Afghan-Americans and the Aftermath of the Twin Towers Tragedy Dr
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Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2009 Volume 4, Number 4 Managing Diversity: Afghan-Americans And The Aftermath Of The Twin Towers Tragedy Dr. Belal A. Kaifi, Franklin University, USA Wajma Aslami, Saint Mary‟s College, USA ABSTRACT Ethnic and religious diversity is part of each society in the modern world and being an Afghan is another dimension of these differences in the United States. The research question for this study was to see if Afghan-Americans are experiencing more discriminatory practices as a result of the 9/11 events. The results of 502 Afghan-Americans demonstrated that they do report more discrimination in the post-9/11 era. Specifically, Afghan men have experienced more discrimination in the workplace and Afghan women have experienced more discrimination in public. Implications and recommendations are offered for effective diversity management. Keywords: Afghan-Americans, Afghanistan, 9/11, discrimination, USA, leadership INTRODUCTION n the years after September 11, 2001, there have been many reported incidents of discrimination, hostility, and even extreme violence towards Muslims and people who look Muslim. “Nearly three out of four Muslims knew someone who had experienced religious prejudice since 9/11 or had suffered abuse Ithemselves. Many American Muslims have doubts about whether they are accepted as real Americans” (Barrett, 2006, p. 6). Findley (2001) reports, “In recent years, mosques were the target of arsonist in Yuba City, California, Springfield, Illinois, Greenville, South Carolina, and Minneapolis, and vandalism has occurred at mosques in Michigan, Indiana, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Georgia” (p. 61). Muslims have dealt with arson, intimidation, and the media spreading inaccurate reports about Islam. According to Barrett (2006), “the arrest and detention of twelve hundred Muslim and Arab men in late 2001 and the subsequent interrogation of eight thousand more, have played an even larger role in making many Muslims feel insecure and unwelcome” (p. 5). As a result, many Muslims have altered their identities to blend in with the general public (Kaifi, 2009). Kearney (2003) reports, “The initial response of President Bush was to divide the world into good and evil. In the days immediately following the terror, he declared a „crusade‟ against the evil scourge of terrorism” (p. 24). Tatum (1997) explains “Although conversations about race, racism, and racial identity tend to focus on Black-White relations, to do so ignores the experiences of other targeted racial or ethnic groups” (p. 131). Wagner (2004) exclaims, “Suddenly, average Americans were talking about Osama Bin Laden, jihad, Muslim extremism, the Taliban, and so forth. New words and new ideas were now forming the basis of coffee table discussion” (p. 20). It is a fact that people in the West and in the Muslim world need to learn more about each other. As Abdo (2006) explains, “much of the hostility toward Muslims reflects the lack of knowledge about Islam that has persisted since the first Muslims arrived in America more than three hundred years ago” (p. 7). Ramadan (2004) explains the pervasiveness of the problem: “Prejudices, racism, and Islamophobia are tangible expressions of the hard reality of Western societies, and Muslims must not naively think that these will simply disappear as they become citizens settled in their societies” (p. 226). This study focuses on the impact of 9/11 on Afghan-Americans who came to America for freedom, opportunity, and equality. 31 Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2009 Volume 4, Number 4 POST-9/11 LITERATURE Livengood and Stodolska (2004) conducted a study that allowed them to interview American Muslims in the United States post-September 11, 2001. According to Livengood and Stodolska (2004), “The events of the September 11, 2001 had a profound effect on average „mainstream‟ Americans and also on many members of ethnic groups that call America their home” (p. 183). The authors further state, “Since all 19 hijackers were identified as Muslims, anger of many Americans turned against members of this ethno-religious group Muslims in the Middle East, Afghanistan, as well as American Muslims, many of whom resided in this country for generations, became the object of resentment and often hate” (Livengood & Stodolska, 2004, p. 183-184) It must be mentioned that foreign policy in the Middle-East has also contributed to the lack of understanding towards Muslim governments. “When the United States is in conflict with an Arab country, negative opinions and views of Muslims tend to intensify” (Livengood & Stodolska, 2004, p. 186). The situation in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran has contributed to the negative stereotype of Muslims in America and unfortunately other ethnic minorities who “look” Muslim. It is a “well documented phenomenon that not only Muslims or Arab Americans, but also members of other ethnic and racial groups experience a significant degree of discrimination in settings such as workplaces, public offices, housing, or even during causal encounters” (Livengood & Stodolska, 2004, p. 186). The authors state, “out of the 25 interviewed individuals, 20 reported that either they or their close family members had been looked at in a strange manner, often with obvious disapproval, anger, and hostility” (Livengood & Stodolska, 2004, p. 192). The study also mentioned how “Muslim women experienced cases of negative treatment in leisure activities and in their everyday lives with a much higher frequency than their male counterparts” (Livengood & Stodolska, 2004, p. 193). Mastrilli and Sardo-Brown (2002) focused on pre-service teachers‟ knowledge of Islam and measured their reaction to Islam after September 11, 2001. The researchers explain that the participants had limited knowledge about Islam. Specifically, Mastrilli and Sardo-Brown (2002) note in their discussion, “however, in terms of both inaccurate and knowledge and the lack of any knowledge concerning Islam, the survey responses do warrant concern” (p. 159). Future teachers may need to take courses in theology and learn how to be insightful of all religions. The next researcher focused on public opinion data on Muslims. Panagopoulos (2006) researches the developments in public sentiment about Arab Muslim Americans and Islam in the age of the war on terror using available public opinion data in a quantitative retrospective study. According to Panagopoulos (2006), “the terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001, fueled widespread concern and speculation about mounting Islamphobic sentiment among Americans in response to the events” (p. 608). Data was gathered from the Roper Center‟s IPOLL database. Panagopoulos (2006) explains, “Since September 11th, survey data indicate majority of Americans consistently feel they do not understand the teachings of and beliefs within the religion of Islam” (p. 610). The results of the study show once again the lack of knowledge and the preconceived notions the general public has about Islam. According to Panagopoulos‟s (2006) study, data also showed: “That about 40 percent of Americans feel that the attacks on September 11, 2001 do represent the true teachings of Islam” (p. 611). Kaifi (2009) completed a critical hermeneutic research study on the impact of 9/11 on Afghan-Muslim- Americans residing in the diverse San Francisco, Bay Area of California. The researcher had detailed conversations with a total of 10 participants. Kaifi (2009) stated that, “Post-9/11, all participants in this study either faced some form of discrimination or knew someone who had” and that “Afghan-Americans have been used as scapegoats post- 9/11 just like the Japanese-Americans and African-Americans have been used as scapegoats in the past” (p. 90). The literature review provides useful background information into the inquiry of diversity management of Afghan- Americans living in the post-9/11 era. THE PEOPLE OF AFGHANISTAN Afghanistan, a country with a history that is both bitter and sweet has become the center of attention throughout the world. Afghanistan‟s strategic location has enticed invaders to conquer the country time after time, and yet none have been successful. Ewans (2002) explains, “Although never colonized, Afghanistan is part of the 32 Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2009 Volume 4, Number 4 colonial history of Tsarist Russia and British India” (p. 9). The past three decades of continuous war has left the country with a frail social, economical, and political infrastructure which has resulted in Afghans migrating to the West. As a matter of fact, By May 1980, there were probably as many as 750,000 refugees in Pakistan and a further 100,000 in Iran. A year later, their numbers had grown to 1.7 million and 400,000 respectively. By 1984, the numbers had grown to 3.5 million and 1.5 million, more than one in three of the total population. Perhaps another 1.5- 2 million became internal refugees and fled from the countryside to the relative safety of towns. (Ewans, 2002, p. 158) In the mid-20th century, Afghans began migrating to the U.S. for educational and professional purposes. The first wave of Afghan refugees arrived in the United States shortly after the former Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979 which resulted in a 10-year war with millions of casualties. As a result, most Afghans have spent at least two decades in America. Afghans have successfully built Islamic networks, opened up restaurants, and other small businesses. With the emergence of a generation of Afghan children raised and educated in the United States, the Afghan community has proven to be a dynamic force with high-standards and goals. Afghans live a simple life that revolves around Islam. The foundation of Afghan culture and traditional life is Islam, because Islam is not only a religion but also a complete “way of life” (Livengood & Stodolska, 2004, p. 185). Muslims are expected to practice their religion according to the time and space they live in. The Afghan identity consists of many components that are both commendable and recognizable.