An Investigation Into the Construction and Perception of Drag Costume in Mainstream Film
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Costuming Gender: An Investigation into the Construction and Perception of Drag Costume in Mainstream Film By Shari Tamar Akal Dissertation submitted in full fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Technology in Fashion in the Faculty of Arts, Department of Fashion and Textiles, at Durban University of Technology I declare that this dissertation is my own work and has not been submitted for any other degree or examination at any other institution. Student: Shari Tamar Akal Signed.................. ...................... Date: 13 August 2014 Supervisor: Nirma Madhoo-Chipps Signed…………………………… Date: 13 August 2014 Co Supervisor: Professor Brian Pearc . ABSTRACT The years succeeding 1990 have seen a significant increase in the release of mainstream film featuring transgendered characters. The inclusion of such characters in popular film becomes a point of interest as transgendered identities differ from the hegemonic heterosexism of the audiences at whom these films are targeted. This investigation aims to gain a better understanding of how audience members read gendered identity through the visual appearance of drag queen characters in mainstream film. Due to the emblematic contrast between the male body and a hyper-feminine dress aesthetic, drag queens pose an overt visual challenge to the normative expectation of anatomical sex determining gender and gendered expression. This investigation is conducted from the paradigmatic perspective that recognises the impossibility of a ‘correct’ reading of dress aesthetics and is thus concerned with discovering the various gendered meanings audience members may attach to drag costume in film. This interpretivist standpoint, however, is held in conjunction with the critical understanding that prevalent contemporary socio-political constructs with regard to gender and dress will undoubtedly affect these perceptions. Segments from selected Hollywood films featuring drag queen protagonists were screened for a heterogeneous focus group and the subsequent discussion analysed through critical discourse analysis. Academic discourse concerning the socially constructed gender dichotomy and the debated subversive potential of the drag act is reviewed in order to provide a theoretical framework for analysing the participants’ comprehension of gendered performance. Gendered associations with dress and the body together with film theory are examined to better understand how an audience may perceive gendered identity through drag costume in film and what affect this may have on their conception of sartorial gendered expressions in reality. Finally, to situate and provide further context for this investigation, Queer theory critiques of the representation and reception of transgendered characters in past mainstream films are considered. i . DECLARATION I hereby confirm that this dissertation is entirely my own original work, and where the work of others has been cited, it has been fully acknowledged and referenced. I hereby certify that this dissertation has not been submitted for a degree at any other university or institution. It would not have been possible to complete this study without the funding of the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa through the Scarce Skills Master’s Scholarship. ii . ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Supervisor: Nirma Madhoo- Chipps As my lecturer, and my supervisor for both my B tech and M tech degrees, your role in my life over the last eight years cannot be overstated. You have been my mentor and provided me with guidance, insight and encouragement that has been invaluable. I am overwhelmed by your generosity of time and dedication. I am constantly inspired by your depth of knowledge and creative mind. Thank you. Co Supervisor: Professor Brian Pearce I consider myself incredibly fortunate to have been given the opportunity to benefit from your immense expertise. The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the many hours you have spent reviewing my work and offering corrections, suggestions and reassurances. Thank you so much for consistently going above and beyond the call of duty and for being so supportive and unfailingly enthusiastic about this project. Family and Friends A huge thank you to my family and friends for your encouragement and understanding. I am so privileged to have so many wonderful people in my life. To Pete especially, for your support, love and patience. Thank you for enduring all the stress and preoccupation. I would not want to do life without you. Focus Group Participants Thank you for volunteering your time and for forming an incredibly fascinating focus group. I greatly appreciate your participation in this project and found all of your opinions truly interesting and discerning. Staff at Melissa’s Kloof Street Thank you to every staff member at Melissa’s over the past few years for the countless cups of great coffee, allowing me to sit in your establishment writing for hours and for the always friendly atmosphere. iii . TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i DECLARATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii CHAPTER ONE: ORIENTATION OF STUDY 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Aims 2 1.3 Critical Questions 3 1.4 Rationale 3 1.5 Overview of Chapters 6 1.5.1 Chapter Two: Literature Review 6 1.5.2 Chapter Three: Research Methodology 8 1.5.3 Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Discussion 9 1.5.4 Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations 9 1.6 Conclusion 9 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 10 2.1 Introduction 10 2.2 Identity Construction 10 2.3 The Body 13 2.4 Gender: Construct and Category 15 2.5 Gender: Identity and Performance 17 2.6 A Brief History of Drag Queens 19 2.7 Conflation of Definitions: Drag Queens and Other Transgendered Identities 20 iv . 2.8 The Subversive Potential of Drag Performance 22 2.9 The Adorned Body 25 2.10 Dress as Communication of Identity 27 2.11 Dress as Communication of Gendered Identity 31 2.12 Dress and Gender: Post Industrial Revolution 32 2.13 Gendered Identity in Contemporary Dress 34 2.14 Film Costume 35 2.15 Popular Film and Audience 39 2.16 Construction and Reconstruction of Meaning in Film 41 2.17 Gender and Transgender in Popular Film 45 2.18 The Representation of Drag Queens in Mainstream Film 48 2.19 Reception and Critique of Films Selected 52 2.19.1 To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything. Julie Newmar! (Kidron 1995) 52 2.19.2 The Birdcage (Nichols 1996) 54 2.19.3 Connie and Carla (Lembeck 2004) 55 2.19.4 Kinky Boots (Jarrold 2006) 56 2.20 Conclusion 57 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 58 3.1 Introduction 58 3.2 Problematising the Critical Questions 58 3.3 Qualitative Research in the Interpretive and Critical Traditions 61 3.3.1 A ‘Marriage’ of Theory 62 3.3.2 Hermeneutical Methodology 64 v . 3.4 Strategy for Data Collection 66 3.4.1 Sampling Strategy 66 3.4.2 Recruitment of Participants 68 3.4.3 Focus Group Discussion 70 3.5 Ethical Concerns 72 3.6 Reliability and Validity 74 3.7 Delimitations 75 3.8 Limitations 77 3.9 Methods for Data Analysis 77 3.10 Conclusion 82 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 83 4.1 Introduction 83 4.2 Group Interaction Relevant to Data Analysis 83 4.3 Emergent Themes from Focus Group Discussion 84 4.3.1 Theme 1: Gender Politics 84 4.3.2 Theme 2: Media 88 4.3.3 Theme 3: Dress and Identity 92 4.3.4 Theme 4: Gendered Associations with Dress 95 4.3.5 Theme 5: The Gendered Body 101 4.3.6 Theme 6: Gender Performed Through Kinesics 107 4.3.7 Theme 7: Drag 110 4.3.8 Theme 8: Category 116 4.4 Conclusion 122 vi . CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECCOMENDATIONS 123 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 Concluding Arguments 123 5.2.1 Transgender Perceived Through Popular Film 123 5.2.2 The Visual Trinity of Gendered Perception 124 5.2.3 The Subversive Potential of Ambiguity and ‘Authentic’ Expression 124 5.2.4 Gender Perception and Expression without Category 126 5.2.5 The Role of Fashion In Future Gendered Expression 127 5.3 Future Research Potential 128 5.3.1 Femininity in Contemporary Menswear 128 5.3.2 Subtle or Gender Neutral Expression versus Overt Gendered Expression 128 5.3.3 The Role of Corporeal Androgyny 129 5.3.4 Is Femininity The Butt Of The Joke? 129 5.4 Conclusion 130 LIST OF REFERENCES 132 APPENDICES APPENDIX A 148 APPENDIX B 152 APPENDIX C 153 APPENDIX D 161 APPENDIX E 162 APPENDIX F 163 vii . APPENDIX G 167 APPENDIX H 171 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1 80 FIGURE 2 167 FIGURE 3 167 FIGURE 4 168 FIGURE 5 168 FIGURE 6 169 FIGURE 7 169 FIGURE 8 152 FIGURE 9 170 FIGURE 10 170 viii . 1. Orientation of Study 1.1 Introduction In this dissertation I seek to provide a contribution to the critical analysis of transgendered representations in mainstream film by focusing attention on an aspect of this representation that has not as yet been sufficiently deliberated: the role of dress in the construction and perception of gendered/transgendered identity. The years succeeding 1990 have seen a significant increase in the release of mainstream film featuring transgendered characters (Brookey and Westerfelhaus 2001: 142; Stulberg 2014). The inclusion of such characters in popular Hollywood film becomes a point of interest as transgendered identities differ from the hegemonic heterosexism of the audiences at whom these films are targeted. As a central organising system in contemporary culture, gender significantly affects our daily social experiences (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet 2003: 9) and has subsequently influenced the regulation of modes of dress.1 Despite the ubiquity of gender in contemporary society it is often only consciously noticed by individuals when the dichotomous system is violated or challenged by alternative gendered expressions (Gagne and Tewksbury 1998: 81; Kaiser 2012: 36, 37).