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The Pasadena NFL/ Merry-Go-Round Times have changed; the Rose Bowl is unique Pasadena has squabbled about Rose Bowl use since the 1980s.

I. The Big Bowls/why did postseason football begin in Pasadena rather than in Flor- ida, much closer to where football began? The Rose came first and was always different. It started in 1902 as part of the Tournament of Roses celebration. It was the "Tournament East-West football game”; bowl games didn’t exist in 1902. Michigan crushed Stanford 49-0. Stanford asked to stop the slaughter with 8 minutes remaining, and Michigan agreed. Michigan’s famous ‘point-a-minute’ team were unbeaten and unscored upon during their eleven games. They scored 550 points, opponents 0.

The bowl idea came from the , built in 1914. Harvard built the world’s first all con- crete and steel in 1903 in a horseshoe shape. The Yale Bowl was widely admired; later often copied its shape. The original Pasadena stadium, built in 1922, had a horseshoe shape. Its open south was closed in 1929, and its seating capacity rose from 57,000 to 76,000.

East Coast was very popular 100 years ago. (1903) originally seated 57,000 and the Yale Bowl 70,000. Wealthy Northerners often took Florida winter va- cations in those days, but Florida was thinly settled and tourists came for the beaches. Mil- lionaire Henry Flagler built the Florida East Coast Railway and luxury hotels in St. Augustine and Palm Beach in the 1890s, but Miami wasn’t even incorporated until 1896. Key West was the largest and wealthiest city in Florida until 1900, when it was passed by Jacksonville. Con- sider the 1900 populations:

1900 census data Miami 1,681 Pasadena 9,117 Key West 17,114 102,509 Jacksonville 28,429 San Francisco 342,782

There was a precedent for sports travel. The legendary undefeated 1869 Cincinnati Red Stockings team played 6 games in San Francisco and Sacramento in September and October 1869, only a few months after the government subsidized transcontinental rail- road was completed. No railroad reached LA until 1876. Cincinnati traveled to Memphis and in 1870, but never to Florida. No railroad reached Key West until 1912. Pasa- dena had rail access and a well-known warm climate winter festival. The 1900 was filmed for East Coast audiences. The Tournament of Roses (TOR) added a football game in their 12th year, 1902. seating was inadequate, fans climbed over the fence, there were fights and a stampede onto the field, but the festival made money overall and thought that the football game was a plus. However, no West Coast team would agree to play in 1903, so the TOR substituted a polo match, which generated few fans and minimal enthusiasm The TOR moved on to chariot racing. 2

Chariot race at Tournament Park in the 1911 Tournament of Roses Photograph courtesy of University of Southern California, on behalf of the USC Special Collections.

Roman style chariot racing came from the successful Broadway play, Ben-Hur, which opened in 1899. The play featured a spectacular live chariot race with real horses and chariots. Char- iot racing didn’t last; 1915 was its last year in Pasadena.

Football returned in 1916. State beat favored Brown on a cold, drizzly New Year’s Day and the TOR lost money. Brown had an African-American star player, Fritz Pol- lard, the first African-American to play in the Rose Bowl. He later played for the , in the American Professional Football Association or APFA. Pollard and famous African- American singer and political activist played together for Akron in 1921. Robe- son had been an All- player (tackle and end) at Rutgers, where he played against Pollard.

The 1917 football game turned a profit and football was here to stay. There was one post- season bowl game in 1930, eight by 1950, and 33 last year. The Rose Parade and had a national reputation by 1920. By 1937 there were five major bowl games, The Cotton, Orange, Rose, Sugar and Sun Bowls. Cities wanted to lure tourists and investors even more during the depression years. Miami businessmen discussed something similar to the Rose Festival in the 1920s. They held a Festival of Palms Bowl in 1933 and 34, then an Or- ange Bowl starting in 1935 and an parade from 1940-2002. Many bowl games fizzled, such as the Dust Bowl and the Cereal Bowl. Internet information on those defunct bowl games and sports history in general is confused and contradictory. It’s hard to find infor- mation on the Dust Bowl game, played January 3, 1936 in Tulsa, OK but they did celebrate a Dust Bowl.

California had post season fizzles. Two East West Christmas classic games were played in ’s in 1922 and 1923. You probably know that UCLA played at the Coliseum for many years, but do you know about the Los Angeles Christmas Bowl? This one time game was held December 25, 1924 at the Coliseum. USC, which joined the Pacific Coast Conference (PCC) in 1922, defeated the University of Missouri 20-7. The 1924 Tro- 3 jans were coached by Elmer Henderson, the winningest USC coach ever. Some authorities call it the Los Angeles Christmas Festival rather than Christmas Bowl. There is talk of reviv- ing it - you can LA Christmas Bowl.

UCLA joined the PCC in 1929 and played USC at the Coliseum for the first time. The Tro- jans crushed them 76-0.

Aerial view of 1930 Rose Bowl game. Notice the Goodyear blimp, the flood channel without concrete, the many cars parked south of the stadium and the absence of cars on the Golf course. Photograph courtesy of University of Southern California, on behalf of the USC Special Collections.

I listened to the radio on New Year’s Day in the 1940s and 1950s in , from the Orange Bowl before lunch to the Rose Bowl game after dark. Professional Football was small time then. There was a well-known pre season game (The Charities College All-Star Game) when a college All-Star team played the NFL champions. The teams were closely matched in the beginning. The college All-Stars shut out the NFL champs by identical 16-0 scores in 1946 and 47, but won no games after 1963. The game ended in 1976; the college All-Stars would be run off the field today and might be seriously injured.

The March of Technology: The 1927 Rose Bowl game was the first nationwide football game broadcast. and luxury boxes came in after World War II. The first Rose Bowl telecast was in 1947 (a few East Coast games were telecast before World War II). came in 1954, after two magazines with the same name went broke before World War II. It set the tone for a media-dominated future. Instant replay was introduced in 1963, giving TV spectators an ad- vantage. ABC began a game of the week telecast in 1966 and took a chance on in 1970. That TV gamble paid off. We got new camera angles, the Dallas Cowboy cheer- leaders close up, and new commentators like the controversial Howard Cosell. ESPN (Enter- tainment and Sports programming Network) began in 1979, another big step.

Fans wanted to follow their favorite teams and players through the week. TV profits soared. Forty years ago, NBC and CBS paid about $340 million (inflation adjusted) per year to broadcast NFL games. Now the same rights go for over $4 billion, a dozen times as much as a generation ago. Television revenue is about half of all NFL revenue today.

4 The , built in 1965, opened a new world - it was the first domed stadium and had the first luxury boxes. Television and luxury boxes crushed many of the city owned stadiums. The original Orange Bowl stadium prospered with the Orange Bowl game, the University of Mi- ami and the professional . However, the Dolphins moved out to a new private sta- dium with luxury boxes in 1987. The Orange Bowl game left in 1996 and the Miami Hurricanes in 2007. The stadium came down in 2008. Today Marlins Stadium, 80% subsidized by Miami taxpayers, stands on that same site. The original stadium was demolished for the same reason – no luxury boxes. The original stadium limps along with a few college games and no pro games. Dallas has announced a renovation program that will include premium seating. Nearby Cowboys Stadium is the richest of the rich and pays no property taxes. The Cow- boys have 320 luxury suites, 15,000 club seats and 66,000 seats that require personal seat licenses to buy season tickets.

II. Why is the Pro football hall of fame in Canton, ? Pro football began in small industrial towns of Ohio and Western . Local athletic clubs and some businesses paid small amounts of money to men who played on Sunday afternoons. This was a different crowd than the elite college football players- ethnic, Catholic and working class. However, they used elite players on occasion. ’s Allegheny Athletic Association paid William ‘Pudge’ Heffelfinger $500 to play as a ringer against its rival in November, 1892. Heffelfinger had been a Yale All-American and now played some games for the Chicago Athletic Association team. Before then, players received expense money, "double expenses," or trophies that could be sold—but not flat cash payments. Heffelfinger was the first true pro football player.

These teams had played a month earlier, with PAC victorious, led by a new player, who was actually a paid Penn State player. The AAA demanded a rematch. The PAC agreed and of- fered Heffelfinger and a teammate $250 apiece to play for them. However, the AAA reached Heffelfinger and offered $500 if he’d play for them. The PAC didn’t realize that they’d lost their ringer until he appeared in an AAA uniform. This caused an uproar. The PAC wouldn’t play until AAA agreed that the game wouldn’t count, and that all bets were off. Pudge scored the only of the game and the AAA won.

The Latrobe Athletic Association of Latrobe, PA was the first team to play a full season with only salaried players, in 1897. They had consecutive unbeaten years in 1903-1905. The three top US pro teams in 1905 were probably Canton (30,667), Massillon (11,944) and the La- trobe AA (4,600). I include their 1900 population in parentheses. A famous rivalry devel- oped between Canton and Massillon, two towns 11 miles apart in Stark County, Ohio. Can- ton, the county seat, was larger (see map) and won most of the early Massillon-Canton foot- ball games. Each town began to hire outsiders in the early 1900s. 5

Ohio football towns: the named cities and towns plus others marked with crosses had professional or semi-pro teams in the early 20th century.

Canton had seven Akron players and two running backs from the 's "point-a-minute" team. They won their first four 1905 games by scores of 41-0, 63-0, 121-0, and 107-0, but lost to Latrobe and Massillon. They started the next season on an even stronger note. They were unbeaten and unscored upon in 8 games before the widely publi- cized November championship series with Massillon. Stores and factories closed, schools let out early for the big game. Eight thousand fans arrived, many by so-called modern transporta- tion. However, many trolleys, autos, buggies and some of the Akron streetcars brought to carry Massillon fans broke down. The fans were a rough lot, including many pickpockets, or "dips." Lots of valuables went missing. The won the first game, and their fans went wild. However, Massillon won the return match, played on the grounds of the state mental hospital, and kept their state championship.

Next came brawls and a famous scandal. You can find it in Wikipedia. The more sources of information consulted, the murkier the scandal appears. The Massillon team manager claimed that the second game had been "fixed" by Canton coach "Blondy" Wallace. Wallace and a group of gamblers had tried to bribe, first one team, and then the other. This was de- nied, lawsuits erupted and the truth never came out. However, both teams were now broke- too much money had gone for player salaries. The wounded “” fell back on cut-rate local athletes for a time. By 1915, Massillon was strong again, so Canton manager went out and hired the famous Olympic gold medal winner , and Canton’s for- 6 tunes improved again.

Football was dangerous in 1906. There were talented athletes, but the most renowned were often simply the biggest and toughest. Helmets were optional. People were smaller in those days; the average American soldier in 1917 was 5’ 7 ½”. Average American height was proba- bly greater in 1776 than 1917, although data are limited. Frank Nesser of the fearsome Co- lumbus Panhandles weighed 250 and could kick 70 yard punts (2). Jim Thorpe was 6’1”, 202 pounds, and Paul Robeson 6’3” and 220 pounds. Violence abounded. Consider this from the Cambria Freeman of Ebensburg, Pa.: "Football makes a good fight all right, but it is like a three-ring circus. There is too much to it. The inability of the spectator to keep track of the blows struck is extremely annoying. If a man is to be smashed in the mouth, the trick should be turned in full view of the audience." College football was no pic- nic, either. Eighteen players died in 1905, causing many people (including Harvard President Eliot) to demand that it be outlawed. Teddy Roosevelt pressured college officials to meet at the White House and form a new organization (later called the NCAA), to change many rules, outlawing wedge formations and legalizing the (8).

Early pro football did better in small towns than in the big cities. The 1st began in in 1902 and quickly failed. An indoor World Series of Football held at Madison Square Garden in 1902 and 1903 flopped. Migrant athletes moved around, doing what they could for cash. , the famous Giants pitcher was also a punter and fullback for the in the fall.

When Akron hired in 1919, they had a star in the same class as the great Jim Thorpe, one black, the other American Indian (Sac and Fox with some European ancestry). However, teams continued to go broke. Owners realized that teams had to cooperate to stay in business. A new group met in Canton in 1920 at a car dealership and formed the American Professional Football Association, sharing ticket revenue and limiting salaries. In 1922 they became the National Football League, which survived, even though many of the Ohio teams went broke over the next 10 years.

1922 National Football league teams Akron Pros Buffalo All-Americans Canton Bulldogs* Chicago Cardinals Evansville Crimson Giants Louisville Brecks Marines Rock Island Inde- * League champions with a 10-0-2 record pendents Six teams were from Ohio. The Oorang Indians were a of Native Americans, led by Jim Thorpe and financed by Walter Lingo of LaRue, OH to promote his Airedale dogs. They had no home field and lasted only two seasons. Thorpe was past his prime. Teams listed in italics remain in today’s NFL (The Chicago Cardinals franchise is now in Arizona)

Two 1920s Los Angeles pro teams were actually -based. The Los Angeles Buccaneers and the Los Angeles Wildcats of the first played no league games in Los Angeles. Some say that the Buccaneers planned to play in the Los Angeles Coliseum and became a road team only after the Coliseum Commission banned pro teams. However, travel costs were the real problem. The Buccaneers played two Los Angeles exhibition games against the AFL New York Yankees in January 1927. Both “Los Angeles teams” folded in 1927.

7 California teams and leagues came and went in the 1930s, mostly regarded as “minor leagues”. The , formed in 1936, were an exception. Owned by the local chapter, they played in at Fairfax and Beverly Boulevard, against teams like the Salinas Packers and the Hollywood Stars, plus traveling Eastern teams. The Bulldogs had a 3-2-1 record against NFL teams in 1936. They joined the 2nd American Football League in 1937 and had an unbeaten season. They played the first seven games in the East, and the rest of the season in California, where they drew more fans. They played the Salinas Iceberg Packers three times. The Bulldogs became charter members of the Pacific Coast Professional Football League in 1940 and played in Gilmore Stadium until 1948, when they moved to Long Beach, where they and the PCPFL expired in 1949. Gilmore Stadium was demolished in 1952.

Farmer’s Market and Gilmore Stadium in West LA, aerial view from about 1938. Photograph courtesy of University of Southern California, on behalf of the USC Special Collections

World War II brought big changes. Pro sports shrank during the depression; the NFL ex- cluded African-Americans from 1934-46, but the barrier broke in 1946. The (moved from ) hired two great members of the 1939 UCLA all black back- field, Kenny Washington and . The hired and . The first West Coast regular game was in September 1946 when 30,500 fans saw the defeat the Rams 25-14 at the Coliseum.

III. What has changed and how stadiums survive: There were 41 US automobile manufacturers in 1912 and about 100 loosely organized pro or semi-pro football teams. The 1920 founding members of the APFL-NFL met in a Hupmobile dealership, belonging to the Canton team owner. They drank beer from buckets and some sat on running boards, hardly Wall Street tycoons. Hupmobile failed in 1940, the NFL is big and strong today. Pro football is more concentrated today than is the auto industry. The NFL con- trols pro football and is the world’s wealthiest sports organization. Thirty two teams pool and share billions of dollars in revenue. Carmakers pay corporate taxes; the NFL does not (indi- vidual teams pay some taxes).

Many things have changed locally; the Rose Bowl had only two football games per year in the 1970s- the Rose Bowl game and the high school Turkey Tussle. A Junior Rose Bowl was 8 played some years. UCLA moved from the Coliseum to the Rose Bowl in 1982. Neighbors and politicians blocked UCLA hopes for a Westwood football stadium in the 1960s (4). The city of Pasadena had ups and downs. A 1939 survey of cities for “goodness of life” ranked it first in the country because of low crime rates and high ratios of radios, telephones, bathtubs and dentists (10). Things had slipped by the 1960s. A famous 1969 LA Times article (11) high- lighted Pasadena as a city in decline with increasing crime and whites fleeing the schools. Townsend spoke of “a ghetto half a mile from the world’s most famous stadium” and quoted a mother who feared that the schools would soon be “less than 50% Caucasian”.

College football became big business. Little Centenary College (Shreveport, LA) lost its ac- creditation in 1924 because of “undue emphasis on athletics”, paying the football coach more than the president. They booted the coach and regained accreditation. How many college presidents today earn even half as much as the football and coaches? The tax- exempt University of Texas athletic department made almost $170 million in 2011, Texas football coach made more than $5 million. Although a few division I teams make big money, most lose money on football because they spend so much on recruiting, coach sala- ries, etc. Some things are more important than the President’s salary, however. The Knight commission reports that 2009 college spending per student was as follows (9):

Division/conference Median total spending per Median total spending student per student-athlete (SEC) $13,471 $156,833 Big Ten 18,486 111,620 Pac-10 (now PAC 12) 14,133 98,459 Very few college students become professional athletes. Spending per student-athlete is in- creasing while spending per student is decreasing. This weakens higher education. Should the tail wag the dog? And what about the alleged rape of student Lizzy Seeburg by a Notre Dame football player in 2010? She committed suicide; no charges were filed (14).

Both college and pro football get special tax breaks. A new will be- gin after the 2013 college season, with tax breaks because it claims to be a charity. Taxpayers will finance a new stadium for the Vikings, the ’ new Santa Clara palace, and the Falcons are demanding a new or upgraded stadium. Overall, 30 of the NFL’s 31 stadiums receive some form of taxpayer financing — New Jersey’s MetLife Stadium is the only exception. Yet these 32 teams are among the world’s 50 most valuable franchises. This year, Cincinnati sold a public hospital to help cover the cost of stadium subsi- dies; the City of Santa Clara protested when money was taken from stadium construction for education.

Most NFL teams demand a new or upgraded stadium every 25 years: we must have multiple revenue streams (more seats close to the field, better luxury boxes, personal seat licenses, en- hanced concessions, naming and advertising rights) or we move out- it’s a never ending arms race. Stadiums maximized revenue in the 1930s by maximizing attendance. Chicago’s , a famous municipal stadium, grew to hold over 100,000 spectators and holds the col- lege football attendance record of over 120,000 from the 1927 Notre Dame-USC game. To- day, it has been downsized to 61,500 after extensive renovation demolished its interior and caused its removal from the National Register of Historic Places. This was done to keep the Chicago Bears happy. The Bears don’t need 100,000 seats; indeed most new NFL stadiums have fewer than 75,000. Luxury boxes and television revenue are much more important. Revenue from luxury boxes is not shared while ordinary ticket revenue is shared, and owners 9 don’t want empty seats shown on TV. Huge college stadiums remain, such as the 109,000 seat University of .

Former NFL players have a high risk of dementia. I suggest that you visit theconcus- sionblog.com, but there’s more to this than concussions. Football is OK in its place, but it’s been overdone. We must reduce tax and other subsidies to both college and pro sports. We can bolster education and protect players.

Returning to local issues, the Pasadena Chamber of Commerce believes that the city would profit from the NFL. That’s a consistent pattern: chambers of commerce want pro teams, they may help certain businesses like hotels and restaurants. However, they don’t increase overall city tax revenue or employment- as summarized in the Jasina and Rotthoff paper (7). Those economists studied all US counties with a franchise between 1986 and 2005. They found no positive effect on employment or payrolls. Baade, Baumann and Mathe- son (1) studied the economic effects of new stadiums, franchises and mega-events such as the on Florida taxable revenue over 25 years and found no established benefits. For- mer NFL commissioner Paul Tagliabue railed against sports economists who kept saying that the NFL didn’t help cities economically. He promised to show that the economists were wrong. He’s retired now but has produced no data. USC Professor Quentin Fleming (6) has written a readable summary of sports economics related to Farmer’s Field, relevant to both LA and to the NFL Rose Bowl proposal.

Most big municipal stadiums have gone, such as the Philadelphia Municipal Stadium where the Army-Navy game was played from 1936-1979. Pasadena councilman Chris Holden re- turned from a 1995 trip to the NFL owners’ meeting and the believing that the NFL showed the way for Pasadena “to save the Rose Bowl” (reported in a front page newspa- per story (3), which began “It’s do or die time at the Rose Bowl”). A new NFL stadium might come to Hollywood Park in Inglewood. Consultants advised the city to consider pro football, resort style golfing and even a baseball stadium for the Rose Bowl. Holden indi- cated that tax money and a new NFL franchise had saved the Gator Bowl. The Pasadena public schools had 22,027 students then. “Save the bowl” ideas stimulated the 2005-2006 proposal for an NFL takeover of the Rose Bowl, like what they did to Chicago’s Soldier Field. Pasadena voters rejected the proposal 72-28. The Rose Bowl is strong but the city had to raise $182 million (from bonds) additional renovation in 2014 will be paid from income.

How has the Rose Bowl survived? Only four American stadiums are listed as National Historic Landmarks (Harvard Stadium from 1903, the Yale Bowl, from 1914, the Rose Bowl and LA Memorial Coliseum. Soldier Field lost this status when it was gutted to keep the Chicago Bears). Harvard and Yale stadiums are fine for now; the Rose Bowl has something that they don’t, the unique Rose Parade. It will survive as long as it has UCLA and the Rose Parade. UCLA might not have come if the Coliseum had luxury boxes. Most early bowl games failed; Eastern newspapers covered the Rose Parade starting in 1898; it was newsworthy before it added football. Save the Bowl rhetoric is a cover for increasing city revenues and NFL wanna- bees.

The Rose Bowl is unique, like Notre Dame football. It has kept commercial sponsors at arm’s length. It became listed as The Rose Bowl Game presented by AT&T in 1998, and then as The Rose Bowl Game presented by PlayStation 2. More recently, the game has been pre- sented by citi and Vizio. Sponsors of other bowls demand to have their name listed first, like the FedEx Orange Bowl and the Allstate Sugar Bowl.

10 The Hollywood Park NFL stadium never materialized, the Gator Bowl, a minor bowl, has no lessons for Pasadena, nor does the fate of Soldier Field. We must recognize the stadium’s limi- tations. Nobody puts a modern stadium in a gully closely surrounded by housing with poor freeway access. The Pasadena public schools lost students and problems of Northwest Pasa- dena festered while the Chamber of Commerce, the Unions and the local NAACP battled the homeowners. Pasadena schools are more than 90% nonwhite today, enrollment has fallen 16% since 1995, and school closures are accelerating in spite of population growth. Middle class families are an endangered species in Pasadena. A family that buys a $600,000 home is not middle class.

The Arroyo is overused and poorly managed. Thousands run, walk, cycle, and use Kidspace and the Aquatic center daily - far more than 20 years ago. Pasadena can’t selectively squeeze residents near the Arroyo and those who use it for exercise. Consultants from the Urban Land Institute reviewed the problems and needs of the Arroyo in 2012 and recommended against the NFL option (12). If given a chance, voters will reject the violent NFL again. This is an age of limits, a time to promote active exercise and sport for all, to reshape football to salvage university education and reduce violence. Three NFL were knocked out with concussions in one day, Nov 11th. The US military rejects increasing numbers of volunteers for obesity or inability to pass simple physical fitness tests. The NFL proposal is a relic from the past; Pasadena should focus on education, inequality and health of our citizens.

1. Baade, R, Baumann, R, Matheson, V. "Selling the Big Game: Estimating the Economic Impact of Mega- Events through Taxable Sales," Working Papers 0610, International Association of Sports Economists & North American Association of Sports Economists. 2006. 2. Braunwart, B Carroll, B. The Panhandles: last of the sandlotters. Coffin Corner 1 (8): 1-6. 1979 3. Burry, Jennifer, City seeks ways to save Rose Bowl, Pasadena Star-News, 5/29/1995 page one 4. Crowe, Jerry There goes the neighborhood: How UCLA stadium bid was scuttled. , No- vember 16, 2009 5. Fendrich, Howard, 3 NFL quarterbacks sidelined by concussions on 1 day. http://www.newsnet5.com/dpp/sports/sports_blogs_local/3-nfl-quarterbacks-sidelined-by-concussions-on- 1-day#ixzz2CDi5mcWR 6. Fleming, Q, The truth about the current Farmers Field proposal Presented to the Los Angeles City Council, Mayor, CAO, CLO and Controller September 28, 2012. 7. Jasina, J & Rotthoff, K. The impact of a professional sports franchise on county employment and wages. Int J Sports Finance 3: 210-227, 2008. 8. Miller, JJ. The Big Scrum How Teddy Roosevelt Saved Football Harper/HarperCollins Publishers. 2011. 9. Restoring The Balance, Dollars, Values, and the Future of College, Sports Knight Commission on In- tercollegiate Athletics, 2012, www.knightcom.org 10. Thorndike, EL, Your city, New York, Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1939 11. Townsend, Dorothy “Pasadena’s Crown City Image Tarnished,” Los Angeles Times, 27 Apr. 1969. 12. Urban Land Institute, summary of report at http://www.ci.pasadena.ca.us/Central_Arroyo_and_Rose_Bowl_ULI_Study.aspx 13. Vrooman, J, Chapter 2, The Economic Structure of the NFL in K.G. Quinn (ed.), The Economics of the National Football League: The State of the Art, Springer Science+Business Media 2012 14. Zirin, D. The NCAA should shut down Notre Dame’s football program. http://www.thenation.com/blog/156708/ncaa-should-shut-down-notre-dames-football-program#

Copyright by author, S. Robert Snodgrass, [email protected]