bennett, at the Marlborough Wine Research Institute, in New Zealand, for assessing cane fruitfulness, which was also used for a black spot bioassay screening of tablegrapes. In this paper the authors report on the detached cane assay and results from preliminary experiments.

© Reproduced with permission from Ayres, M., Sosnowski, M., Wicks, T. A rapid technique for evaluating treatments for eutypa dieback control. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 50–53; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

196.68 Gangl, H., Leitner, G., Hack, C., Tiefenbrunner, A., Tiefenbrunner, M., Tiefenbrunner, W. Comparison of virus infection in Austrian vineyards with simulated ones and some conclusions about transmission. Mitt. Klosterneuburg Rebe Wein 61(1), 11–22; 2011.

Abstract not available for reproduction

44 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Vine improvement and varieties

196.69 Boido, E., García-Marino, M., Dellacassa, E., Carrau, F., Rivas-Gonzalo, J.C., Escribano- Bailón, M.T. Characterisation and evolution of grape polyphenol profiles of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tannat during ripening and vinification. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 383–393; 2011.

Background and Aims: Changes in different polyphenol families during grape ripening and vinification were determined in Tannat grapes. This was done to establish a polyphenol profile for Tannat grapes during ripening and for young wines. Methods and Results: We demonstrated, by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection and mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-MS) analysis, that the content of flavan-3-ols in Tannat seeds was higher than that reported for a large number of other grape varieties analysed. Forty per cent of the total flavan-3-ols in seeds were galloylated compounds, whereas the flavan-3-ol profile in skins was characterised by the absence of galloylated forms. Prodelphinidins in skins ranged between 30 and 35% with very low values for epigallocatechin. Epicatechin gallate was not detected in Tannat wine and galloylated forms represented a low percentage of total flavan-3-ols. Tannat grapes had very high concentrations of anthocyanins in skins with levels increasing during ripening. Eleven phenolic acids were identified in Tannat grape skins and wines, but only gallic and protocatechuic acids were found in the seeds. Conclusions: Tannat wines were shown to have one of the highest levels of phenolic compounds reported for vinifera grape varieties. The profiles for different polyphenol families present in Tannat grapes (skins and seeds) and wines were determined. Significance of the Study: The results presented will help to better understand the phenolic winemaking potential of this variety and its functional properties within food chemistry.

© Reprinted with permission from Boido, E., García-Marino, M., Dellacassa, E., Carrau, F., Rivas-Gonzalo, J.C., Escribano-Bailón, M.T. Characterisation and evolution of grape polyphenol profiles of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tannat during ripening and vinification. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(3), 383–393; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

196.70 Díaz-Losada, E., Salgado, A.T., Ramos-Cabrer, A.M., Pereira-Lorenzo, S. Determination of genetic relationships of Albariño and Loureira cultivars with the Caíño group by microsatellites. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 371–375; 2011.

The grapevine germplasm bank EVEGA contains 135 accessions of 15 Galician cultivars. Analysis with 33 polymorphic microsatellites (SSRs) indicate that Albariño and Loureira could be related to the Caíño group in western Galicia, Spain. Likelihood ratios support the hypothesis of significant parentage relationship between Albariño and Caíño Bravo as parents of Caíño Blanco. Loureira shared alleles for each locus with Caíño Bravo, indicating close relationship by hybridization. Caíño Bravo was related directly with four cultivars (Caíño Blanco, Caíño Longo, Castañal, and Loureira) and with two others (Caíño Redondo1 and Sousón), with which it shared 32 of 33 loci, indicating that it could be the origin of this lineage, as the key cultivar of the Caíño group.

© Reprinted with permission from Díaz-Losada, E., Salgado, A.T., Ramos-Cabrer, A.M., Pereira-Lorenzo, S. Determination of genetic relationships of Albariño and Loureira cultivars with the Caíño group by C

196.71 Garcia-Muñoz, S., Muñoz-Organero, G., de Andrés, M.T., Cabello, F. Ampelography – an old technique with future uses: the case of minor varieties of Vitis vinifera L. from the Balearic Islands. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 45(3), 125–137; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.jisvv.com/view_abstract.php?id=1039

196.72 Logan, S. (ed.) Straightforward Verdelho. Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 120–123; 2011.

In this varietal report on Verdelho producers from Tulloch Wines, Western Range Wines and Two Rivers Wines share their experience in viticulture, winemaking and marketing of the variety.

196.73 Byrne, M. How a strange bird was hatched. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 113–114; 2011.

The Strange Bird Alternative Wine Trail, an initiative of Granite Belt Wine & Tourism, was launched in 2007 and was pitched at wine drinkers ‘looking for something beyond Chardonnay and Shiraz’. The trail was believed to be the first of its type in Australia. This article discusses the background of the project as told by some of the Granite Belt winemakers involved in the project.

196.74 Ezzard, M. A new Southern classic. Wines Vines 92(11), 95–99; 2011.

A winemaker from the US southern state of Georgia shares her experience with Petit Manseng.

196.75 Logan, S. (ed.) Varietal report: Vermentino. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 87–93; 2011.

In this varietal report on Vermentino, producers from Brown Brothers, Taylors Wines and Jacob’s Creek share their viticultural, winemaking and marketing experiences with the variety.

46 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 196.76 Grossmann, M., Kießling, F., Singer, J., Shoeman, H., Schröder, M.-B., Von Wallbrun, C. Genetically modified wine yeasts: actual situation and risk assessment. Bull. OIV 84(959- 961), 79–93; 2011.

By using gene technology genetically modified (GM) wine yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) are now available which cover more or less all stages of the wine making process where microorganisms or commercial enzymes play a key role. Despite this availability, their usage is hampered by two important issues: firstly the legal regulations concerning the dissemination of genetically modified organisms and secondly the still existing doubts or even refusal of engineered food by the people worldwide. Only two engineered wine strains are legally on the market in the USA and Canada. In this article, we present a short survey about existing GM wine yeast strains, the changing consumer’s perception and comprehensive risk assessment studies that were performed under safety Class 1 conditions in green house experiments and simulations in lab scale. The results show that also the GM yeasts persist after dissemination on winery equipment and in natural environment like other non-modified yeasts also do. The eventual problem of using multiple modified yeast strains will be discussed.

© Reprinted with permission from Grossmann, M., Kießling, F., Singer, J., Shoeman, H., Schröder, M.-B., Von Wallbrun, C. Genetically modified wine yeasts: actual situation and risk assessment. Bull. OIV 84(959-961), 79–93; 2011. Copyright 2011 Organisation International de la Vigne et du Vin.

196.77 Fairall, R., Conchie, J. Greco – fit for the king of the high Cs. Wine Viti. J. 26(5), 86–87; 2011.

The authors share their viticultural and winemaking experience with Greco at di Lusso Estate in Mudgee and provide a bit of history about the variety.

196.78 Byrne, M. Vermentino hailed as new Riverland hero. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), p. 86; 2011.

The push to make Vermentino the new hero brand of the Riverland is gathering momentum. Led by the Riverland Alternative Wine Group (RAWG), the movement has many influential and inspirational supporters who are happy to see the region’s profile boosted in a positive manner.

196.79 Byrne, M. Riverland group takes the alternate route. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), p. 80; 2011.

This brief article introduces the Riverland Alternative Wine Group which is a group of winemakers, viticulturists and marketers who are willing to explore, select and develop new varieties well-suited C

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 47 L to the Riverland’s Mediterranean climate and who are striving to have a ‘star’ alternative grape variety, like Vermentino, that the Riverland can call its own.

196.80 Chalmers, K. Vermentino wines a major drawcard for Chalmers family. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 60–62; 2011.

Kim Chalmers of Australian Vermentino-pioneering Chalmers Wines shares a snippet of her recent experience in exploring the variety in its homeland of Sardinia, in Italy, and summarises her family’s work in propagating, growing and making wine from the variety.

196.81 Tassie, L. Ensuring trueness to type of some alternative varieties. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 54–58; 2011.

A varietal verification project using DNA testing is under way which aims to give some reassurance to Australian grapegrowers and vine nurseries that the varieties being planted are true to type, in an effort to avoid a repeat of the recent Albariño/Savagnin Blanc error.

196.82 Port, J. Alpine valleys where the weird and wonderful abound. Winestate 34(6), 44–47; 2011.

This article highlights Victoria’s Alpine Valleys region, which is one of the first super cool climates to be explored for growing grapes.

196.83 Costley, D. New rootstocks targeting drought tolerance, improved water use and wine quality. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 35–36; 2011.

Root stocks can increase resilience to abiotic stresses such as salinity, water stress and potentially improve water use efficiency.

© Reprinted with permission from Costley, D. New rootstocks targeting drought tolerance, improved water use and wine quality. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 35–36; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

48 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 196.84 Topalović, A., Slatnar, A., Štampar, F., Knežević, M., Veberić, R. Influence of foliar fertilization with P and K on chemical constituents of grape cv. ‘Cardinal’. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(18), 10303–10310; 2011.

The foliar fertilization has been used as an important agrotechnical measure to avoid deficiencies and to improve quality. During the two consecutive years, a study has been performed on Vitis vinifera L. (cv. ‘Cardinal’) to examine whether a grape berry quality has been affected by the foliar application of PK fertilizer. A liquid mineral fertilizer containing 15% P2O5, 20% K2O with 0.1% B, 0.1% Mn and 0.01% Mo (% w/w) has been sprayed three times at rate of 8 L ha–1 every 14–15 days starting at about 15 days before veraison. The sugars, organic acids and flavonoids (anthocyanins, flavonols and flavan-3-ols) have been analyzed by the high performance liquid chromatography in the grape berries. The foliar fertilization of grapevine can accelerate the accumulation of sugars and anthocyanins, whereas climatic factors and yearly fluctuations influence the content of sugars, organic acids, and phenolic compounds in general. The effect of fertilizer spraying on flavonols and flavan-3-ols has not been found.

© Reprinted with permission from Topalović, A., Slatnar, A., Štampar, F., Knežević, M., Veberić, R. Influence of foliar fertilization with P and K on chemical constituents of grape cv. ‘Cardinal’. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(18), 10303–10310; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

196.85 Hatch, T.A., Hickey, C.C., Wolf, T.K. Cover crop, rootstock, and root restriction regulate vegetative growth of Cabernet Sauvignon in a humid environment. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 298–311; 2011.

Cover crops, rootstocks, and root restriction were evaluated as means to regulate vegetative growth of Cabernet Sauvignon grapevines in a humid environment. Treatments were arranged as a strip-split-split plot with row-middle and under-trellis cover crop (UTCC) compared to row-middle only cover crop combined with 85 cm weed-free strips in the vine row as main plots. Rootstocks Riparia Gloire (Riparia), 420A, and 101-14 were subplots, while sub-subplots comprised two treatments: vines were either planted in root-restrictive (RR) fabric bags (0.015 m3) at vineyard establishment or were planted without root restriction. Root restriction and UTCC were independently effective in suppressing vegetative development as measured by rate and seasonal duration of shoot growth, lateral shoot development, trunk circumference, and dormant pruning weights. Riparia was the most effective rootstock in limiting vegetative development among the three evaluated; vines grafted to Riparia had ~25% lower cane pruning weights than did vines grafted to 420A or 101-14. Under-trellis cover crop reduced cane pruning weights by 47% relative to vines grown on herbicide strips. Canopy architecture was generally improved by both UTCC and by root restriction, but generally unaffected by rootstock. Root restriction reduced the discrimination against 13C assimilation in both berries and leaf laminae tissue as measured by δ13C, while under-trellis floor management did not affect this measure of chronic water stress. The principal direct effect of the UTCC and the root-restriction treatments was a sustained reduction in stem (xylem) water potential (ψstem). Stomatal conductance and net C

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 49 L assimilation rate were depressed by increasing water deficit, particularly for root-restricted vines. Results suggest practical measures can be used to create a more favorable vine balance under conditions of variable rainfall, such as exist in the eastern United States.

© Reprinted with permission from Hatch, T.A., Hickey, C.C., Wolf, T.K. Cover crop, rootstock, and root restriction regulate vegetative growth of Cabernet Sauvignon in a humid environment. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 62(3), 298–311; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

196.86 Kodur, S., Tisdall, J.M., Tang, C., Walker, R.R. Uptake, transportation, accumulation and retranslocation of potassium in grapevine rootstocks (Vitis). Vitis 50(4), 145–149; 2011.

The concentration and content of potassium (K) within grapevine can be regulated by selective use of rootstocks. However, the mechanisms by which rootstocks differ in the accumulation of K in the shoot of grapevine are not well understood. Therefore, the current study addresses these issues. Ungrafted rootstocks 140 Ruggeri (140 R) and 101-14 Millardet de Grasset (101-14) were exposed to K tracer rubidium (Rb) in a glasshouse, for 4 hours through roots to study uptake and transport of Rb from roots to shoot, and for 24 hours through leaf to study downward transport of Rb, in each case assessed up to 48 hours following exposure to Rb. Transpiration rates and root traits were also measured. Results showed similar total Rb uptake and similar downward transport of Rb between the two rootstocks but lower accumulation of Rb in the shoot and lower shoot/roots Rb concentration (as a result of higher retention of Rb in roots), in 140 R than that in 101-14. Transpiration rates and total root length (but not total root surface area) remained similar between two rootstocks. The study shows that short term differences in the accumulation of K in roots and shoot between rootstocks are due to differences in the transport of K from roots to the shoot, rather than by differences in net uptake or retranslocation of K. In addition, such differences were not affected by transpiration rates. The results highlight that accumulation of K in shoot of grapevine rootstocks is regulated mainly by roots.

© Reprinted with permission from Kodur, S., Tisdall, J.M., Tang, C., Walker, R.R. Uptake, transportation, accumulation and retranslocation of potassium in grapevine rootstocks (Vitis). Vitis 50(4), 145–149; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

196.87 Reynard, J.-S., Zufferey, V., Nicol, G.-C., Murisier, F. Vine water status as a parameter of the ‘terroir’ effect under the non-irrigated conditions of the Vaud viticultural area (Switzerland). J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 45(3), 139–147; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.jisvv.com/sommaire_dernier_numero.php?id=1037

50 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 196.88 Laurenson, S. Irrigating with wastewater: is it all crystal clear? Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 72–78; 2011.

Greater demand for irrigation and subsequent difficulty in securing water during the growing season has challenged the economic viability of many grapegrowing operations in South Australia and further afield. There has, therefore, been an increasing focus on using recycled water from municipal wastewater treatment plants and wineries for irrigation purposes. These otherwise waste resources can provide growers with a secure water source and efficient means of disposal, while also lowering the water footprint associated with wine production. One major agricultural concern related to the use of these water sources is their high monovalent cation concentration, namely sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+). A high concentration of these monovalent cations in soils can deteriorate soil structure, leading to changes in many key soil physical properties, such as hydraulic conductivity, infiltration rate, bulk density and soil aeration. This article provides a brief overview of the effect of municipal and winery wastewater on soil structure.

196.89 Walker, R., Blackmore, D., Gong, H. Chloride and sodium concentrations in grape juice and wine. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 34–37; 2011.

In this research, chloride (Cl–) and sodium (Na+) are found to be in higher concentration in the juice of Shiraz grapes than Chardonnay by comparison, revealing the role of Cl– and Na+ accumulation by the berry skins, and extraction from the skins during fermentation.

196.90 Anon. Winery wastewater may affect soil structure. Wine Technol. NZ 9(3), 10–11; 2011.

The Marlborough District Council will carry out further research to determine how widespread is the build-up of potassium in soils that have been applied with winery wastewater.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 51 L Wine and health

Epidemiology

196.91 Meyer-Leu, Y., Lemola, S., Daeppen, J.-B., Deriaz, O., Gerber, S. Association of moderate alcohol use and binge drinking during pregnancy with neonatal health. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35(9), 1669–1677; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01513.x/ abstract

196.92 Fairweather-Tait, S.J., Skinner, J., Guile, G.R., Cassidy, A., Spector, T.D., Macgregor, A.J. Diet and bone mineral density study in postmenopausal women from the TwinsUK registry shows a negative association with a traditional English dietary pattern and a positive association with wine. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 94(5), 1371–1375; 2011.

Background: The effect of diet on bone mineral density (BMD) remains controversial, mainly because of difficulties in isolating dietary factors from the confounding influences of age, lifestyle, and genetic factors. Objective: The aim of this study was to use a novel method to examine the relation between BMD and diet. Design: A co-twin control study design with linear regression modeling was used to test for associations between BMD and habitual intakes of calcium, vitamin D, protein, and alcohol plus 5 previously identified dietary patterns in postmenopausal women from the TwinsUK registry. This approach exploited the unique matching of twins to provide an estimate of an association that was not confounded by age, genetic background, or shared lifestyle. Results: In >2000 postmenopausal women (BMD data on 1019, 1218, and 1232 twin pairs at the hip neck, hip, and spine, respectively), we observed a positive association between alcohol intake (from wine but not from beer or spirits) and spine BMD (P = 0.01) and a negative association with a traditional 20th-century English diet at the hip neck (P = 0.01). Both associations remained borderline significant after adjustment for mean twin-pair intakes (P = 0.04 and P = 0.055, respectively). Other dietary patterns and intakes of calcium, vitamin D, and protein were unrelated to BMD. Conclusion: Our results showed that diet has an independent but subtle effect on BMD; wine intake was positively associated with spine BMD, whereas a traditional (20th- century) English diet had a negative association with hip BMD.

© Reprinted with permission from Fairweather-Tait, S.J., Skinner, J., Guile, G.R., Cassidy, A., Spector, T.D., Macgregor, A.J. Diet and bone mineral density study in postmenopausal women from the TwinsUK registry shows a negative association with a traditional English dietary pattern and a positive association with wine. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 94(5), 1371–1375; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Society for Nutrition.

52 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 196.93 Helfand, B.K.I., Mukamal, K.J., Mittleman, M.A. Trends in alcohol use among women with and without myocardial infarction in the United States: 1997–2008*. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 72(6), 885–891; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.jsad.com/jsad/article/Trends_in_Alcohol_Use_Among_ Women_With_and_Without_Myocardial_Infarction_in/4624.html

196.94 Costanzo, S., Castelnuovo, A.D., Donati, M.B., Iacoviello, L., Gaetano, G.D. Wine, beer or spirit drinking in relation to fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 26, 833–850; 2011.

In previous studies evaluating whether different alcoholic beverages would protect against cardiovascular disease, a J-shaped relationship for increasing wine consumption and vascular risk was found; however a similar association for beer or spirits could not be established. An updated meta-analysis on the relationship between wine, beer or spirit consumption and vascular events was performed. Articles were retrieved through March 2011 by PubMed and EMBASE search and a weighed least-squares regression analysis pooled data derived from studies that gave quantitative estimation of the vascular risk associated with the alcoholic beverages. From 16 studies, evidence confirms a J-shaped relationship between wine intake and vascular risk. A significant maximal protection—average 31% (95% confidence interval (CI): 19–42%) was observed at 21 g/day of alcohol. Similarly, from 13 studies a J-shaped relationship was apparent for beer (maximal protection: 42% (95% CI: 19–58%) at 43 g/day of alcohol). From 12 studies reporting separate data on wine or beer consumption, two closely overlapping dose–response curves were obtained (maximal protection of 33% at 25 g/day of alcohol). This meta-analysis confirms the J-shaped association between wine consumption and vascular risk and provides, for the first time, evidence for a similar relationship between beer and vascular risk. In the meta-analysis of 10 studies on spirit consumption and vascular risk, no J-shaped relationship could be found.

© Reprinted with permission from Costanzo, S., Castelnuovo, A.D., Donati, M.B., Iacoviello, L., Gaetano, G.D. Wine, beer or spirit drinking in relation to fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 26, 833–850; 2011. Copyright 2011 Springer.

196.95 Yin, J., Winzenberg, T., Quinn, S., Giles, G., Jones, G. Beverage-specific alcohol intake and bone loss in older men and women: a longitudinal study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 65(4), 526–532; 2011.

Background/Objectives: There is inconsistent evidence regarding the association between moderate alcohol consumption and bone mineral density (BMD). The aim of this study was to describe the associations between total and beverage-specific alcohol intake and bone loss in older men and women. Subject/Methods: A total of 862 randomly selected subjects (mean age 63 years, range 51–81, 51% men) were studied at baseline and 2 years later. BMD was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Beverage specific and total alcohol intake was assessed C

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 53 L by food-frequency questionnaire. Falls risk was determined using the short form Physiological Profile Assessment. Incident fractures were ascertained by questionnaire. Results: Total alcohol intake in men positively predicted change in BMD at the lumbar spine and hip (β = 0.008% and 0.006% per year per gram, P < 0.05) after adjustment for confounders, but there was no significant association between alcohol intake and change in BMD in women. Lumbar spine BMD at baseline was negatively associated with frequency of spirits/liquor drinking in men (β = –0.01 g/ cm2 per category, P = 0.045) and was positively associated with frequency of beer drinking (low alcohol) in women (β = 0.034 g/cm2 per category, P = 0.002). Change in lumbar spine BMD was positively associated with the frequency of red wine drinking in men (β = 0.08% per year per class, P = 0.046). Neither beverage-specific nor total alcohol intake was associated with falls risk or fracture. Conclusions: Alcohol intake especially red wine might prevent bone loss in older men but not women, whereas low-alcohol beer may be protective in women and spirits/liquor may be deleterious in men.

© Reprinted with permission from Yin, J., Winzenberg, T., Quinn, S., Giles, G., Jones, G. Beverage-specific alcohol intake and bone loss in older men and women: a longitudinal study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 65(4), 526–532; 2011. Copyright 2011 Nature Publishing Group.

196.96 Parkin, D., Boyd, L., Walker, L. The fraction of cancer attributable to lifestyle and environmental factors in the UK in 2010: summary and conclusions. Br. J. Cancer 105(S2), 77–81; 2011.

This chapter summarises the results of the preceding sections, which estimate the fraction of cancers occurring in the UK in 2010 that can be attributed to sub-optimal, past exposures of 14 lifestyle and environmental risk factors. For each of 18 cancer types, we present the percentage of cases attributable to one or all of the risk factors considered (tobacco, alcohol, four elements of diet (consumption of meat, fruit and vegetables, fibre, and salt), overweight, lack of physical exercise, occupation, infections, radiation (ionising and solar), use of hormones, and reproductive history (breast feeding)). Exposure to less than optimum levels of the 14 factors was responsible for 42.7% of cancers in the UK in 2010 (45.3% in men, 40.1% in women) – a total of about 134 000 cases. Tobacco smoking is by far the most important risk factor for cancer in the UK, responsible for 60 000 cases (19.4% of all new cancer cases) in 2010. The relative importance of other exposures differs by sex. In men, deficient intake of fruits and vegetables (6.1%), occupational exposures (4.9%) and alcohol consumption (4.6%) are next in importance, while in women, it is overweight and obesity (because of the effect on breast cancer) – responsible for 6.9% of cancers, followed by infectious agents (3.7%). Population-attributable fractions provide a valuable quantitative appraisal of the impact of different factors in cancer causation, and are thus helpful in prioritising cancer control strategies. However, quantifying the likely impact of preventive interventions requires rather complex scenario modelling, including specification of realistically achievable population distributions of risk factors, and the timescale of change, as well as the latent periods between exposure and outcome, and the rate of change following modification in exposure level.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

54 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 196.97 Saieva, C., Bardazzi, G., Masala, G., Quartini, A., Ceroti, M., Iozzi, A., Gelain, E., Querci, A., Allamani, A., Palli, D. General and cancer mortality in a large cohort of Italian alcoholics. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01626.x, 1–9; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01626.x/ abstract

196.98 Grucza, R.A., Hipp, P.R., Norberg, K.E., Rundell, L., Evanoff, A., Cavazos-Rehg, P., Bierut, L.J. The legacy of minimum legal drinking age law changes: long-term effects on suicide and homicide deaths among women. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. DOI: 10.1111/j.1530- 0277.2011.01608.x, 1–8; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01608.x/ abstract

196.99 Magnus, P., Bakke, E., Hoff, D.A., Høiseth, G., Graff-Iversen, S., Knudsen, G.P., Myhre, R., Normann, P.T., Næss, Ø., Tambs, K., Thelle, D.S., Mørland, J. Controlling for high-density lipoprotein cholesterol does not affect the magnitude of the relationship between alcohol and coronary heart disease. Circulation DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.036491, 1–7; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2011/10/31/ CIRCULATIONAHA.111.036491.abstract

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 55 L Human clinical

196.100 Demirakca, T., Ende, G., Kämmerer, N., Welzel-Marquez, H., Hermann, D., Heinz, A., Mann, K. Effects of alcoholism and continued abstinence on brain volumes in both genders. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35(9), 1678–1685; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01514.x/ abstract

196.101 Donovan, J.E., Molina, B.S.G. Childhood risk factors for early onset drinking. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 72(5), 741–751; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.jsad.com/jsad/article/Childhood_Risk_Factors_for_ EarlyOnset_Drinking/4611.html

196.102 Bartholow, B.D., Henry, E.A., Lust, S.A., Saults, J.S., Wood, P.K. Alcohol effects on performance monitoring and adjustment: affect modulation and impairment of evaluative cognitive control. J. Abnorm. Psychol. doi: 10.1037/a0023664, 1–14; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy. optionToBuy&id=2011-10759-001

196.103 Rifler, J.-P., Lorcerie, F., Durand, P., Delmas, D., Ragot, K., Limagne, E., Mazué, F., Riedinger, J.-M., d’Athis, P., Hudelot, B., Prost, M., Lizard, G., Latruffe, N. A moderate red wine intake improves blood lipid parameters and erythrocytes membrane fluidity in post myocardial infarct patients. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201100336, 1–7; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mnfr.201100336/abstract

56 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 Public health policy

196.104 Valencia-Martin, J.-L., Galán, I., Rodríguez-Artalejo, F. The association between alcohol consumption patterns and adherence to food consumption guidelines. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35(11), 2075–2081; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01559.x/ abstract

196.105 Gaume, J., Gmel, G., Faouzi, M., Bertholet, N., Daeppen, J.-B. Is brief motivational intervention effective in reducing alcohol use among young men voluntarily receiving it? A randomized controlled trial. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35(10), 1822–1830; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01526.x/ abstract

196.106 Doran, C.M., Digiusto, E. Using taxes to curb drinking: a report card on the Australian government’s alcopops tax. Drug Alcohol Rev. 30(6), 677–680; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00309.x/ abstract

196.107 Doran, C.M., Hall, W.D., Vandenberg, B.R., Harper, T.A., Martin, J.E., Daube, M. Alcohol tax reform: now is the time. Med. J. Aust. 195(11–12), 660–660; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/195_11_121211/letters_121211_ fm-1.html

196.108 Hall, W. What place, if any, does information on putative cardioprotective effects of moderate alcohol use have in safer drinking guidelines? Drug Alcohol Rev. DOI: 10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00345.x, 1–4; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00345.x/ abstract

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 57 L AWRI publications

1337 The Australian Wine Research Institute. Ensure top chemical results with right adjuvants. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, p. 53; 2011.

There are various adjuvant products available that allow stomatal flooding, either partial or complete. This article looks at how flooding affects the chemical efficacy of products.

© Reprinted with permission from The Australian Wine Research Institute. Ensure top chemical results with right adjuvants. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, p. 53; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

1338 Cordente, A.G., Curtin, C.D., Henschke, P.A., Chambers, P.J., Pretorius, I.S. Steering clear of sulfidic smells in the cellar. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 81–87; 2011.

A team from The Australian Wine Research Institute has delved into the world of ‘bad smells’ and helped develop a new tool for winemakers to minimise the production of off-flavours during fermentation. The scope of this article is confined to2 H S produced during fermentation.

© Reprinted with permission from Cordente, A.G., Curtin, C.D., Henschke, P.A., Chambers, P.J., Pretorius, I.S. Steering clear of sulfidic smells in the cellar. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 81–87; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

1339 Coulter, A. The burning questions on smoke taint. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 575, 52–54; 2011.

This article discusses smoke damage to grapes and, ultimately, wine.

1340 Cynkar, W., Wilkes, E. New breed of infrared analysis instruments. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 575, 64–66; 2011.

Smaller, cheaper and quicker technology could offer industry big time and cost savings. In this article the authors share their experience with the Bruker Alpha which serves as an example of the benefits brought by the new generation of infrared instruments for medium and small-sized wineries.

58 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 1341 Marangon, M., Robinson, E.M.C., Schmidt, S., Smith, P.A., Godden, P., Waters, E.J., Van Sluyter, S.C. A promising enzyme for the stabilisation of white wines. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 78–80; 2011.

The authors recently came across a food grade protease, Proctase, which is well characterised and inexpensive. Proctase is an aspergillopepsin active at wine pH and at high temperatures (60–70°C) and is marketed in Japan as a digestive drug for humans. In addition, the authors recently discovered that the temperatures at which the heat unstable wine proteins (TL-proteins and chitinases) unfold are between 55–62°C. Given that proteins in unfolded state are more easily cleaved by enzymes, and since Proctase would still be active at temperatures required to unfold the proteins, the authors assessed the ability of Proctase in combination with short heat treatments to degrade the haze-forming proteins. The ability of Proctase to reduce the protein content of grape juice when added during fermentation was also investigated.

© Reprinted with permission from Marangon, M., Robinson, E.M.C., Schmidt, S., Smith, P.A., Godden, P., Waters, E.J., Van Sluyter, S.C. A promising enzyme for the stabilisation of white wines. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 78–80; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

1342 Pretorius, I.S. 2011 AWRI Report: putting industry first. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 574, 92–95; 2011.

This year, the ‘Swiss Army Knife’ capabilities of The Australian Wine Research Institute were instrumental in assisting the Australian wine sector. As grape and wine producers weathered the storm of high rainfall and outbreaks of downy mildew, the AWRI put its multi-skilled emergency response teams to work – in close collaboration with industry.

1343 Bandara, A., Fraser, S., Chambers, P.J., Stanley, G.A. Trehalose promotes the survival of Saccharomyces cerevisiae during lethal ethanol stress, but does not influence growth under sublethal ethanol stress. FEMS Yeast Res. 9, 1208–1216; 2009.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1567-1364.2009.00569.x/ abstract

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 59 1344 Stockley, C.S., Varela, C., Coulter, A., Dry, P.R., Francis, I.L., Muhlack, R., Pretorius, I.S. Controlling the highs and lows of alcohol in wine. pp. 1–48; 2011.

Amid a continuing intense public health debate about harmful alcohol consumption, taking control of the alcohol concentration in wine has become a priority for the wine sector worldwide. Despite a growing body of evidence indicating the health benefits of responsible, light to moderate wine consumption, and the generally healthy pattern of wine consumption, wine is still much criticised in these debates. Over the past two decades the average worldwide alcohol concentration of wine has risen. In contrast, consumer studies show an increasing preference for lower-alcohol wines. The current challenge for the wine sector is how to manage best the ‘dark side’ of alcohol worldwide and the ‘bright’ side of wine and society. This publication examines the struggle that goes into monitoring the highs and lows of alcohol in wine.

Full paper available from https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_ id=29651

1345 Fudge, A., Wilkinson, K.L., Ristic, R., Cozzolino, D. Classification of smoke tainted wines using mid-infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. J. Agric. Food Chem. 60, 52–59; 2012.

In this study, the suitability of mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy, combined with principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA), was evaluated as a rapid analytical technique to identify smoke tainted wines. Control (i.e. unsmoked) and smoke-affected wines (260 in total) from experimental and commercial sources were analyzed by MIR spectroscopy and chemometrics. The concentrations of guaiacol and 4-methylguaiacol were also determined using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), as markers of smoke taint. LDA models correctly classified 61% of control wines and 70% of smoke-affected wines. Classification rates were found to be influenced by the extent of smoke taint (based on GC-MS and informal sensory assessment), as well as qualitative differences in wine composition due to grape variety and oak maturation. Overall, the potential application of MIR spectroscopy combined with chemometrics as a rapid analytical technique for screening smoke affected wines was demonstrated.

© Reprinted with permission from Fudge, A., Wilkinson, K.L., Ristic, R., Cozzolino, D. Classification of smoke tainted wines using mid-infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics. J. Agric. Food Chem. 60, 52–59; 2012. Copyright 2012 American Chemical Society.

1346 Stanley, D., Bandara, A., Fraser, S., Chambers, P.J., Stanley, G.A. The ethanol stress response and ethanol tolerance of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Appl. Microbiol. 109, 13–24; 2010. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04657.x/abstract

60 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 1347 Stockley, C.S. Healthy or harmful? the public and public health perception of wine versus the reality. J. Wine Res. 22(2), 199–203; 2011.

In the last 18 months in the Australian media, there has rarely been a day when alcohol hasn’t featured in one or more headlines. The headlines and corresponding stories once positive about the healthier aspects of wine consumption in moderation, have become increasingly negative about the harmful effects of any alcohol and irrespective of moderate or immoderate consumption. Epidemiological studies conducted over the past 20 years, however, have generally concluded that there is an inverse relationship between the light to moderate consumption of alcohol and the risk of cardiovascular disease. This science is now often not considered when preparing public health policy. The changing social communication on wine consumption in Australia is discussed in the light of changing public health policy in Australia and internationally, as well as pending changes to legislation. The public health policy is also discussed in light of the science and an emphasis is on what wine scientists need to do to instigate a reversal of favour and fortune for wine.

1348 Stockley, C.S. Editorial. J. Wine Res. 22(2), 101–103; 2011.

This editorial serves as a introduction to an issue of the Journal of Wine Research which has published papers emanating from Winehealth 2010, the fourth international wine and health congress, which was held 3–6 October 2010.

1349 Curtin, C.D., Borneman, A.R., Henschke, P.A., Godden, P.W., Chambers, P.J., Pretorius, I.S. Advancing the frontline against Brett: AWRI breakthrough offers potential to transform the battle against Brett. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 18–25; 2011.

If there is one battle that has united the global wine industry, that battle is against ‘Brett’: the yeast with the potential to spoil wine, with its ‘medicinal’, ‘Elastoplast’ and ‘barnyard’ characters. For more than two decades, the AWRI has worked consistently to give winemakers the upper hand against Brettanomyces through a program of dedicated research, which quickly delivered a practical, application-ready control strategy. Its latest breakthrough is a world first: AWRI researchers have sequenced the genome of a Dekkera (Brettanomyces) bruxellensis strain, in fact, the most dominant strain present in Australian wineries, revealing new insight into the yeast’s resistance to sulfite; examining the likelihood of a ‘super’ strain; and opening opportunities for winemakers to tackle spoilage more efficiently.

© Reprinted with permission from Curtin, C.D., Borneman, A.R., Henschke, P.A., Godden, P.W., Chambers, P.J., Pretorius, I.S. Advancing the frontline against Brett: AWRI breakthrough offers potential to transform the battle against Brett. Wine Viti. J. 26(6), 18–25; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 61 1350 Holdstock, M. Start preparing now for 2012. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 573, 86–86; 2011.

With the 2011 season behind us, it is now time to start thinking about the 2012 vintage. What better way to prepare for the next year than to do a stocktake of the chemicals and additives that will be required in the winery, and to assess whether they are still sound and fit for use. The AWRI winemaking and extension services team are often asked about winemaking chemicals and additives. This article presents some of the most common questions and responses.

1351 Kutyna, D.R., Varela, C., Stanley, G.A., Borneman, A.R., Henschke, P.A., Chambers, P.J. Adaptive evolution of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to generate strains with enhanced glycerol production. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. DOI 10.1007/s00253-011-3622-7, 1–10; 2011.

The development of new wine yeast strains with improved characteristics is critical in the highly competitive wine market, which faces the demand of ever-changing consumer preferences. Although new strains can be constructed using recombinant DNA technologies, consumer concerns about genetically modified (GM) organisms strongly limit their use in food and beverage production. We have applied a non-GM approach, adaptive evolution with sulfite at alkaline pH as a selective agent, to create a stable yeast strain with enhanced glycerol production; a desirable characteristic for wine palate. A mutant isolated using this approach produced 41% more glycerol than the parental strain it was derived from, and had enhanced sulfite tolerance. Backcrossing to produce heterozygous diploids revealed that the high-glycerol phenotype is recessive, while tolerance to sulfite was partially dominant, and these traits, at least in part, segregated from each other. This work demonstrates the potential of adaptive evolution for development of novel non- GM yeast strains, and highlights the complexity of adaptive responses to sulfite selection.

© Reprinted with permission from Kutyna, D.R., Varela, C., Stanley, G.A., Borneman, A.R., Henschke, P.A., Chambers, P.J. Adaptive evolution of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to generate strains with enhanced glycerol production. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. DOI 10.1007/s00253-011-3622-7, 1–10; 2011. Copyright 2011 Springer Berlin.

62 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012 AWRI events and information extension calendar

February 2012 Technical Review 196 February 2012 Flavours, Faults and Taints Workshop Tuesday 14 February (Coonawarra, SA)

April 2012 Technical Review 197 April 2012

May 2012 AWRI Roadshows: Hunter Valley Zone - New South Wales; AWRI Workshop Northern Slopes Zone - New South Wales; AWRI Workshop Lower Murray Zone - South Australia; AWRI Workshop and Seminar North West Victoria Zone - Victoria; AWRI Workshop

June 2012 Technical Review 198 June 2012 AWRI Roadshows: Western Victoria Zone - Victoria; AWRI Workshop Central Victoria Zone - Victoria; AWRI Workshop Port Phillip Zone - Victoria; AWRI Workshop Tasmania; AWRI Seminar Advanced Wine Assessment Course 5–8 June 2012

July 2013 The 15th Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference

* Details subject to change without notice. Please visit the AWRI website to view the most up to date copy of this calendar at www.awri.com.au/events/calendar/. All information was accurate at time of compilation.

February 2012 Technical Review No. 196 63 The Technical Review is published bimonthly by The Australian Wine Research Institute. It is available free of charge to Australian grape and wine sector members paying a levy under the Wine Grapes Levy Act, however, other interested organisations and individuals may subscribe to Technical Review.

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64 Technical Review No. 196 February 2012