SCIENCE and PSEUDOSCIENCE in POSTMODERN SOCIETIES in SLOVAKIA and OTHER NEW EU MEMBER STATES Informatol

Home , Creation science, Pseudohistory, Vitalism

Štefan Luby, Ivan Chodák, Martina Lubyová: INNOVATION AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER BARRIERS Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES IN SLOVAKIA AND OTHER NEW EU MEMBER STATES Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 145 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 139-144 INFO- 2086 UDK : 061:001:007 climate, education in spirit of entrepreneurship /1/ Keklik, M. (2003), Schumpeter, Innovation and Primljeno / Received: 2012-02-17 Preliminary Communication / Prethodno priopćenje and business skills. The lessons learned from ex- Growth, Ashgate Publishing Company amining the best practices in technology transfer /2/ Baumol, W. J. (2002), The Free-Market Innovation SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES in the innovation leading countries show that sine Machine, Princeton Univ. Press /3/ Porras, B. G., Jerzyniak, T., (coordinators), (2013), qua non conditions for achieving the innovation Innovation Union Scoreboard, European Commis- leading status include the large role of subsidies sion, Brussels ZNANOST I PSEUDOZNANOST U DRUŠTVIMA POSTMODERNE in the TT process, the large degree of institutional /4/ Straus, J. (2012), A marriage of convenience: world embeddedness of TT activities and institutions, economy and intellectual property from 1990 to Željko Pavić nd the move toward genuine 2 generation of TT 2012, American Intellectual Property Law Associa- Department of Culturology, University J. J. Strossmayer, Osijek, Croatia systems that are characterized by a densely popu- tion Vo. 40, 2012, No. 4, p.633. Odjel za kulturologiju, Sveučilište J. J. Strossmayera, Osijek, Hrvatska lated interface between the research and industry. /5/ Porras, B. G., Jerzyniak, T., (coordinators), (2013), Innovation Union Scoreboard, European Commis- Abstract Sažetak sion, Brussels Enlightenment envisaged that humanity shall emerge from Prosvjetiteljstvo je predvidjelo da će čovječanstvo izlaskom Acknowledgement /6/ Klusáček, K., Kučera, Y., Pazour, M. (2008), White „self-imposed immaturity“ and replace all forms of preju- iz „samoskrivljene nezrelosti“ sve oblike predrasuda i This work was supported by the Centre of Excellence of the book of research and innovations in Czech Republic, dice and ignorance with scientific knowledge. However, neznanja zamijeniti znanstvenom spoznajom. Međutim, Slovak Academy of Sciences CESTA (Centre for Strategic Technology Center of Academy of Sciences, Czech contemporary research show that in spite of growth of suvremena istraživanja pokazuju da se unatoč porastu Analysis). Rep., Prague 2008, ISBN 978-80-86429-99-1 (in Czech education levels, scientific literacy and scientific- obrazovanosti populacije, znanstvene pismenosti i znan- Notes language) technological achievements we could even speak about stveno-tehnološkim postignućima može govoriti o revitali-

revitalization of pseudoscience. The author tries to show zaciji pseudoznanosti.. U radu se pokušava argumentirati

that, besides the spread of communication technologies da se, osim širenjem komunikacijskih tehnologija i medija

and media which bring about „democratization“ of koji dovode do „demokratizacije“ znanja i profitnih intere-

knowledge and profit interests, this revitalization can be sa, revitalizacija može objasniti obilježjima postmodernih

explained by the characteristics of postmodern societies as društva kao društava rizika i nemogućnošću znanosti da

risk societies and by the inability of science to provide all- pruži sveobuhvatne svjetonazore. Tehnološka i društvena

encompassing worldviews. Technological and social com- kompleksnost dovela je do pojave rizika koje je stvorio

plexity causes human-created risks and new forms of un- sam čovjek i koji izazivaju nove oblike nesigurnosti među

certainty, whilst the individualization causes decline of ljudima, a individualizacija dovodi do pada povjerenja u

trust in people and societal institutions. By analyzing al- ljude i društvene institucije. Na temelju analize obilježja i

ternative medicine, creationism, astrology and upotrebe alternativne medicine, nekih vrsta kreacionizma,

pseudohistory the author tries to show that, due to its astrologije i pseudopovijesti u radu se pokušava dokazati

methodical skepsis and self-limitation, science cannot da znanost zbog svoje metodičke skepse i samograničenja

provide those forms of symbolic safety which pseudosci- ne može pružiti one vrste simboličke sigurnosti koje uspi-

ence manages to do. jevaju pružiti ovi oblici pseudoznanosti.

1. INTRODUCTION mathematically expressed axiomatic laws could

explain all earthly and heavenly motions arousing The rise of modern Western civilization is critical- scientists' admiration, but also an admiration from ly connected to the idea of humanism. In the Re- literary and humanistic circles. Notwithstanding naissance period humanism is enclosed within the the fact that ocultism and magic played their part discovery of the classical culture of antiquity and in the birth of modern science which co-opted tied to the belief in human grandeur and power of some magic and ocultism ideas /1/4, these two humanity to rationally shape it's own life in im- intellectual currents soon separated. In short, sci- manence. The Enlightment further emphasized ence and scientific methodology gained promi- the possibility of „man's release from his self- nence and official status whereas non-science incurred tutelage“ (Kant), while the series of dis- forms of knowledge continued to exist as an offi- coveries and crucial theories from the period of cial alternative, although optimism of the Scientific Revolution in 17th and 18th century Enlightment anticipated their demise. Pseudosci- codified science and scientific methodology as prominent forms of knowledge. Newton's classi- 4 E.g. Newton's theory of gravity as a force which acts at dis- tance was originally a magical idea, and was therefore rejected cal mechanics demonstrated new scientific meth- by numerous contemporary scientists as an expression of odology in a paradigmatic manner. A couple of archaic and unscientific way of thinking.

ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7 ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7

Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES 146 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 ence happens to be one of these alternatives, with scientific beliefs most commonly found in con- Pseudoscience, in contrast to superstition and and social influences. Randomness corresponds to pretensions on scientific validity, argumentation temporary (Western) societies. most new-age beliefs, claims to be based on scien- the tendency to create regularities where they which contains numbers, facts and theories re- tific arguments, but these arguments do not com- actually do not exist. For example, series of exper- sembling scientific ones as distinguishing charac- 2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PSEUDO- ply with strict scientific standards. As the most iments showed that people will create a regularity teristics when compared to other forms of „non- SCIENCE important characteristics of pseudoscience the from the series of random events. This tendency science“. Contemporary research show that in following ones can be emphasized: manifests itself especailly in pseudohistory i.e. spite of the rise of the population educational In pseudoscience we include all those conspiracy theories where historical contingencies level, scientific literacy and scientific and techno- claims/theories which pretend to be scientifically 1. Non-falsifiable and vague statements – e.g. are turned into a backstage game with rules creat- logical achievements it is justified to speak of a valid, but do not conform to the strict standards astrological forecasts, as one of the most ed by powerful and ill-intentioned indidviduals kind of revitalization of pseudoscience. Alterna- that scientific theories are expected to fulfill. Alt- common forms of pseudoscience today, are and groups. Regression to the mean is a statistical tive medicine, conspiracy theories and astrology hough in contemporary Western societies pseudo- in most cases very vague and cannot be falsi- tendency which brings extreme results in one are integral parts of everyday social life, especially science together with superstition and new age fied. measurement closer to the mean in the second media culture, whilst some sorts of pseudo- beliefs makes a separate complex of beliefs in one 2. Statements and theories which have been measurement. This well-known tendency, usually scientific creationism5 very vital in the United way or another opposed to science, this concepts repeatedly falsified using rigorous tests unrecognized by persons not familiar with scien- States could be more often observed in Europe should be distinguished from one another /2/. based on the strict methodological principles tific methodology, is a result of the random meas- and even in Croatia. This dynamism on the mar- Superstition consists of the fragments of former – e.g. many branches of alternative medicine urement errror which changes direction in se- ketplace of ideas, where science and pseudosci- religions or religious practices/rituals mostly di- in most experiments do not show significant quential measurements and can be controled with ence are sometimes mixed to the point where they rected towards practial use, magical influence on effect over and above the one which can be experimental designs. For instance, efficiency of cannot be distinguished from one another, is ac- other persons, the future foretelling, etc. In an explained by the placebo. the alternative medicine can be partially attribut- claimed by those who make profit from the pseu- epistemological sense, superstition beliefs are 3. Non-testability of theory by the independent ed to the regression to the mean. Positive evi- doscience industry, but also from those authors most frequently based on various sorts of false observers – e.g. alternative medicine dence bias corresponds to the tendency to pick and intellectuals who praise postmodern relativ- associations or empirically unfounded beliefs. For practicians offer to their clients very only those data which confirm the hypothesis ism and criticize scientific discourse as an expres- example, some magical practices are based on the individualized therapy which cannot be instead of looking for the evidence which might sion of rich and powerful societies and civiliza- „similar-causes-similar“ principle (e.g. voodoo repeated by anyone else. falsify it. Customary heuristic means available in tions. However, this dynamism brings despair magic), superstition related to the number 13 is 4. Ignoring the contradicting evidence – the scientific methodology, such as nul-hypothesis into scientists and intellectual „enlighteners“ who probably connected to the 12 complete and 1 psedoscience chooses only confirming formulation, represent a counter-tendency which hardly can accept re-entrance into „self-incurred uncomplete lunar cycles, etc. Beliefs concerning empirical evidence. can control positive evidence bias. However, these tutelage“ and regret naïveté of the pseudoscience „lucky“ numbers, days and objects are based on a 5. Reliance on anecdotal evidence – non-reliable means are rarely implemented in everyday think- consumers, but also warn of actual and potential false premise that objects once associated with evidence is commonly regarded as reliable. ing. Interpretation bias, also well-established in social harms which can be atributted to pseudo- lucky events have to be associated with them in 6. The burden of proof is on those who try to psychological experiments, is linked to the ten- science and pseudo-scientists. Despite the fact that the future as well. Having in mind that several falsify pseudo-scientific claim (argumentum ad dency to intepret new information in the light of there probably exist „flaws“ in human cognitive research show that conventional religious believ- ignorantiam) – e.g. conspiracy theorists already accepted personal knowledge and atti- apparatus which turn pseudoscience into virtually ers less often have superstitous beliefs Coll and usually demand that their usually non- tudes. Due to availability bias people tend to base ineradicable phenomenon, basic sociological pos- Taylor (2004) conclude that superstitious beliefs testable claims try be falsified. If not, they their decisions on visually atractive and emotion- tulates warn us that most social phenomena per- can be understood as a compensatory beliefs that consider them proved. ally loaded data instead on the large quantities of form some sort of individual or societal function. provide cognitive orientation and identity once impersonal data. And finally, conforming to the In this article we precisely try to explain which provided by traditional religions. Therefore, both In view of the fact that epistemological weakness- social influence often hinders correct conclusions functions pseudo-scientific beliefs tend to perform religious and superstitous beliefs provide certain es of pseudoscience should be obvious the the and leads to adoption of false statements and i.e. we try to answer the question whether certain level of simbolic security (answers on questions rational individuals, it follows the question – how theories. features of postmodern societies tend to bring concerning one's own destiny, future, etc.), is it possible that many people believe in pseudo- about the spread of pseudoscience. In other whereas individuals in most cases chose only one scientific claims? Apart from the sociological ex- 3. THE MOST COMMON FORMS OF PSEU- words, we make an attempt to understand and of these types of belief. planation which is layed down in a separate chap- DOSCIENCE explain paradoxical diffusion of pseudoscience in New age worldview is composed of cluster of be- ter of this article, a part of the popularity and vig- a world commonly self-described as scientific and liefs coming from Eastern religions (e.g. reincarna- or of psedo-science can be explained with inher- 3.1. ASTROLOGY technical civilization. With this purpose in mind tion), parapsychological beliefs (e.g. spiritism) or ent cognitive biases. Namely, false beliefs coming we shall firstly try to define basic characteristics of beliefs associated with alternative medicine. This from the imperfections of human cognitive appa- Created probably in 2 000 BC in Mesopotamia pseudoscience and those types of pseudo- worldview represents one of the currents of new ratus had always been in existence and contempo- astrology is connected to the belief in godlike spirituality which reappears as an individualized rary pseudoscience is in some part based on them. nature of planets i.e. to the supposed possibility of and eclectic alternative for the traditional reli- Goldacre /3/ points out to the several of them: reading gods' messages from the movements of 5 As explained later, only those types of creationism which gions. randomness, regression to the mean, positive the planets. Until the establishment of Christianity tend to explain empirical phenomena and contradict accepted scientific theories and methodology could be denoted as pseu- evidence bias, interpretation bias, availability bias astrology served as a tool for fortune-telling i.e. as doscience.

ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7 ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7

Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 147 ence happens to be one of these alternatives, with scientific beliefs most commonly found in con- Pseudoscience, in contrast to superstition and and social influences. Randomness corresponds to pretensions on scientific validity, argumentation temporary (Western) societies. most new-age beliefs, claims to be based on scien- the tendency to create regularities where they which contains numbers, facts and theories re- tific arguments, but these arguments do not com- actually do not exist. For example, series of exper- sembling scientific ones as distinguishing charac- 2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF PSEUDO- ply with strict scientific standards. As the most iments showed that people will create a regularity teristics when compared to other forms of „non- SCIENCE important characteristics of pseudoscience the from the series of random events. This tendency science“. Contemporary research show that in following ones can be emphasized: manifests itself especailly in pseudohistory i.e. spite of the rise of the population educational In pseudoscience we include all those conspiracy theories where historical contingencies level, scientific literacy and scientific and techno- claims/theories which pretend to be scientifically 1. Non-falsifiable and vague statements – e.g. are turned into a backstage game with rules creat- logical achievements it is justified to speak of a valid, but do not conform to the strict standards astrological forecasts, as one of the most ed by powerful and ill-intentioned indidviduals kind of revitalization of pseudoscience. Alterna- that scientific theories are expected to fulfill. Alt- common forms of pseudoscience today, are and groups. Regression to the mean is a statistical tive medicine, conspiracy theories and astrology hough in contemporary Western societies pseudo- in most cases very vague and cannot be falsi- tendency which brings extreme results in one are integral parts of everyday social life, especially science together with superstition and new age fied. measurement closer to the mean in the second media culture, whilst some sorts of pseudo- beliefs makes a separate complex of beliefs in one 2. Statements and theories which have been measurement. This well-known tendency, usually scientific creationism5 very vital in the United way or another opposed to science, this concepts repeatedly falsified using rigorous tests unrecognized by persons not familiar with scien- States could be more often observed in Europe should be distinguished from one another /2/. based on the strict methodological principles tific methodology, is a result of the random meas- and even in Croatia. This dynamism on the mar- Superstition consists of the fragments of former – e.g. many branches of alternative medicine urement errror which changes direction in se- ketplace of ideas, where science and pseudosci- religions or religious practices/rituals mostly di- in most experiments do not show significant quential measurements and can be controled with ence are sometimes mixed to the point where they rected towards practial use, magical influence on effect over and above the one which can be experimental designs. For instance, efficiency of cannot be distinguished from one another, is ac- other persons, the future foretelling, etc. In an explained by the placebo. the alternative medicine can be partially attribut- claimed by those who make profit from the pseu- epistemological sense, superstition beliefs are 3. Non-testability of theory by the independent ed to the regression to the mean. Positive evi- doscience industry, but also from those authors most frequently based on various sorts of false observers – e.g. alternative medicine dence bias corresponds to the tendency to pick and intellectuals who praise postmodern relativ- associations or empirically unfounded beliefs. For practicians offer to their clients very only those data which confirm the hypothesis ism and criticize scientific discourse as an expres- example, some magical practices are based on the individualized therapy which cannot be instead of looking for the evidence which might sion of rich and powerful societies and civiliza- „similar-causes-similar“ principle (e.g. voodoo repeated by anyone else. falsify it. Customary heuristic means available in tions. However, this dynamism brings despair magic), superstition related to the number 13 is 4. Ignoring the contradicting evidence – the scientific methodology, such as nul-hypothesis into scientists and intellectual „enlighteners“ who probably connected to the 12 complete and 1 psedoscience chooses only confirming formulation, represent a counter-tendency which hardly can accept re-entrance into „self-incurred uncomplete lunar cycles, etc. Beliefs concerning empirical evidence. can control positive evidence bias. However, these tutelage“ and regret naïveté of the pseudoscience „lucky“ numbers, days and objects are based on a 5. Reliance on anecdotal evidence – non-reliable means are rarely implemented in everyday think- consumers, but also warn of actual and potential false premise that objects once associated with evidence is commonly regarded as reliable. ing. Interpretation bias, also well-established in social harms which can be atributted to pseudo- lucky events have to be associated with them in 6. The burden of proof is on those who try to psychological experiments, is linked to the ten- science and pseudo-scientists. Despite the fact that the future as well. Having in mind that several falsify pseudo-scientific claim (argumentum ad dency to intepret new information in the light of there probably exist „flaws“ in human cognitive research show that conventional religious believ- ignorantiam) – e.g. conspiracy theorists already accepted personal knowledge and atti- apparatus which turn pseudoscience into virtually ers less often have superstitous beliefs Coll and usually demand that their usually non- tudes. Due to availability bias people tend to base ineradicable phenomenon, basic sociological pos- Taylor (2004) conclude that superstitious beliefs testable claims try be falsified. If not, they their decisions on visually atractive and emotion- tulates warn us that most social phenomena per- can be understood as a compensatory beliefs that consider them proved. ally loaded data instead on the large quantities of form some sort of individual or societal function. provide cognitive orientation and identity once impersonal data. And finally, conforming to the In this article we precisely try to explain which provided by traditional religions. Therefore, both In view of the fact that epistemological weakness- social influence often hinders correct conclusions functions pseudo-scientific beliefs tend to perform religious and superstitous beliefs provide certain es of pseudoscience should be obvious the the and leads to adoption of false statements and i.e. we try to answer the question whether certain level of simbolic security (answers on questions rational individuals, it follows the question – how theories. features of postmodern societies tend to bring concerning one's own destiny, future, etc.), is it possible that many people believe in pseudo- about the spread of pseudoscience. In other whereas individuals in most cases chose only one scientific claims? Apart from the sociological ex- 3. THE MOST COMMON FORMS OF PSEU- words, we make an attempt to understand and of these types of belief. planation which is layed down in a separate chap- DOSCIENCE explain paradoxical diffusion of pseudoscience in New age worldview is composed of cluster of be- ter of this article, a part of the popularity and vig- a world commonly self-described as scientific and liefs coming from Eastern religions (e.g. reincarna- or of psedo-science can be explained with inher- 3.1. ASTROLOGY technical civilization. With this purpose in mind tion), parapsychological beliefs (e.g. spiritism) or ent cognitive biases. Namely, false beliefs coming we shall firstly try to define basic characteristics of beliefs associated with alternative medicine. This from the imperfections of human cognitive appa- Created probably in 2 000 BC in Mesopotamia pseudoscience and those types of pseudo- worldview represents one of the currents of new ratus had always been in existence and contempo- astrology is connected to the belief in godlike spirituality which reappears as an individualized rary pseudoscience is in some part based on them. nature of planets i.e. to the supposed possibility of and eclectic alternative for the traditional reli- Goldacre /3/ points out to the several of them: reading gods' messages from the movements of 5 As explained later, only those types of creationism which gions. randomness, regression to the mean, positive the planets. Until the establishment of Christianity tend to explain empirical phenomena and contradict accepted scientific theories and methodology could be denoted as pseu- evidence bias, interpretation bias, availability bias astrology served as a tool for fortune-telling i.e. as doscience.

ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7 ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7

Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES 148 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 a practial guide for everyday decisions and be- astrology can be related to the characteristics of „life essence“, in acupuncture „chi“, in new age emergence. The idea that humans are only one of haviours. Scientific revolution from the 17th cen- contemporary societies as „risk societies“ in medicine „psychic energy“ /8/. Vitalism is strong- the numerous animal species directly contradicts tury provided scientific explanations for planets' which technological and societal complexity cre- ly connected to the idea that willpower and au- theological concepts of great monotheistic reli- movements discrediting astrology and moving it ates new risks brought about by human agency tonomy are main determinants of one's health. gions. Furthermore, theory of evolution could be into spheres of pseudoscience and superstition. which creates new forms uf unsecurity. Therefore Although from the point of view of official medi- used for explanation of human behaviour and in Renewed interest for astrology was created by the people use alternative kinds of knowledge, astrol- cine most types of alternative medicine represent this framework many types of behaviour with mass media in the beginning of the 20th century ogy being one of them, in order to „predict“ socie- pseudoscience, alternative medicine considers moral significance can be linked to some evolu- when newspapers start to publish daily horo- tal processes and behaviour of other people and itself as a science. However, standards for what tionary function thus „de-moralizing“ these be- scopes in order to amuse their readers. Astrology alleviate tensions created by insecurity, mistrust constitutes a science are much different when haviours. E.g. parental behaviour and love can be bases its predictions on positions on some celestial and suspicion. For instance, Weimann /6/ estab- compared to the biomedicine which uses random- linked to the usefulness of this kind of behaviour objects – Zodiac stars and planets. Zodiac signs lished that higher level of anxiety leads to more ized experiments and clinical trials. In opposition for gene-survival. In this manner seemingly un- carry significant meanings due to the fact that frequent reading of horoscope, although more to this abstract and generalizing approach, alter- selfish emotions can be reduced to „genetic ego- they lie in the ecliptic and the astrological signifi- anxious people do not neccessary hold higher native medicine claims to approach patients in a ism“. And finally, theory of evolution had been cance of the planets comes not only from their level of belief in horoscope. Hence, reading astro- holistic way taking into account their life experi- misused in the form of social darwinism. Social proximity to the Earth but also because their logical preidctions can lower uncertainty and ences. In oppostion to biomedicine which study darwinism stated that laws of natural selection seemingly random movements imply their anxiety, even when people don't intimately be- direct causes of disease, alternative medicine should be valid in human society as well and this goodlike nature i.e. independence /4/. Astrology is lieve in these predictions. claims to take into account individual's sense of served as an intelectual justification of colonial classified as a pseudoscience because it doesn't general well-being and life purpose. Alternative and racist movements. At the end of the 19th cen- meet criteria belonging to scientific explanation 3.2. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE medicine is often based on a spirituality giving it's tury eugenic movement proclaimed that the goal /5/. Namely, basic postulates of astrology are users a promise to reveal ultimate meanings and of humanity should be genetic improvement of vague and ambiguous, whereas conclusions Today's medicine developed from the three inde- connection to the Universe. Therefore certain human race mainly by impeding procreation of which are drawn from these postulates are subjec- pendent approaches: alopathic (medicine based therapeuthic means such as meditation and vege- biologically „inferior“ races and individuals (men- tive – every astrologer often reach different pre- on scientific principles), osteophatic (medicine tarian diet have the purpose of betterment of tal patients, criminals, etc.). Due to the aforemen- dictions. In addition, astrological empirical pre- based on body manipulation) and homeopathic physical health but they have transcendental tioned reasons in some countries there is a wide- dictions are vague and ambiguous and don't hold medicine („similar-causes-similar“ principle). meanings as well /9/. According to the research spread public opposition to the theory of evolu- up when rigourously tested. Today's official medicine is alopathic whereas all /10/ between one fifth and one third of population tion. According to a research cited in Scott /13/ Astrology offers amusement and partial self- other medical approaches are considered as alter- in European countries used alternative medicine, only 44 per cent of Americans agree that „human reflexion to its users as well as reduction of anxie- native medicine. Some of the examples of alterna- younger and educated persons beeing more fre- species had developed from earlier animal spe- ty inherently present in today's „risk society“. The tive medicine include homeopathy, osteopathy, quent users in average. There are several reasons cies“ whilst, according to the other research cited first function is mostly related to users who con- herbalism, acupuncture, biofeedback, hypnotic for using alternative medicine as a supplement or in Thompson /14/, only 10 per cent of Muslim sult simplified astrological predictions present in therapy, etc. Although alternative medicine en- an alternative to the biomedicine /11/. Firstly, it students at British universities believe in validity mass media horoscopes. For them, horoscope compasses various branches, all types of alterna- can be used as a suplement in chronic desease of the theory of evolution. Theological opposition serves as amusement and they do not trust it very tive medicine are based on certain fundamental treatment (e.g. rheumatism and back pain). Sec- to the theory of evolution is usually labeled as much. For them horoscope also provides a chance intellectual, political, emotional and health prin- ondly, poor relations with general practitioner can „creationism“ or „creation science“ although all to reflect on themselves, their relationships with ciples. Kaptchuk and Eisenberg /7/ mention four lead to the search for an alternative. And finally, branches of creationism cannot be marked as other people and future. Second function of horo- of them: nature, vitalism, „science“ and spirituali- postmodern value system leads to lower trust in pseudoscience. As noted, creationism can be di- scope reading is related to the forms of „new spir- ty. As these authors point out, these unifying scence, stronger emphasis on emotions and holis- vided into several branches having in mind the ituality“ which emphasize man's principles provide alternative medicine with cer- tic notions of health. Alternative medicine some- level of opposition to the theory of evolution /15/. intereconnectedness with Nature and Universe tain identity and enhance its strength when collid- times also serves as a worldview which provides For instance, so-called Young Earth Creationism (new age movement, eco-misticism, teosophy, ing with official medicine. Alternative medicine existential comfort earlier provided by religion. claims that Earth is only few thousand years old, etc.). In this sense horoscope offers a deep under- emphasizes nature by distinguishing certain polar As mentioned by Kaptchuk and Eisenberg /12/, the creation of Earth and development of life standing of one's identity and place in the world oppositions such as natural-artificial, low technol- alternative medicine appeal consists not only of happening exactly as described in the Bible. The which are unboundly connected to the Nature. ogy – high-technology, organic-sintetic, raw- medical aspects i.e. from possibility of ilness Gap Theory acknowledges Earth being old a few Interconnectedness of astrology and other forms processed etc., wherein first term holds positive curement or alleviation of symptoms. Often alter- billion years, however this branch of creationism of new spirituality is demonstrated by the fact and second term negative connotations. Positive native medicine also enhances sense of purpose claims that a long period of time had passed be- that new spirituality believers and practitioners evalution of nature leads to the emphasising the and individual spiritual strength. tween the creation of Earth and creation of hu- often believe in astrology i.e. astrology forms a therapies which use non-syntetic medicaments mans which also happened exactly as described in part of their worldview. Moreover, it can be noted (herbal medicine, meditation, acupuncture, etc.). 3.3. CREATIONISM the Bible. In this manner this theory tries to recon- that the rise of the astrology at the end of the 19th Vitalism uses various types of usefull and benevo- cile Biblical genesis with geological evidence. So- century coincides with the rise of alternative spir- lent „life forces“ with different names in different Theory of evolution, despite its empirical founda- called Progressive Creationism asserts that God ituality (magic, theosophy). Third function of types of alternative medicine – in homeopathy tions, has spured lots of controversies since its created families of plants and animals i.e. that

ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7 ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7

Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 149 a practial guide for everyday decisions and be- astrology can be related to the characteristics of „life essence“, in acupuncture „chi“, in new age emergence. The idea that humans are only one of haviours. Scientific revolution from the 17th cen- contemporary societies as „risk societies“ in medicine „psychic energy“ /8/. Vitalism is strong- the numerous animal species directly contradicts tury provided scientific explanations for planets' which technological and societal complexity cre- ly connected to the idea that willpower and au- theological concepts of great monotheistic reli- movements discrediting astrology and moving it ates new risks brought about by human agency tonomy are main determinants of one's health. gions. Furthermore, theory of evolution could be into spheres of pseudoscience and superstition. which creates new forms uf unsecurity. Therefore Although from the point of view of official medi- used for explanation of human behaviour and in Renewed interest for astrology was created by the people use alternative kinds of knowledge, astrol- cine most types of alternative medicine represent this framework many types of behaviour with mass media in the beginning of the 20th century ogy being one of them, in order to „predict“ socie- pseudoscience, alternative medicine considers moral significance can be linked to some evolu- when newspapers start to publish daily horo- tal processes and behaviour of other people and itself as a science. However, standards for what tionary function thus „de-moralizing“ these be- scopes in order to amuse their readers. Astrology alleviate tensions created by insecurity, mistrust constitutes a science are much different when haviours. E.g. parental behaviour and love can be bases its predictions on positions on some celestial and suspicion. For instance, Weimann /6/ estab- compared to the biomedicine which uses random- linked to the usefulness of this kind of behaviour objects – Zodiac stars and planets. Zodiac signs lished that higher level of anxiety leads to more ized experiments and clinical trials. In opposition for gene-survival. In this manner seemingly un- carry significant meanings due to the fact that frequent reading of horoscope, although more to this abstract and generalizing approach, alter- selfish emotions can be reduced to „genetic ego- they lie in the ecliptic and the astrological signifi- anxious people do not neccessary hold higher native medicine claims to approach patients in a ism“. And finally, theory of evolution had been cance of the planets comes not only from their level of belief in horoscope. Hence, reading astro- holistic way taking into account their life experi- misused in the form of social darwinism. Social proximity to the Earth but also because their logical preidctions can lower uncertainty and ences. In oppostion to biomedicine which study darwinism stated that laws of natural selection seemingly random movements imply their anxiety, even when people don't intimately be- direct causes of disease, alternative medicine should be valid in human society as well and this goodlike nature i.e. independence /4/. Astrology is lieve in these predictions. claims to take into account individual's sense of served as an intelectual justification of colonial classified as a pseudoscience because it doesn't general well-being and life purpose. Alternative and racist movements. At the end of the 19th cen- meet criteria belonging to scientific explanation 3.2. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE medicine is often based on a spirituality giving it's tury eugenic movement proclaimed that the goal /5/. Namely, basic postulates of astrology are users a promise to reveal ultimate meanings and of humanity should be genetic improvement of vague and ambiguous, whereas conclusions Today's medicine developed from the three inde- connection to the Universe. Therefore certain human race mainly by impeding procreation of which are drawn from these postulates are subjec- pendent approaches: alopathic (medicine based therapeuthic means such as meditation and vege- biologically „inferior“ races and individuals (men- tive – every astrologer often reach different pre- on scientific principles), osteophatic (medicine tarian diet have the purpose of betterment of tal patients, criminals, etc.). Due to the aforemen- dictions. In addition, astrological empirical pre- based on body manipulation) and homeopathic physical health but they have transcendental tioned reasons in some countries there is a wide- dictions are vague and ambiguous and don't hold medicine („similar-causes-similar“ principle). meanings as well /9/. According to the research spread public opposition to the theory of evolu- up when rigourously tested. Today's official medicine is alopathic whereas all /10/ between one fifth and one third of population tion. According to a research cited in Scott /13/ Astrology offers amusement and partial self- other medical approaches are considered as alter- in European countries used alternative medicine, only 44 per cent of Americans agree that „human reflexion to its users as well as reduction of anxie- native medicine. Some of the examples of alterna- younger and educated persons beeing more fre- species had developed from earlier animal spe- ty inherently present in today's „risk society“. The tive medicine include homeopathy, osteopathy, quent users in average. There are several reasons cies“ whilst, according to the other research cited first function is mostly related to users who con- herbalism, acupuncture, biofeedback, hypnotic for using alternative medicine as a supplement or in Thompson /14/, only 10 per cent of Muslim sult simplified astrological predictions present in therapy, etc. Although alternative medicine en- an alternative to the biomedicine /11/. Firstly, it students at British universities believe in validity mass media horoscopes. For them, horoscope compasses various branches, all types of alterna- can be used as a suplement in chronic desease of the theory of evolution. Theological opposition serves as amusement and they do not trust it very tive medicine are based on certain fundamental treatment (e.g. rheumatism and back pain). Sec- to the theory of evolution is usually labeled as much. For them horoscope also provides a chance intellectual, political, emotional and health prin- ondly, poor relations with general practitioner can „creationism“ or „creation science“ although all to reflect on themselves, their relationships with ciples. Kaptchuk and Eisenberg /7/ mention four lead to the search for an alternative. And finally, branches of creationism cannot be marked as other people and future. Second function of horo- of them: nature, vitalism, „science“ and spirituali- postmodern value system leads to lower trust in pseudoscience. As noted, creationism can be di- scope reading is related to the forms of „new spir- ty. As these authors point out, these unifying scence, stronger emphasis on emotions and holis- vided into several branches having in mind the ituality“ which emphasize man's principles provide alternative medicine with cer- tic notions of health. Alternative medicine some- level of opposition to the theory of evolution /15/. intereconnectedness with Nature and Universe tain identity and enhance its strength when collid- times also serves as a worldview which provides For instance, so-called Young Earth Creationism (new age movement, eco-misticism, teosophy, ing with official medicine. Alternative medicine existential comfort earlier provided by religion. claims that Earth is only few thousand years old, etc.). In this sense horoscope offers a deep under- emphasizes nature by distinguishing certain polar As mentioned by Kaptchuk and Eisenberg /12/, the creation of Earth and development of life standing of one's identity and place in the world oppositions such as natural-artificial, low technol- alternative medicine appeal consists not only of happening exactly as described in the Bible. The which are unboundly connected to the Nature. ogy – high-technology, organic-sintetic, raw- medical aspects i.e. from possibility of ilness Gap Theory acknowledges Earth being old a few Interconnectedness of astrology and other forms processed etc., wherein first term holds positive curement or alleviation of symptoms. Often alter- billion years, however this branch of creationism of new spirituality is demonstrated by the fact and second term negative connotations. Positive native medicine also enhances sense of purpose claims that a long period of time had passed be- that new spirituality believers and practitioners evalution of nature leads to the emphasising the and individual spiritual strength. tween the creation of Earth and creation of hu- often believe in astrology i.e. astrology forms a therapies which use non-syntetic medicaments mans which also happened exactly as described in part of their worldview. Moreover, it can be noted (herbal medicine, meditation, acupuncture, etc.). 3.3. CREATIONISM the Bible. In this manner this theory tries to recon- that the rise of the astrology at the end of the 19th Vitalism uses various types of usefull and benevo- cile Biblical genesis with geological evidence. So- century coincides with the rise of alternative spir- lent „life forces“ with different names in different Theory of evolution, despite its empirical founda- called Progressive Creationism asserts that God ituality (magic, theosophy). Third function of types of alternative medicine – in homeopathy tions, has spured lots of controversies since its created families of plants and animals i.e. that

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Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES 150 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153

God is responsible for the macroevolution (evolu- believe that it is no coincidence that pseudosci- introduce the concept of risk i.e. calculability and in reductionist modes of knowledge. We could tion above the level of species). Inside specific ence flourishes precisely in postmodern societies control of danger wherein the future is brought say that pseudoscience now promises the return species evolution continued to develop as de- i.e. in societies in which numerous types of risks into the horizon of the present time. Nevertheless, in fictional „scientific heaven“ in which all scien- scribed by the theory of evolution. In other words, are omnipresent. The characterization of contem- in spite of the fact that in modern societies life of tists are honest, risks non-existent or very small, progressive evolutionists accept the validity of porary societies as risk societies in our opinion the most people could be described as less dan- in any case reliably predictible. By saying this we microevolution rejecting macroevolution at the doesn't represent a historical novelty. On the con- gerous than in traditional societies, life becomes surely do not intend to claim that contemporary same time. Theory of inteligent design represents trary, it could be stated that today's societies in- more risky by definition, and in postmodern soci- science doesn't abound with unethical research, especially important branch of creationism since it herit basic characteristics of modernity i.e. that eties these risks become intensified and hard to hidden interests and unfounded reductionism. finds its supporters among some scientists from postmodern situation represents a kind of conti- calculate. Giddens /23/ therefore differentiates For instance, in medical research manipualtion natural sciences. This theory accepts that evolu- nuity and radicalization of modernity. Giddens between outside and manufactured risks. Outside with statistics and doses, publication biases to- tion really happened and that species evolved /17/ warns of „shadow-like“ character of moderni- risks refer to dangers not made by humans and wards positive findings and their multiple publi- from one another while rejecting the notion that ty whereat promises of economical welfare are this type of risks existed in all hitherto societies cation are often to be found /27/. Public relations natural selection, instead of God, served as a followed by poverty, repetitive and dehumaniz- (disease, wars, natural disasters, etc.) Manufac- industry often publices opinions of experts with mechanism which drives the evolution forward. ing work and ecological crises. Concentration of tured risks are brought into effect by humans who conflict of interest although claimed to be objec- The main argument proposed by this theory is so- power in the form of national states besides dem- disturb stabilty of natural processes (e.g. ecologi- tive and unbiased. However, pseudoscience leads called irreducible complexity of the evolved organic ocratic also creates totalitarian varieties wherein cal crisis) or by disturbing routine social relations the criticism of official science ad absurdum and, systems. The logic of the argument is as follows. pacifying powers of market economy can also be (e.g. globalization, changes in family life, etc.). more importantly, it does so because of clear ma- Specific parts of the organisms are too complex to turned into strengthening of military power by Both types of instability define the situation in terial interests, offering an alternative not based have evolved from the less complex structures means of technological inovations. This shadows which people are ,... facing personal future which on facts and scientific methodology. In our opin- since transtitional forms should have been evolu- of modernity lead Giddens to conclude that the is much more uncertain than in the past, together ion, by doing this pseudoscience parasites on tionary non-adaptive. For example, the wings of world in which we are living is „stressfull and with all possiblities and dangers which it brings“ existing structural weaknesses of modern science, birds couldn't evolve from the front legs of previ- dangerous“ /18/. Besides potential and real dan- /24/. Bearing in mind that manufactured risks are using these weaknesses for its own profit inter- ous species due to the fact that transitional forms gers brought by modernity, its insecurity mani- usually the result of advancement of science and ests. couldn't serve either for flying either for walking fests itself on a more fundamental level as a con- its technological applications, the attitude towards A combination of cultural prejudice, unfortunate and other purposes. Though this argument might sequence of institutional reflexivity. Namely, science becomes more suspicious and this suspi- political circumstances and pseudoscience inter- sound convincing, evolutionary biologists can modern societies abandon traditions and open cion and mistrust are also enhanced due to the ests and tragical consequences which can result indeed find proofs that biological structures are towards the future, which is by definition uncer- fact that scientific claims are sometimes contradic- from this combination Goldacre /28/ demon- not irreducible complex i.e. that all complex or- tain and problematic /19/. On a psychological tory, especially when it comes to human health. strates on an example of refusal of using ganic systems have their less complex predeces- level modern reflexivity implicates anxiety as In a similar vein the role of risk in postmodern antiretrovirus medicine during the AIDS epidem- sors which served some evolutionary purpose undefined and unconcious fear which is a result societies is conceptualized by Ulrich Beck /25/. ics in South Africa. Namely, a very quick spread and increased adaptive potential of the organ- of loss of everyday social routines. In contrast to For him, the societies of the second modernity are of AIDS epidemics took place there - in 1990 only isms. For instance, human eye hadn't developed traditional societies in which past, present and precisely risk societies because in these societies the 1 per cent of population was HIV-positive, while as a complex structure in only one step but in future are merged by epistemological and moral possibility of risk calculation and control is lost. this share rose to 25 per cent in the following ten several steps, whereas in each step less complex principles saying that everything that exists Instead, concious un-knowledge i.e. production of years – creating paranoid fears in population and structure was being replaced by the more complex should exist in that precise way and that will con- unintended consequences appears, some of which local politicians based on a belief that epidemics and more adaptive one /16/. And finally, so-called tinue to exist in such a way in the future, modern can be dangerous. Therefore it is seemingly para- was in fact created by intentional human interven- theistic evolution claims that species had evolved in societies are open towards alternative modes of doxical that „...science and technology – instead of tion. Due to animosity towards the West precisely a way described by the theory of evolution but thinking and acting, whereas the future appears lessening them – add their own insecurities to the western medicine and pharmacutical companies this process was intended and led by God. An as a kind of emptiness /20/. general insecurities causing hardly understanda- had been declared as the main culprits of the epi- instance of this could be God's intervention in As emphasized by Giddens /21/ the concept of risk ble consequence for many, ..., instead of putting demics. An alternative way of treating the disease human evolution by creating human soul. This is should be differentiated from the concept of dan- out political fires, they pour the oil into the flame was found in consuming indigenous African a current position of the Catholic church on evolu- ger because risks are related to dangers that are of ethical, ecological and political controversies“ fruits and vegetables as well as in vitamin pills tion and cannot be labeled as pseudoscience since estimated and quantified whereat risks are possi- /26/. As pointed out by Beck, in situation of the which, accompanied by pseudoscientific explana- it divides religion and science into two separate ble only in „... a society which is orientated to- impossibility of controling and quantifying risks tions, were offered by pseudoscientists from the spheres. wards the future – and which sees the future as a cultural stereotypes and prejudices can play very West. territory that needs to be conquered, colonized“ important role. However, we could certainly add Hence, in postmodern societies there is a decline 4. SOCIAL CONTEXT OF PSEUDOSCIENCE /22/. In traditional societies various dangers which to this remark that pseudoscience and pseudosci- of trust in traditionaly institutions, science includ- threatened the integrity of individuals and whole entists play the role of once morally uncorupted ed. In contrast with former societies, a person As mentioned earlier, flaws of human cognitive societies couldn't be controled in principle and science promising to people lower risks and doesn't hold a fixed identity but choses his/hers apparatus can surely partly explain popularity according to the usual notions they depended on „demasking“ science which is merged with cor- own identity and worldview. In postmodern and acceptance of pseudoscience. However, we destiny, luck or the will of gods. Modern societies porate and professional interests or, in best case, societies, due to risky consequences of science and

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Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES 152 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 technology among other things, there can be not- tions provoke economic crises wich rapidly Notes /13/ Scott, Eugenie C., Antievolution and Creationism ed a certain relativism and „democratization“ of spread throughout the world, health risks from in the United States. Annual Review of Anthropolo- knowledge that assert that everybody can believe GMO food, new technologies, chemical additives /1/ Henry, John, The Fragmentation of Renaissance gy, 26, 1997, 263-289. in whatever he/she wabnts to believe and that are not completely known and controled, etc. Occultism and the Decline of Magic. History of Sci- /14/ Thompson, Damian, Kontraznanje: kako smo ence, 46, 2008, 1-48. podlegli teorijama zavjere, nadriliječništvu, nobody can impose own worldview and values These risks cause fear of the future with attempts /2/ Coll, Richard K.; Taylor, Neil, Probing scientists' pseudoznanosti i kvazipovijesti, Algoritam, Zagreb, on others. Pseudoscience offers fixed identities to foresee it and gain symbolical control over it by beliefs: how open-minded are modern scientists? In- 2009. and clear worldview that science cannot offer. For alternative, non-scientific forms of knowledge. ternational Journal of Science Education, 26, 2004, 6, /15/ Ayala, Francisco J., Evolution by Natural Selection: example, astrology offers a possiblity of control- Further anxiety is provoked by the most im- 757-778. Darwin's Gift to Science and Religion. Theology and ling one's own life, alternative medicine offers portant characteristic of modern societies – indi- /3/ Goldacre, Ben, Loša znanost, Oceanmore, Zagreb, Science, 7, 2009, 4, 323-340. ability to control one's own health, pseudohistory vidual interest. In contemporary societies it is ex- 2010. /16/ Ibidem and conspiracy theories claim that historical pected to follow own interests whereas this idea /4/ Pruzhinin, B.I., Astrology: Science, Pseudoscience, /17/ Giddens, Anthony, The Consequences of Moderni- events are a result of international acitivites of few was transfered from the field of economy into Ideology? Russian Social Science Review, 36, 1995, ty, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1991a. „evil“ persons, etc. All these thing science cannot societal field. In economy, a person following 5:75-94. /18/ Ibidem /5/ Narlikar, Yayant; Kunte, Sudhakar; Dobholkar, /19/ Giddens, Anthony, Modernity and Self-Identity: promise or offer. In addition, there is a notable his/her own interests creates inovative and Narenda; Ghatpande, Praksah, A Statistical Test of Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Stan- trend of relativization of knowledge in social sci- competetive impulses which enable economic Astrology. Current Science, 96, 2009, 5:641-643. ford University Press, Stanford, 1991b. ences and humanities, especially regarding the progress. This type of individualization creates /6/ Weimann, Gabriel, The Prophecy that Never Fails: /20/ Ibidem endeavours to show knowledge and science as lack of trust among people and instability of all On the Uses and Gratifications of Horoscope Read- /21/ Giddens, Anthony, Odbjegli svijet. Kako completely culturally embeded and dependent on traditional social institutions (family, religion, ing. Sociological Inquiry, 52, 1982, 4:274-290. globalizacija oblikuje naše živote, Klub studenata power interests. In accordance with these lines of political institutions, etc.). Besides universal hu- /7/ Kaptchuk, Ted J.; Eisenberg, David M., The Persua- sociologije Diskrepancija; Naklada Jesenski i Turk, thought Western science is often portrayed as a man inclination towards cognitive biases, social sive Appeal of Alternative Medicine. Annals of In- Zagreb, 2005. consequence of Western patriarchal domination context desribed above creates a fertile ground for ternal Medicine, 129¸1998, 12, 1061-1065. /22/ Ibidem over different types of minorities (other civiliza- development and spread of pseudoscientific theo- /8/ Ibidem /23/ Ibidem /9/ Ibidem /24/ Ibidem tions and races, women, etc.). Therefore by ries. Pseudoscience promises the level of symbolic /10/ Fulder, Samuel, The Handbook of Alternative and /25/ Beck, Ulrich, Moć protiv moći u doba globalizacije: fighting scientific hegemony the relativistic jargon certainty which science, due to its methodological Complementary Medicine. Oxford University Press, nova svjetskopolitička ekonomija, Školska knjiga, lowers confidence in science and opens up the boundaries, cannot offer. This having in mind, it Oxford, 1996. Zagreb, 2004. space for pseudoscience. In addition to can be safely concluded that pseudoscience will /11/ Siahpush, M., A critical review of alternative medi- /26/ Ibidem macrosociological factors, popularity and spread always be able to found its place in the market- cine: research on users, practitioners and the ortho- /27/ Goldacre, Ben, Loša znanost, Oceanmore, Zagreb, of pseudoscience can also partially be attributed place of ideas i.e. that disapperance of science doxy. Health. 4, 2000, 2:159-178. 2010. to the mass media interests and modern commu- cannot be foreseen. However we believe that two /12/ Kaptchuk, Ted J.; Eisenberg, David M., The Persua- /28/ Ibidem nication technologies /29/. Mass media found their factors could be pointed out in relation to the sive Appeal of Alternative Medicine. /29/ Thompson, Damian, Kontraznanje: kako smo interest in promoting pseudoscience due to its more rational discussion of science and pseudo- Annals of Internal Medicine, 129¸1998, 12, 1061- podlegli teorijama zavjere, nadriliječništvu, 1065. pseudoznanosti i kvazipovijesti, Algoritam, Zagreb, profitability (wide audience). For instance, re- science. Firstly, good scientific education i.e. 2009. spectful publishing companies once witholding spreading of scientific literacy, especially from publishing pseudoscience today publish it knowledge of scientific methodology, could pre- even more often than scientific literature. Modern vent pseudoscientific theoris from being (too) communication technologies, mostly the Internet, easily exepted. Although this thesis can remind of enabled rapid spreading of pseudoscientific ideas naive enlightment, we believe that deep under- – pseudoscientists can gather their followers standing of scientific methodology raises the level online in a very short time. The Internet, besides of criticism and controls one's own biases and its numerous virtues, contains a myriad of ideas prejudices. For instance, good understanding of and information which complicates the capacity the logic of experimental research should bring of selective and critical stance towards them. better understanding of the merits of scientific and alternative medicine. Secondly, we believe 5. CONCLUSIONS that it is important to have open and continuing public discussion about ethical and social implica- Contemporary societies can be described as risk tions of science, as well as about risks inherent in societiesin which risk is mainly incalculable and applications of scientific discoveries and technol- created by science and technology complex. New ogies. In that way a part of the lost confidence in technologies created a possibility of ecological science might be restored and pseudoscience disasters that could bring the world to an end (e.g. might lose a part of its raison d'être. nuclear military weapons), dense economic rela-

ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7 ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7

Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Željko Pavić: SCIENCE AND PSEUDOSCIENCE IN POSTMODERN SOCIETIES Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 Informatol. 46, 2013., 2, 145-153 153 technology among other things, there can be not- tions provoke economic crises wich rapidly Notes /13/ Scott, Eugenie C., Antievolution and Creationism ed a certain relativism and „democratization“ of spread throughout the world, health risks from in the United States. Annual Review of Anthropolo- knowledge that assert that everybody can believe GMO food, new technologies, chemical additives /1/ Henry, John, The Fragmentation of Renaissance gy, 26, 1997, 263-289. in whatever he/she wabnts to believe and that are not completely known and controled, etc. Occultism and the Decline of Magic. History of Sci- /14/ Thompson, Damian, Kontraznanje: kako smo ence, 46, 2008, 1-48. podlegli teorijama zavjere, nadriliječništvu, nobody can impose own worldview and values These risks cause fear of the future with attempts /2/ Coll, Richard K.; Taylor, Neil, Probing scientists' pseudoznanosti i kvazipovijesti, Algoritam, Zagreb, on others. Pseudoscience offers fixed identities to foresee it and gain symbolical control over it by beliefs: how open-minded are modern scientists? In- 2009. and clear worldview that science cannot offer. For alternative, non-scientific forms of knowledge. ternational Journal of Science Education, 26, 2004, 6, /15/ Ayala, Francisco J., Evolution by Natural Selection: example, astrology offers a possiblity of control- Further anxiety is provoked by the most im- 757-778. Darwin's Gift to Science and Religion. Theology and ling one's own life, alternative medicine offers portant characteristic of modern societies – indi- /3/ Goldacre, Ben, Loša znanost, Oceanmore, Zagreb, Science, 7, 2009, 4, 323-340. ability to control one's own health, pseudohistory vidual interest. In contemporary societies it is ex- 2010. /16/ Ibidem and conspiracy theories claim that historical pected to follow own interests whereas this idea /4/ Pruzhinin, B.I., Astrology: Science, Pseudoscience, /17/ Giddens, Anthony, The Consequences of Moderni- events are a result of international acitivites of few was transfered from the field of economy into Ideology? Russian Social Science Review, 36, 1995, ty, Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1991a. „evil“ persons, etc. All these thing science cannot societal field. In economy, a person following 5:75-94. /18/ Ibidem /5/ Narlikar, Yayant; Kunte, Sudhakar; Dobholkar, /19/ Giddens, Anthony, Modernity and Self-Identity: promise or offer. In addition, there is a notable his/her own interests creates inovative and Narenda; Ghatpande, Praksah, A Statistical Test of Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Stan- trend of relativization of knowledge in social sci- competetive impulses which enable economic Astrology. Current Science, 96, 2009, 5:641-643. ford University Press, Stanford, 1991b. ences and humanities, especially regarding the progress. This type of individualization creates /6/ Weimann, Gabriel, The Prophecy that Never Fails: /20/ Ibidem endeavours to show knowledge and science as lack of trust among people and instability of all On the Uses and Gratifications of Horoscope Read- /21/ Giddens, Anthony, Odbjegli svijet. Kako completely culturally embeded and dependent on traditional social institutions (family, religion, ing. Sociological Inquiry, 52, 1982, 4:274-290. globalizacija oblikuje naše živote, Klub studenata power interests. In accordance with these lines of political institutions, etc.). Besides universal hu- /7/ Kaptchuk, Ted J.; Eisenberg, David M., The Persua- sociologije Diskrepancija; Naklada Jesenski i Turk, thought Western science is often portrayed as a man inclination towards cognitive biases, social sive Appeal of Alternative Medicine. Annals of In- Zagreb, 2005. consequence of Western patriarchal domination context desribed above creates a fertile ground for ternal Medicine, 129¸1998, 12, 1061-1065. /22/ Ibidem over different types of minorities (other civiliza- development and spread of pseudoscientific theo- /8/ Ibidem /23/ Ibidem /9/ Ibidem /24/ Ibidem tions and races, women, etc.). Therefore by ries. Pseudoscience promises the level of symbolic /10/ Fulder, Samuel, The Handbook of Alternative and /25/ Beck, Ulrich, Moć protiv moći u doba globalizacije: fighting scientific hegemony the relativistic jargon certainty which science, due to its methodological Complementary Medicine. Oxford University Press, nova svjetskopolitička ekonomija, Školska knjiga, lowers confidence in science and opens up the boundaries, cannot offer. This having in mind, it Oxford, 1996. Zagreb, 2004. space for pseudoscience. In addition to can be safely concluded that pseudoscience will /11/ Siahpush, M., A critical review of alternative medi- /26/ Ibidem macrosociological factors, popularity and spread always be able to found its place in the market- cine: research on users, practitioners and the ortho- /27/ Goldacre, Ben, Loša znanost, Oceanmore, Zagreb, of pseudoscience can also partially be attributed place of ideas i.e. that disapperance of science doxy. Health. 4, 2000, 2:159-178. 2010. to the mass media interests and modern commu- cannot be foreseen. However we believe that two /12/ Kaptchuk, Ted J.; Eisenberg, David M., The Persua- /28/ Ibidem nication technologies /29/. Mass media found their factors could be pointed out in relation to the sive Appeal of Alternative Medicine. /29/ Thompson, Damian, Kontraznanje: kako smo interest in promoting pseudoscience due to its more rational discussion of science and pseudo- Annals of Internal Medicine, 129¸1998, 12, 1061- podlegli teorijama zavjere, nadriliječništvu, 1065. pseudoznanosti i kvazipovijesti, Algoritam, Zagreb, profitability (wide audience). For instance, re- science. Firstly, good scientific education i.e. 2009. spectful publishing companies once witholding spreading of scientific literacy, especially from publishing pseudoscience today publish it knowledge of scientific methodology, could pre- even more often than scientific literature. Modern vent pseudoscientific theoris from being (too) communication technologies, mostly the Internet, easily exepted. Although this thesis can remind of enabled rapid spreading of pseudoscientific ideas naive enlightment, we believe that deep under- – pseudoscientists can gather their followers standing of scientific methodology raises the level online in a very short time. The Internet, besides of criticism and controls one's own biases and its numerous virtues, contains a myriad of ideas prejudices. For instance, good understanding of and information which complicates the capacity the logic of experimental research should bring of selective and critical stance towards them. better understanding of the merits of scientific and alternative medicine. Secondly, we believe 5. CONCLUSIONS that it is important to have open and continuing public discussion about ethical and social implica- Contemporary societies can be described as risk tions of science, as well as about risks inherent in societiesin which risk is mainly incalculable and applications of scientific discoveries and technol- created by science and technology complex. New ogies. In that way a part of the lost confidence in technologies created a possibility of ecological science might be restored and pseudoscience disasters that could bring the world to an end (e.g. might lose a part of its raison d'être. nuclear military weapons), dense economic rela-

ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7 ISSN 1330-0067 Coden: IORME7