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Transformational Leadership of Afghans and Americans: a Study of Culture, Age and Gender

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Transformational Leadership of Afghans and Americans: a Study of Culture, Age and Gender J. Service Science & Management, 2010, 3: 150-158 doi:10.4236/jssm.2010.31019 Published Online March 2010 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/jssm) Transformational Leadership of Afghans and Americans: A Study of Culture, Age and Gender Belal A. Kaifi1 , Bahaudin G. Mujtaba2 1Franklin University, Columbus, USA; 2Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, USA. Email: [email protected], [email protected] Received October 22nd, 2009; revised November 29th; accepted January 3rd, 2010. ABSTRACT Afghans and Americans have been exposed to different leadership styles which may have influenced their orientation on leading others. Age, gender, and/or culture are possible factors for such differences in leadership orientations. This research surveyed the responses of 502 Americans and 300 Afghans to better understand their orientation toward transformational leadership. The Afghan respondents had significantly higher scores for transformational leadership orientation. Female American respondents had a significantly higher transformational leadership orientation than their Afghan female colleagues. Younger Afghans had a significantly higher tendency toward a transformational leadership orientation than their American counterparts. Suggestions for managers and implications for future research are presented. Keywords: Afghans, Americans, Afghanistan, Gender, Age, Culture, Leadership, Ethics 1. Introduction cal posture may play a particularly strong role in influ- encing follower satisfaction with the leader” [4]. Franken, Culture, age group, and gender may influence a person’s Edwards, and Lambert explain how “Business leaders are leadership style and overall change management ap- under constant pressure to comply with their demands proach. Leaders must believe in change in order for there while maintaining the organization’s competitiveness in to be a better future for a society or organization. “In increasingly complex markets” [5]. Transformational highly competitive, rapidly changing environments, car- leaders are expected to not only to control, lead, plan, ing and appreciative leaders are the ones to bet on for st and organize, but also motivate, empower, and build long-term success” [1]. The 21 century leader must be healthy relationships with their peers throughout an or- equipped with the right tools to be effective, empathic, ganization. and efficient in all aspects of the workplace. Today’s A study by Mujtaba and Kaifi illuminated how Afghan competitive workplace requires more transformational leaders have higher scores on the relationship orientation leaders as they tend to influence workers more positively. which relates to better job performance [6]. The skills of Rhodes, Walsh, and Lok state, “While leaders initiate building and maintaining a healthy relationship is an im- and drive organizational change, they manage the change portant element of not just performance but also trans- only with the help of other change agents. These change formational leadership, especially when one has to create agents operate with different change skills and compe- tencies depending on particular requirements and cir- a win-win relationship between employees, vendors, and cumstances” [2]. Pounder explains that the effect of other stakeholders in the community or local govern- transformational leadership on subordinates centers on ments. “Over the last decade, considerable research effort three leadership outcomes: a) the ability of the leader to has been invested into understanding the processes generate extra effort on the part of those being led, b) through which transformational leadership positively subordinates’ perception of leader effectiveness, and c) relates to follower attitudes, behavior, and performance” their satisfaction with the leader [3]. Furthermore, “Bass [7]. When exploring the conditions under which trans- and his associates’ views on morality relative to trans- formational leadership weaves its effects on performance, formational and transactional leadership do suggest that research results show that transformational leadership transactional leaders would be expected to engage in relates to follower identification with work unit and unethical practices more so than transformational lead- self-efficacy, to predict individual performance, thus ers,” and further state that “Judgments of a leader’s ethi- representing a moderated mediation effect [7]. Another Copyright © 2010 SciRes JSSM Transformational Leadership of Afghans and Americans: A Study of Culture, Age and Gender 151 study demonstrated “that instructors displaying transfor- good life by learning about the other. Ricoeur states, “To mational leadership qualities in the classroom had a posi- narrate and to follow a story is already to ‘reflect upon’ tive and significant influence on student perception of events with the aim of encompassing them in successive classroom dynamics measured in terms of the three lead- totalities” [10]. Being able to listen, understand, and ership outcomes: extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfac- communicate to a colleague is important for a transfor- tion” [3]. The results appear to be consistent with other mational leader and will benefit an organization by findings on transformational leadership which suggest building trust, friendships, awareness, and respect. As that employees view this style “positively in terms of Ricoeur explains, “the good life is for each of us, the effectiveness, satisfaction, and motivation to expend ef- nebulus of ideals and dreams of achievements with re- fort” [3]. Other researchers argue that “the proposed as- gard to which a life is held to be more or less fulfilled or sociation of transformational and transactional leadership unfilled” [9]. In organizations, transformational leaders has been one of augmentation. The augmentation hy- need to understand others by focusing on solicitude, pothesis argues that transformational leadership will sig- building friendships, and emphasizing equality because nificantly predict leadership criteria after controlling for Ricoeur explains, “equality, however it is modulated, is transactional leadership” [4]. Of course, effective leaders to life in institutions what solicitude is to interpersonal use a variety of methods to influence their followers and relations” [9]. By having an ethical intention, a transfor- some researchers claim that “employees with higher lev- mational leader is able to lead by example. While the els of power distance orientation are less likely to be in- controversy regarding whether leaders are products of fluenced by transformational leadership behaviors alone nature or nurture continue to live on, one element that is and may instead need to be led via different or additional clear is how all people are influenced by their specific leadership styles” [8]. Kirkman et al., further state that culture, age group, and gender. “individual-level cultural value orientations, and particu- 2. Leadership and Culture larly power distance orientation, should not be ignored in studies of the impact of transformational leadership on Culture, or the way people behave in an organization can followers across cultures” [8]. This study focuses on the influence how a leader evaluates performance. Rhodes, leadership style of people in Afghanistan and the United Walsh, and Lok state that the “development of a States because an individual’s culture might very well be high-performance culture requires the inspiration, drive, a factor in their influencing style. In both cultures, fol- and commitment of the leader, leadership is critical to the lowers respect managers who are perceived to be just, change process underpinning the Balanced Scorecard” fair, and ethical. Leaders who do the right thing are able [2]. Furthermore, according to these authors, cultural to enhance the morale of their employees because all values tend to have important implications on manage- individuals want to be associated with good causes and ment practices, because “there is a positive relationship institutions that take society’s needs into consideration. between a high performance culture and the adoption of Transformational leaders must have an ethical intention best practices” [2]. For example, the United States’ cul- ture is considered to be high performance and, if organi- in order to be followed and respected. zations are to remain competitive, they must adopt best Ricoeur states, “Let us define ‘ethical intention’ as practices from around the globe. Some of these best aiming at the ‘good life’ with and for others, in just in- practices may include the training and development of stitutions” [9]. The ethical intention is what transforma- st effective ethical leaders through succession planning and tional leaders strive for in organizations of the 21 cen- development because effective leaders require vision, tury because in order for an organization to be successful, knowledge, and execution skills. there must be unity and collectivity along with just prac- Leaders come in many shapes, forms, and styles which tices. When aiming at the good life, leaders must con- is why transformational leadership has been studied over sider not only themselves but how each person can make the years. For example, Kim claims that “there may be at a difference by being more understanding, ethical, and least two different leadership styles in groupthink: the concerned for the welfare of all people within an organi- lack of impartial leadership and laissez-faire” [11]. Oth- zation. Ricoeur explains,
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