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Biodiversity of the Caribbean

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Biodiversity of the Caribbean Biodiversity of the Caribbean A Learning Resource Prepared For: (Protecting the Eastern Caribbean Region’s Biodiversity Project) Photo supplied by: Rick Searle (EKOS Communications, Inc.) Part 2 / Section D Mangrove Swamp Ecosystems February 2009 Prepared by Ekos Communications, Inc. Victoria, British Columbia, Canada [Part 2/Section D] Mangrove Swamp Ecosystems Table of Contents D.1. What is a Mangrove Swamp Ecosystem? D.2. Characteristics of a Mangrove Swamp D.3. Types of Mangroves D.4. Biodiversity in the Mangrove Swamp D.5. Importance of Mangrove Swamps D.5.a. Timber and Non-Timber Products D.5.b. Coastal Protection D.5.c. Natural Filtration D.5.d. Basis of Marine Food Chain D.5.e. Fisheries D.5.f. Tourism D.6. Emerging Trends/Major Threats D.6.a. Lack of Public Concern D.6.b. Reclamation D.6.c. Pollution D.6.d. Sewage, Urban Runoff, Pesticides and Solid Waste Dumping D.6.e. Climate Change D.6.f. Overharvesting D.6.g. River Changes D.7. Protecting Mangrove Swamps D.8. Case Study: Managing the Mankote Mangrove, St. Lucia D.9. Activity 1: Stakeholder Debates D.10. Activity 2: Making Mangroves Matter D.11. References [Part 2/Section D] Mangrove Swamp Ecosystems D.1. What is a Mangrove Swamp Ecosystem? The mangrove support roots also help to impede water flow, Mangroves swamps or wetlands are coastal wetland ecosystems thereby enhancing sediment deposit within the roots and slowing found in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They are down the flow of rivers and stream water. characterized by halophytic (salt-tolerant) trees, shrubs, and other vegetation growing in saline waters from the intertidal zone Some mangroves have prop roots protruding from the trunk and up to the high-tide mark. These wetlands often grow in estuaries, branches, which hold the tree’s trunk and leaves above the water sheltered coastlines, and river deltas, where fresh water meets line and filter out the salt in the brackish water. Salt crystals that salt water. Mangrove swamps are subject to the twice-daily ebb are taken up by the mangrove’s roots are then stored in the tree’s and flow of tides, fortnightly spring and neap tides, and seasonal foliage. Upon reaching saturation, the mangrove rids itself of the weather fluctuations. Until recently, this ecosystem has been salt by shedding its leaves. Mangrove foliage also houses water neglected because of its appearance as a mass of impenetrable storage tissue to allow the plants to conserve water, which allows woody vegetation, At least 35 percent of the world’s mangrove the trees to cope with periods of high salinity. Mangrove seeds forests have been lost in the past twenty years. Losses in man- are salt resistant and buoyant, which allows them to disperse and grove forests exceed those for both tropical rainforests and coral establish themselves in new areas far from their parent tree. reefs, two other well-known threatened ecosystems1. The earliest species of mangroves originated from Southeast The mangrove swamp ecosystem (mangal ecosystem or man- Asia, where there are more mangrove species than anywhere else gals) gains its name from the large number of mangrove trees in the world. It is believed that mangrove seeds were brought that dominate this ecosystem. There are about 39.3 million acres westward to India, East Africa, and finally to Central and South of mangrove forests in the warm coastlines of tropical oceans all America by ocean currents 23 to 66 million years ago. As a over the world. The largest percentage of this ecosystem is found result, there are far fewer species of mangroves in the Americas in Southeast Asia and the smallest percentage is found within the than anywhere else in the world. Caribbean2. D.3. Types of Mangroves D.2. Characteristics of a Mangrove Swamp Although a significant number of plant species can be found in Individual plants in mangrove wetlands have different degrees of mangrove habitat worldwide, of the recognized 110 species, only tolerance for exposure and submergence of their roots to seawa- approximately 54 species constitute true mangroves, or spe- ter. Mangrove tree species show distinct zonation, where more cies that occur almost entirely in mangrove habitats and rarely 3 salt-tolerant species are found closer to the water and less salt- anywhere else . There are four species of mangrove trees found tolerant species are found away from the water. All plants in mangrove swamps have specialized adaptations to overcome the problems of anoxia (decreased levels of oxygen), high salinity, and frequent tidal inundation. Mangrove trees have shallow roots that spread widely, and support roots that grow directly into the mud to anchor the tree. The shallow roots may send up root projections, called pneumato- phores, to the surface, which help to supply the plant with oxygen. These breathing roots allow mangroves to survive in anaerobic sediments, whereas buttresses and above-ground roots enable them to grow in un- stable mud flats. Once established, these support roots provide a habitat for many species, including oys- ters, algae, barnacles, sponges, and bryozoans. A mangrove Swamp Photo supplied by: Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Forestry and Fisheries (St. Lucia) [Part 2/Section D] Mangrove Swamp Ecosystems within the islands of the Eastern Caribbean: red, black, white, and buttonwood mangroves. Red mangrove (Rhizophera mangle), the most common of the species and the first to grow in muddy areas, is easily recognized by its distinctive arching roots, which resemble a dense tangle. Red mangroves prefer the least elevated areas of swamps and require brackish to saline water for at least some part of the year in order to survive4. Although this species’ bark is grey, it is the colour of the tree’s interior which gives the species its name. The red mangrove is the least salt-tolerant, so it grows closest to or in fresh or brackish water where there is more dilution. The black mangrove is the most salt tolerant, as it grows in hypersaline conditions to the back of the mangrove zone. (After water has evapo- Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) rated from the back of the mangrove zone, it causes hypersaline conditions in the soil – salt content is much higher there than in the coastal waters.) Black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) shows marked prefer- ence for higher, drier habitats and is not usually found within habitat that is completely inundated with water5. Black man- groves are characterized by prop roots that extend from the lateral branches but do not produce the tangle of roots seen in the red mangroves. Black mangroves are the source of mangrove honey. The bark of this species is dark and scaly. White mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) has no outstanding root structures and tends to have less stringent habitat require- ments than either red or black mangroves. The bark of this spe- cies is white. Buttonwood mangrove (Conocarpus erectus) can appear in bush Black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) or tree forms and prefers less saline environments. As a result, this species is found the furthest distance from the coast. Its bark is grey. Of the four species of mangrove within the Caribbean, it is generally the smallest in height6. A distinct zonation of these species is evident in mangrove swamps. Red mangrove is grows nearest water. Behind them, white mangrove and black mangrove predominate, along with a few other plant species such as the swamp fern (Acrostichum aureum). Further back, under less saline and drier conditions, the button mangrove and coastal scrubland forests are found. The hypersaline conditions are actually quite helpful, since when freshwater reaches mangroves, the salt in the wetland is dissolved in this freshwater which then goes on to flow to the sea. Mangroves therefore protect White mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) coral reefs from an influx of freshwater from the land by Photo source: Carrington, S. (2002). Swamp communities: Caribbean island terrestrial habitats. regulating salt content in the water that passes through Retrieved from: cavehill.uwi.edu/FPAS/bcs/courses/Ecology/ECOL2453/ecol2453_sc/Swamp_communities.html them. Drawing source: Florida Museum of Natural History. (n.d.). Mangrove species profile. Retrieved from: flmnh.ufl.edu/Fish/southflorida/mangrove/Profiles.html [Part 2/Section D] Mangrove Swamp Ecosystems isopod (Ligia), and the mangrove crab (Aratus pisonii). Inver- tebrates such as the mangrove oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae), the flat tree oyster Isognomon( alatus), barnacles (Chthamalus and Balanus), and mussels (Brachidontes) live on the roots below the waterline. Lower in the root region a number of encrust- ing attached organisms can be found, including several species of sponges, bryozoans, hydrozoans, and the fan worm (Sabel- lastarte). Swimming crabs (Portunidae) and various bivalves live on the soft mud bottom below the mangroves, and fiddler crabs Uca( ), mangrove tree crabs (Goniopsus cruentata), mangrove crabs (Ucides cordatus), and mud skippers (Oxudercinae), are found in the mud flats among mangrove roots9. St. Lucia Warbler (Dendroica delicate). Endemic to St. Lucia Toussaint, A. (n.d.). Birding in St. Lucia. Retrieved from: birdinginstlucia.org/index.htm Many fish species that inhabit coral reefs as adults live as juve- niles in mangrove swamps. Mangroves are in essence nursery habitats for these species, and their presence increases fish D.4. Biodiversity in the Mangrove Swamp populations on the nearby reefs. Mangrove forests are also nest- One of the most biologically diverse ecosystems, mangrove ing sites for many shore birds and home to fishing cats, lizards, swamps is known as the “rainforest by the sea”. The mangrove sea turtles, and many more animals. For many species of fruit wetlands within the Caribbean are particularly diverse as they bats, such as the dawn bat, mangrove blossoms and fruit form a host the world’s richest mangrove-associated invertebrate fauna significant portion of their diet.
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