sign in sign up
<<
Home , APEX system, Bleach bypass, CMYK color model, Color print film, Cross processing, DX encoding

D DD

DDD

DDDD

DDDD Basic in 180 Days Book VII - Film Photography Editor: Ramon F. aeroramon.com Contents

1 Day 1 1 1.1 photography ...... 1 1.1.1 History ...... 1 1.1.2 Artists’ perspectives ...... 13 1.1.3 Preservation issues ...... 14 1.1.4 Research ...... 15 1.1.5 Patents ...... 15 1.1.6 See also ...... 15 1.1.7 Notes ...... 16 1.1.8 References ...... 17 1.1.9 External links ...... 18

2 Day 2 20 2.1 Photographic film ...... 20 2.1.1 History of film ...... 21 2.1.2 Film basics ...... 23 2.1.3 ...... 25 2.1.4 Special films ...... 26 2.1.5 Decline ...... 27 2.1.6 DX codes ...... 27 2.1.7 Common sizes of film[19] ...... 27 2.1.8 Companies ...... 28 2.1.9 See also ...... 30 2.1.10 Notes ...... 30 2.1.11 References ...... 30

3 Day 3 32 3.1 Film speed ...... 32 3.1.1 Film speed measurement systems ...... 32 3.1.2 Reciprocity ...... 40 3.1.3 Film sensitivity and grain ...... 40 3.1.4 Digital ISO speed and index ...... 41 3.1.5 See also ...... 45

i ii CONTENTS

3.1.6 References ...... 45 3.1.7 External links ...... 51 3.2 ...... 51 3.2.1 History ...... 52 3.2.2 Classification and properties ...... 55 3.2.3 Deterioration ...... 57 3.2.4 Intermediate and print stocks ...... 58 3.2.5 Decline ...... 59 3.2.6 See also ...... 59 3.2.7 References ...... 59 3.3 ...... 60 3.3.1 Principles ...... 60 3.3.2 Technique ...... 62 3.3.3 Application to other media ...... 63 3.3.4 Misconceptions and criticisms ...... 64 3.3.5 See also ...... 65 3.3.6 Notes ...... 65 3.3.7 References ...... 66 3.3.8 Further reading ...... 66 3.3.9 External links ...... 66

4 Day 4 67 4.1 (photography) ...... 67 4.1.1 Negative ...... 67 4.1.2 Negative film ...... 67 4.1.3 References ...... 69 4.1.4 External links ...... 69 4.2 Latent image ...... 71 4.2.1 Mechanism of formation ...... 72 4.2.2 Photographic sensitivity ...... 72 4.2.3 Reciprocity Law Failure ...... 72 4.2.4 Location of latent image ...... 73 4.2.5 Development of crystals ...... 73 4.2.6 Stability of latent image ...... 74 4.2.7 See also ...... 74 4.2.8 References ...... 74 4.3 Fogging (photography) ...... 74 4.3.1 Taxonomy of fogging ...... 75 4.3.2 Light fogging ...... 75 4.3.3 Chemical fogging ...... 75 4.3.4 See also ...... 75 4.3.5 References ...... 76 CONTENTS iii

5 Day 5 77 5.1 ...... 77 5.1.1 Nitrate ...... 77 5.1.2 Acetate ...... 78 5.1.3 Polyester ...... 78 5.1.4 Identifying a film base ...... 78 5.1.5 References ...... 79 5.1.6 External links ...... 79 5.2 ...... 79 5.2.1 Components ...... 79 5.2.2 Manufacture ...... 80 5.2.3 See also ...... 80 5.2.4 References ...... 80 5.2.5 External links ...... 80 5.3 Gelatin silver process ...... 80 5.3.1 History ...... 80 5.3.2 Timeline ...... 81 5.3.3 Technology ...... 81 5.3.4 Digital silver gelatin ...... 82 5.3.5 In molecular biology ...... 82 5.3.6 References ...... 82 5.3.7 Bibliography ...... 83 5.3.8 External links ...... 83

6 Day 6 84 6.1 ...... 84 6.1.1 Darkroom equipment ...... 86 6.1.2 See also ...... 87 6.1.3 References ...... 87 6.1.4 External links ...... 87 6.2 List of photographic processes ...... 87 6.2.1 Color ...... 87 6.2.2 Black and (Monochrome) ...... 88 6.2.3 References ...... 94

7 Day 7 95 7.1 Photochrom ...... 95 7.1.1 History ...... 96 7.1.2 Process ...... 96 7.1.3 Notes ...... 101 7.1.4 References ...... 101 7.1.5 External links ...... 102 iv CONTENTS

7.2 ...... 102 7.2.1 See also ...... 102 7.2.2 External links ...... 103 7.3 Reversal film ...... 105 7.3.1 History ...... 105 7.3.2 Film types ...... 107 7.3.3 Pros and cons ...... 107 7.3.4 Uses ...... 108 7.3.5 See also ...... 110 7.3.6 References and notes ...... 110 7.3.7 External links ...... 111

8 Day 8 112 8.1 E-6 process ...... 112 8.1.1 History ...... 112 8.1.2 Process variations ...... 112 8.1.3 Six-bath process version ...... 112 8.1.4 See also ...... 113 8.1.5 References ...... 113 8.1.6 External links ...... 114 8.2 C-41 process ...... 114 8.2.1 Film layers ...... 114 8.2.2 Process ...... 115 8.2.3 ...... 115 8.2.4 The negative ...... 115 8.2.5 Black-and-white usage ...... 115 8.2.6 ...... 116 8.2.7 See also ...... 116 8.2.8 References ...... 116 8.2.9 External links ...... 116 8.3 Cross processing ...... 116 8.3.1 Processes ...... 116 8.3.2 See also ...... 117 8.3.3 References ...... 117

9 Day 9 118 9.1 Digital versus film photography ...... 118 9.1.1 Image quality ...... 118 9.1.2 Integrity ...... 122 9.1.3 Cost ...... 123 9.1.4 Film industry ...... 123 9.1.5 See also ...... 123 CONTENTS v

9.1.6 References ...... 123 9.1.7 External links ...... 124

10 Day 10 125 10.1 type 55 ...... 125 10.1.1 New55project ...... 126 10.1.2 References ...... 126 10.2 Instant film ...... 126 10.2.1 How it works ...... 128 10.2.2 Film brands ...... 129 10.2.3 Toxicity ...... 140 10.2.4 See also ...... 140 10.2.5 References ...... 140 10.2.6 External links ...... 141 10.3 List of photographic films ...... 141 10.3.1 ADOX ...... 141 10.3.2 AGFA / AGFAPHOTO ...... 142 10.3.3 Film Washi ...... 143 10.3.4 FOMA ...... 144 10.3.5 Fujifilm ...... 144 10.3.6 Ilford ...... 150 10.3.7 ...... 153 10.3.8 Maco ...... 154 10.3.9 ...... 154 10.3.10 Gigabit ...... 157 10.3.11 (Fotokemia) ...... 157 10.3.12 See also ...... 157 10.3.13 References ...... 157 10.3.14 External links ...... 158

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 159 11.1 Text ...... 159 11.2 ...... 162 11.3 Content license ...... 166 Chapter 1

Day 1

1.1

“Color film” redirects here. For the motion picture equivalent, see Color motion picture film. See also: List of color film systems Color (or colour) photography is photography that uses media capable of reproducing . By contrast, black-and-white (monochrome) photography records only a single of luminance (brightness) and uses media capable only of showing shades of gray. In color photography, electronic sensors or light-sensitive chemicals record color information at the time of exposure. This is usually done by analyzing the spectrum of colors into three channels of information, one dominated by , another by green and the third by blue, in imitation of the way the normal human eye senses color. The recorded information is then used to reproduce the original colors by mixing various proportions of red, green and blue light (RGB color, used by video displays, digital and some historical photographic processes), or by using dyes or pigments to remove various proportions of the red, green and blue which are present in white light (CMY color, used for prints on paper and transparencies on film). Monochrome images which have been "colorized" by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are “colored ,” not “color photographs.” Their colors are not dependent on the actual colors of the objects photographed and may be very inaccurate or completely arbitrary. The foundation of virtually all practical color processes, the three-color method was first suggested in a 1855 pa- per by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, with the first color produced by Thomas Sutton for a Maxwell lecture in 1861.[3][4] Color photography has been the dominant form of photography since the 1970s, with monochrome photography mostly relegated to niche markets such as art photography.

1.1.1 History

Early experiments

Color photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a “chameleon substance” which would assume the color of the light falling on it. Some encouraging early results, typically ob- tained by projecting a solar spectrum directly onto the sensitive surface, seemed to promise eventual success, but the comparatively dim image formed in a camera required exposures lasting for hours or even days. The quality and range of the color was sometimes severely limited, as in the chemically complicated “Hillotype” process invented by American Daguerreotypist Levi Hill around 1850. Other experimenters, such as , achieved better results but could find no way to prevent the colors from quickly fading when the images were exposed to light for viewing. Over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value.

1 2 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

A circa 1850 “Hillotype” photograph of a colored engraving. Long believed to be a complete fraud, recent testing found that Levi Hill's process did reproduce some color photographically, but also that many specimens had been “sweetened” by the addition of hand-applied colors.

An entirely different approach to color

Gabriel Lippmann is remembered as the inventor of a method for reproducing colors by photography, based on the interference phenomenon, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1908.[5] 1.1. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 3

The first color photograph made by the three-color method suggested by James Clerk Maxwell in 1855, taken in 1861 by Thomas Sutton. The subject is a colored ribbon, usually described as a tartan ribbon.

In 1886 Lippmann’s interest had turned to a method of fixing the colors of the solar spectrum on a . On 2 February 1891, he announced to the Academy of Sciences: “I have succeeded in obtaining the image of the spectrum with its colors on a photographic plate whereby the image remains fixed and can remain in daylight without deterioration.” By April 1892, he was able to report that he had succeeded in producing color images of a stained glass window, a group of flags, a bowl of oranges topped by a red poppy and a multicolored parrot. He presented his theory of color photography using the interference method in two papers to the Academy, one in 1894, the other in 1906.[6]

Three-color processes

The three-color method, which is the foundation of virtually all practical color processes whether chemical or elec- tronic, was first suggested in an 1855 paper on by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell.[3][4] It is based on the Young-Helmholtz theory that the normal human eye sees color because its inner surface is covered with millions of intermingled cone cells of three types: In theory, one type is most sensitive to the end of the spectrum we call “red”, another is more sensitive to the middle or “green” region, and a third which is most strongly stimulated by “blue”. The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the continuous spectrum of visible light, and the theory is not an entirely accurate description of cone sensitivity. But the simple description of these three colors coincides enough with the sensations experienced by the eye that when these three colors are used the three cones types are adequately and unequally stimulated to form the illusion of various intermediate wavelengths of light. In his studies of color vision, Maxwell showed, by using a rotating disk with which he could alter the proportions, that any visible hue or gray tone could be made by mixing only three pure colors of light – red, green and blue – in proportions that would stimulate the three types of cells to the same degrees under particular lighting conditions.[7] To emphasize that each type of cell by itself did not actually see color but was simply more or less stimulated, he drew 4 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

An 1877 color photographic print on paper by Louis Ducos du Hauron, the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping , and red elements are apparent.

an analogy to black-and-white photography: if three colorless photographs of the same scene were taken through red, green and blue filters, and transparencies (“slides”) made from them were projected through the same filters and superimposed on a screen, the result would be an image reproducing not only red, green and blue, but all of the colors in the original scene.[8] The first color photograph made according to Maxwell’s prescription, a set of three monochrome "color separations", was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in illustrating a lecture on color by Maxwell, where it was shown in color by the triple projection method.[9] The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of various colors, apparently including red and green. During the lecture, which was about physics and physiology, not photography, Maxwell commented on the inadequacy of the results and the need for a photographic material more sensitive to red and green light. A century later, historians were mystified by the reproduction of any red at all, because the photographic process used by Sutton was for all practical purposes totally insensitive to red light and only marginally sensitive to green. In 1961, researchers found that many red dyes also reflect light, coincidentally transmitted by Sutton’s red filter, and surmised that the three images were probably due to ultra-, blue-green and blue wavelengths, rather than to red, green and blue.[10]

Additive color

Creating colors by mixing colored lights (usually red, green and blue) in various proportions is the additive method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT (picture tube) color video displays all use this method. If one of these displays is examined with a sufficiently strong magnifier, it will be seen that each is actually composed of red, green and blue sub- which blend at normal viewing distances, reproducing a wide range of colors as well as white and shades of gray. This is also known as the RGB . 1.1. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 5

A 1903 Sanger Shepherd process[1] photograph of Col. Willoughby Verner by Sarah Angelina Acland, an English early pioneer color photographer.[2]

Subtractive color

The same three images taken through red, green and blue filters which are used for synthesis may also be used to produce color prints and transparencies by the subtractive method, in which colors are subtracted from white light by dyes or pigments. In photography, the dye colors are normally cyan, a greenish-blue which absorbs red; , a purplish-pink which absorbs green; and yellow, which absorbs blue. The red-filtered image is used to create a cyan dye image, the green-filtered image to create a magenta dye image, and the blue-filtered image to create a yellow dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a complete color image. This is also known as the CMYK color model. The “K” is a black component normally added in ink-jet and other mechanical printing processes to compensate for the imperfections of the colored inks used, which ideally should absorb or transmit various parts of the spectrum but not reflect any color, and to improve image definition. 6 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

The Emir of Bukhara in a 1911 color photograph by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii. At right is the triple color-filtered black-and-white glass plate negative, shown here as a positive.

At first it may seem that each image ought to be printed in the color of the filter used in making it, but by following any given color through the process the reason for printing in should become apparent. A red object, for example, will be very pale in the red-filtered image but very dark in the other two images, so the result will be an area with just a trace of cyan, absorbing just a bit of red light, but a large amount of magenta and yellow, which together absorb most of the green and blue light, leaving mainly red light to be reflected back from the white paper in the case of a print, or transmitted through a clear support in the case of a transparency. Before the technical innovations of the years 1935 to 1942, the only way to create a subtractive full-color print or transparency was by means of one of several labor-intensive and time-consuming procedures. Most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so-called carbon process and then carefully combined in register. Sometimes, related processes were used to make three gelatin matrices which were dyed and assembled or used to transfer the three dye images into a single layer of gelatin coated on a final support. Chemical toning could be used to convert three black-and-white silver images into cyan, magenta and yellow images which were then assembled. In a few processes, the three images were created one on top of another by repeated coating or re-sensitizing, negative registration, exposure and development operations. A number of variations were devised and marketed during the first half of the 20th century, some of them short-lived, others, such as the Trichrome Carbro process, enduring for several decades. Because some of these processes allow very stable and light-fast coloring matter to be used, yielding images which can remain virtually unchanged for centuries, they are still not quite completely extinct. The production of photographic three-color prints on paper was pioneered by Louis Ducos du Hauron, whose com- prehensive 1868 French patent also included the basic concepts of most of the color photographic processes which were subsequently developed. For making the three color-filtered negatives required, he was able to develop materials and methods which were not as completely blind to red and green light as those used by Thomas Sutton in 1861, but they were still very insensitive to those colors. Exposure times were impractically long, the red or orange-filtered negative requiring hours of exposure in the camera. His earliest surviving color prints are “sun prints” of pressed flowers and leaves, each of the three negatives having been made without a camera by exposing the light-sensitive surface to direct sunlight passing first through a color filter and then through the vegetation. His first attempts were based on the red-yellow-blue colors then used for pigments, with no color reversal. Later he used the primary colors of light with color reversal. 1.1. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 7

A 1912 color photograph of Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii, who documented the Russian Empire with a color camera from 1909 to 1915.

Color sensitization

As long as photographic materials were usefully sensitive only to blue-green, blue, violet and ultraviolet, three-color photography could never be practical. In 1873 German chemist discovered that the addition of small amounts of certain aniline dyes to a photographic emulsion could add sensitivity to colors which the dyes absorbed. He identified dyes which variously sensitized for all the previously ineffective colors except true red, to which only a marginal trace of sensitivity could be added.[11][12][13][14] In the following year, Edmond Becquerel discovered that chlorophyll was a good sensitizer for red.[15] Although it would be many more years before these sensitizers (and better ones developed later) found much use beyond scientific applications such as spectrography, they were quickly and eagerly adopted by Louis Ducos du Hauron, Charles Cros and other color photography pioneers. Exposure times for the “problem” colors could now be reduced from hours to minutes. As ever-more-sensitive gelatin emulsions replaced the old wet and dry collodion processes, the minutes became seconds. New sensitizing dyes introduced early in the 20th century eventually made so-called “instantaneous” color exposures possible.

Color

Making color separations by reloading the camera and changing the filter between exposures was inconvenient, added delays to the already long exposure times and could result in the camera being accidentally shifted out of position. To improve the actual picture-taking, a number of experimenters designed one or more special cameras for color photography. They were usually of two main types. 8 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

A 1914 color photograph of the Taj Mahal published in a 1921 issue of National Geographic magazine.

The first type used a system of partially reflecting surfaces to divide the light coming through the lens into three parts, each part passing through a different color filter and forming a separate image, so that the three images could be photographed at the same time on three plates (flexible film had not yet replaced glass plates as the support for the emulsion) or different areas of one plate. Later known as “one-shot” cameras, refined versions continued to be used as late as the 1950s for special purposes such as commercial photography for publication, in which a set of color separations was ultimately required in order to prepare printing plates. The second type, known variously as a multiple back, repeating back or drop back camera, still exposed the images one at a time but used a sliding holder for the filters and plates which allowed each filter and the corresponding unexposed area of emulsion to be quickly shifted into place. German photochemistry professor designed a high-quality camera of this type which was commercially introduced by Bermpohl in 1903. It was probably this Miethe-Bermpohl camera which was used by Miethe’s pupil Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii to make his now- celebrated color photographic surveys of Russia before the 1917 revolution. One sophisticated variant, patented by Frederic Eugene Ives in 1897, was driven by clockwork and could be adjusted to automatically make each of the exposures for a different length of time according to the particular color sensitivities of the emulsion being used.[16] Otherwise simple cameras with multiple color-filtered lenses were sometimes tried, but unless everything in the scene was at a great distance, or all in a plane at the same distance, the difference in the viewpoints of the lenses (parallax) made it impossible to completely “register” all parts of the resulting images at the same time.

Color photography leaves the laboratory

Prior to the late 1890s color photography was strictly the domain of a very few intrepid experimenters willing to build their own equipment, do their own color-sensitizing of photographic emulsions, make and test their own color filters and otherwise devote a large amount of time and effort to their pursuits. There were many opportunities for something to go wrong during the series of operations required and problem-free results were rare. Most photographers still regarded the whole idea of color photography as a pipe dream, something only madmen and swindlers would claim to have accomplished. In 1898, however, it was possible to buy the required equipment and supplies ready-made. Two adequately red- sensitive photographic plates[17] were already on the market, and two very different systems of color photography with 1.1. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 9

A 1917 Autochrome color photograph of a French Army lookout at his observation post during World War I.

which to use them, tantalizingly described in photographic magazines for several years past, were finally available to the public. The most extensive and expensive of the two was the “Kromskop” (pronounced “chrome-scope”) system developed by Frederic Eugene Ives. This was a straightforward additive system and its essential elements had been described by James Clerk Maxwell, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros much earlier, but Ives invested years of careful work and ingenuity in refining the methods and materials to optimize color quality, in overcoming problems inherent 10 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1 in the optical systems involved, and in simplifying the apparatus to bring down the cost of producing it commer- cially. The color images, dubbed “Kromograms,” were in the form of sets of three black-and-white transparencies on glass, mounted onto special cloth-tape-hinged triple cardboard frames. To see a Kromogram in color it had to be inserted into a “Kromskop” (generic name “chromoscope” or “photochromoscope”), a viewing device which used an arrangement of colored glass filters to illuminate each slide with the correct color of light and transparent reflectors to visually combine them into a single full-color image. The most popular model was stereoscopic. By looking through its pair of lenses, an image in full natural color and 3-D was seen, a startling novelty in the late Victorian age. The results won near-universal praise for excellence and realism. At demonstrations, Ives sometimes placed a viewer displaying a still-life subject next to the actual objects photographed, inviting direct comparison. A Kromskop triple “lantern” could be used to project the three images, mounted in a special metal or wooden frame for this purpose, through filters as Maxwell had done in 1861. Prepared Kromograms of still-life subjects, landscapes, famous build- ings and works of art were sold and these were the Kromskop viewer’s usual fodder, but a “multiple back” camera attachment and a set of three specially adjusted color filters could be bought by “Kromskopists” wishing to make their own Kromograms. Kromskops and ready-made Kromograms were bought by educational institutions for their value in teaching about color and color vision, and by individuals who were in a position to pay a substantial sum for an intriguing optical toy. A few people did, indeed, make their own Kromograms. Unfortunately for Ives, this was not enough to sustain the businesses which had been set up to exploit the system and they soon failed, but the viewers, projectors, Kromograms and several varieties of Kromskop cameras and camera attachments continued to be available through the Scientific Shop in Chicago as late as 1907.

The Screen Plate era

The simpler and somewhat more economical alternative was the Joly Screen process. This required no special camera or viewer, just a special color-compensating filter for the and a special holder for the photographic plates. The holder contained the heart of the system: a clear glass plate on which very fine lines of three colors had been ruled in a regular repeating pattern, completely covering its surface. The idea was that instead of taking three separate complete photographs through three colored filters, the filters could be in the form of a large number of very narrow strips (the colored lines) allowing the necessary color information to be recorded in a single compound image. After the negative was developed, a positive transparency was printed from it and a viewing screen with red, green and blue lines in the same pattern as the lines of the taking screen was applied and carefully aligned. The colors then appeared as if by magic. The transparency and screen were very like the layer of monochrome liquid crystal elements and overlay of hair-thin red, green and blue color filter stripes which create the color image in a typical LCD display. This was the invention of Irish scientist John Joly, although he, like so many other inventors, eventually discovered that his basic concept had been anticipated in Louis Ducos du Hauron’s long-since-expired 1868 patent.[18] The Joly Screen process had some problems. First and foremost, although the colored lines were reasonably fine (about 75 sets of three colored lines to the inch) they were still disturbingly visible at normal viewing distances and nearly intolerable when enlarged by projection. This problem was exacerbated by the fact that each screen was individually ruled on a machine which used three pens to apply the transparent colored inks, resulting in irregularities, high reject rates and high cost. The glass used for photographic plates at the time was not perfectly flat, and lack of uniform good contact between the screen and the image gave rise to areas of degraded color. Poor contact also caused false colors to appear if the sandwich was viewed at an angle. Although much simpler than the Kromskop system, the Joly system was not inexpensive. The starter kit of plate holder, compensating filter, one taking screen and one viewing screen cost $30 (the equivalent of at least $750 in 2010 dollars) and additional viewing screens were $1 each (the equivalent of at least $25 in 2010 dollars). This system, too, soon died of neglect, although in fact it pointed the way to the future. Surviving examples of the Joly process usually show extremely poor color now. The colors in the viewing screens have badly faded and shifted, making it impossible to judge their original appearance. In some specimens the viewing screen is also misaligned. Lippmann photography is a way of making a color photograph that relies on Bragg reflection planes in the emulsion to make the colors. It is similar to using the colors of soap bubbles to make an image. Gabriel Jonas Lippmann won the Nobel Prize in physics in 1908 for the creation of the first color photographic process using a single emulsion. The color fidelity is extremely high but the images can not be reproduced and viewing requires very specific lighting conditions. The development of the Autochrome process quickly rendered the Lippmann method redundant. The method is still utilized to make singular images that cannot be copied for security purposes. 1.1. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 11

The first commercially successful color process, the Lumière Autochrome, invented by the French Lumière brothers, reached the market in 1907. It was based on an irregular screen plate filter made of dyed grains of potato starch which were too small to be individually visible. The light-sensitive emulsion was coated directly onto the screen, eliminating problems due to imperfect contact between the screen and image. Reversal processing was used to convert the negative image which was initially produced into a positive image, so no printing or screen registration was required. The shortcomings of the Autochrome process were the expense (one plate cost about as much as a dozen black-and-white plates of the same size), the relatively long exposure times which made hand-held “snapshots” and photographs of moving subjects impractical, and the density of the finished image due to the presence of the light-absorbing color screen. Viewed under optimum conditions and by daylight as intended, a well-made and well-preserved Autochrome can look startlingly fresh and vivid. Unfortunately, modern film and digital copies are usually made with a highly diffused light source, which causes loss of color saturation and other ill effects due to light scatter within the structure of the screen and emulsion, and by fluorescent or other artificial light which alters the . The capabilities of the process should not be judged by the dull, washed-out, odd-colored reproductions commonly seen. Millions of Autochrome plates were manufactured and used during the quarter century before the plates were replaced by film-based versions in the 1930s. The very last film version, named Alticolor, brought the Autochrome process into the 1950s but was discontinued in 1955. Many additive color screen products were available between the 1890s and the 1950s, but none, with the possible exception of , introduced as film for still photography in 1935, was as popular or successful as the Lumière Autochrome. The most recent use of the additive screen process for non- was in Polachrome, an “instant” 35mm slide film introduced in 1983 and discontinued about twenty years later.

Tripacks

Louis Ducos du Hauron had suggested using a sandwich of three differently color-recording emulsions on transparent supports which could be exposed together in an ordinary camera, then taken apart and used like any other set of three-color separations. The problem was that although two of the emulsions could be in contact face-to-face, the third would have to be separated by the thickness of one transparent support layer. Because all silver halide emulsions are inherently sensitive to blue, the blue-recording layer ought to be on top and have a blue-blocking yellow filter layer behind it. This blue-recording layer, used to make the yellow print which could most afford to be “soft,” would end up producing the sharpest image. The two layers behind it, one sensitized to red but not green and the other to green but not red, would suffer from scattering of the light as it passed through the topmost emulsion, and one or both would further suffer by being spaced away from it. Despite these limitations, some “tripacks” were commercially produced, such as the Hess-Ives “Hiblock” which sandwiched an emulsion on film between emulsions coated on glass plates. For a brief period in the early 1930s, the American Agfa-Ansco company produced Colorol, a roll-film tripack for cameras. The three emulsions were on unusually thin film bases. After exposure, the roll was sent to Agfa-Ansco for processing and the triple negatives were returned to the customer with a set of color prints. The images were not sharp and the color was not very good, but they were genuine “natural color” snapshots. “Bipacks” using only two emulsions face-to-face were the subject of some development. Although the range of colors which could be reproduced by only two components was limited, skin tones and most hair and eye colors could be rendered with surprising fidelity, making bipack processes a viable option for color portraiture. In commercial practice, however, the use of bipacks was almost entirely confined to two-color motion picture systems. If the three layers of emulsion in a tripack did not have to be taken apart in order to produce the cyan, magenta and yellow dye images from them, they could be coated directly on top of each other, eliminating the most serious problems. In fact, some chemical magic was under development which would make that possible.

Color film since the 1930s

In 1935, American Eastman Kodak introduced the first modern “integral tripack” color film and called it , a name recycled from an earlier and completely different two-color process. Its development was led by the improb- able team of and , Jr. (nicknamed “Man” and “God”), two highly regarded classical musicians who had started tinkering with color photographic processes and ended up working with the Ko- dak Research Laboratories. Kodachrome had three layers of emulsion coated on a single base, each layer recording one of the three additive primaries, red, green, and blue. In keeping with Kodak’s old “you press the button, we do 12 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

the rest” slogan, the film was simply loaded into the camera, exposed in the ordinary way, then mailed to Kodak for processing. The complicated part, if the complexities of manufacturing the film are ignored, was the processing, which involved the controlled penetration of chemicals into the three layers of emulsion. Only a simplified descrip- tion of the process is appropriate in a short history: as each layer was developed into a black-and-white silver image, a "" added during that stage of development caused a cyan, magenta or yellow dye image to be created along with it. The silver images were chemically removed, leaving only the three layers of dye images in the finished film. Initially, Kodachrome was available only as 16mm film for , but in 1936 it was also introduced as 8mm home movie film and short lengths of 35mm film for still photography. In 1938, sheet film in various sizes for professional photographers was introduced, some changes were made to cure early problems with unstable colors, and a somewhat simplified processing method was instituted. In 1936, the German Agfa followed with their own integral tripack film, Neu, which was generally similar to Kodachrome but had one important advantage: Agfa had found a way to incorporate the dye couplers into the emulsion layers during manufacture, allowing all three layers to be developed at the same time and greatly simplifying the processing. Most modern color films, excepting the now-discontinued Kodachrome, use the incorporated dye coupler technique, but since the 1970s nearly all have used a modification developed by Kodak rather than the original Agfa version. In 1941, Kodak made it possible to order prints from Kodachrome slides. The print “paper” was actually a white plastic coated with a multilayer emulsion similar to that on the film. These were the first commercially available color prints created by the chromogenic dye coupler method. In the following year, film was introduced. Unlike Kodachrome, it was designed to be processed into a negative image which showed not only light and dark reversed but also complementary colors. The use of such a negative for making prints on paper simplified the processing of the prints, reducing their cost. The expense of color film as compared to black-and-white and the difficulty of using it with indoor lighting combined to delay its widespread adoption by amateurs. In 1950, black-and-white snapshots were still the norm. By 1960, color was much more common but still tended to be reserved for travel photos and special occasions. Color film and color prints still cost several times as much as black-and-white, and taking color snapshots in deep shade or indoors required the use of flash bulbs, an inconvenience and an additional expense. By 1970, prices were coming down, film sensitivity had been improved, electronic flash units were replacing flash bulbs, and in most families color had become the norm for snapshot-taking. Black-and-white film continued to be used by some photographers who preferred it for aesthetic reasons or who wanted to take pictures by existing light in low-light conditions, which was still difficult to do with color film. They usually did their own developing and printing. By 1980, black-and-white film in the formats used by typical snapshot cameras, as well as commercial developing and printing service for it, had nearly disappeared. Instant color film was introduced by Polaroid in 1963. Like Polaroid’s contemporary instant black-and-white film, their first color product was a negative-positive peel-apart process which produced a unique print on paper. The negative could not be re-used and was discarded. The blight created by carelessly discarded caustic-chemical-laden Polaroid negatives, which tended to accumulate most heavily at the prettiest, most snapshot-worthy locations, horrified Polaroid founder Edwin Land and prompted him to develop the later SX-70 system, which produced no separate negative to discard. Some currently available color films are designed to produce positive transparencies for use in a slide or magnifying viewer, although paper prints can also be made from them. Transparencies are preferred by some profes- sional photographers who use film because they can be judged without having to print them first. Transparencies are also capable of a wider dynamic range, and therefore of a greater degree of realism, than the more convenient medium of prints on paper. The early popularity of color “slides” among amateurs went into decline after the introduction of automated printing equipment started bringing print quality up and prices down. Other currently available films are designed to produce color negatives for use in creating enlarged positive prints on color . Color negatives may also be digitally scanned and then printed by non-photographic means or viewed as positives electronically. Unlike reversal-film transparency processes, negative-positive processes are, within limits, forgiving of incorrect exposure and poor color lighting, because a considerable degree of correction is possible at the time of printing. Negative film is therefore more suitable for casual use by amateurs. Virtually all single-use cameras employ negative film. Photographic transparencies can be made from negatives by printing them on special “positive film,” but this has always been unusual outside of the motion picture industry and commercial service to do it for still images may no longer be available. Negative films and paper prints are by far the most common form of color film photography today. 1.1. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 13

Digital photography

After a transition period centered around 1995-2005, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi- megapixel digital cameras which can shoot both in monochrome as well as color. Film continues to be the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive “look” and fondness of the format.

1.1.2 Artists’ perspectives

Photographers differed in opinion about color photography when it was first introduced. Some fully embraced it when it was available to the public in the late 1930s, while others remained skeptical of its relevance in the art of photography.

Fans of color

Ferenc Berko, a classic photographer who lived during the rise of color film, was one of the photographers who immediately recognized the potential of color film. He saw it as a new way to frame the world; a way to experiment with the subjects he photographed and how he conveyed emotion in the photograph.[19] John Hedgecoe, another photographer who lived during this time period, was another example of those who preferred color. He published a book entitled The Art of Color Photography, in which he explained the importance of under- standing the “special and often subtle relationships between different colors”. He also described the psychological and emotional power that color can have on the viewer, since certain colors, he argues, can make people feel a certain way.[20] Jan Groover, a postmodernist famous for her work during the 1970s used color extensively in her work.

Skeptics

Though color photography had its followers, black-and-white still remained the more popular and respected film when color first came out. Harold Baquet, for instance—a relatively current photographer known best for documenting New Orleans civil rights—was not keen on color. He preferred to take pictures mainly using black-and-white film. When asked about his reasoning for this preference during an interview, he replied “The less is more thing. Sometimes the color distracts from the essential subject. Sometimes, just light, line and form is enough, and it allows you to explore the sculptural qualities of that third dimension, that illusional dimension of depth. And it’s fun”.[21] This aversion to color was due mainly to a fear of losing in his pictures. He worried that color gave the eye too much to take in.[21] This worry was not uncommon. Photographer Ansel Adams, known best for his dramatic black-and-white landscapes, also felt that color could be distracting, and could therefore divert the artist’s attention away from creating a photograph to his full potential, according to some experts. Adams actually claimed that he could get “a far greater sense of 'color' through a well-planned and executed black-and-white image than [he had] ever achieved with color photography”.[22] Another expert source mentioned that Adams was a “master of control”. He wrote books about technique, developed the Zone System—which helped determine the optimal exposure and development time for a given photograph—and introduced the idea of “previsualization”, which involved the photographer imagining what he wanted his final print to look like before he even took the shot. These concepts and methods allowed for nearly total control of all the potential variables that factor into a final print. Because of this love for control, Adams disliked color because it lacked this element that he had mastered with black-and-white. While Adams initially was far from thrilled with color, he did experiment with it, unknown to many. A few examples of his color work are available in the online archive of the Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona. His subjects that he shot in color ranged from portraits to landscape to architecture;[23] a similar scope to that of his work. In fact, toward the end of his life, Adams admitted his regret of not being able to master the technique of color, according to an expert source. Though a wide range of film preference still exists among photographers today, color has, with time, gained a much larger following as well as a higher level of respect in the field of photography as a whole. 14 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

1.1.3 Preservation issues

Experimentation with creating photographs that mirrored the colors of real life began in the 1840s. Each process may require different methods of preservation. Color photographic materials are impermanent and are by nature unstable. Chromogenic color photographs, for example, are composed of yellow, magenta, and cyan organic dyes, which fade at different rates. Even when in dark storage and enclosed in the proper archival materials, deterioration is unavoidable. However, when given the proper preservation care, fading, color shifting, and discoloration can be delayed.

Factors

Numerous factors can deteriorate and even destroy photographs. Some examples include:

• High temperature and high relative humidity (RH) • Air pollution and dirt • Light exposure • Biological threats such as fungi and insects • Residual processing chemicals • Base and emulsion deterioration • Handling and usage • Improper storage and enclosures

Three signs of age that affect color photography are:

• Dark fading occurs regardless of the procedures taken to preserve a photograph and is unavoidable. It is instigated by temperature and RH. Cyan dyes will typically fade more quickly, which will make the image appear too red in color. • Light fading occurs when materials are exposed to light, e.g. while on display. The intensity of the light source and ultraviolet (UV) rays will affect the rate of change and fade. Magenta dyes will typically fade the quickest. • Highlight staining occurs with older color photographic papers, and is a yellowing of the border and highlight areas of a photograph.

Storage

In general, the colder the storage, the longer the “life” of color photographs. Frost-free refrigeration, more commonly known as cold storage (below freezing) is one of the most effective ways to bring a halt to developing damage to color photographic materials. Selecting this type of storage environment is costly and requires special training to remove and return items. Therefore, cool storage (above freezing) is more common and less costly, which requires that the temperature is consistently between 10–15 °C (50–59 °F) with 30–40% relative humidity with special attention to dew point to eliminate concerns for condensation. General dark storage in light tight enclosures and storage boxes is always advised for individual items. When materials are exposed to light during handling, usage, or display, light sources should be UV-filtered and intensity kept at minimum. In storage areas, 200–400 lux is recommended.

Recommended storage

The usage of enclosures is the easiest method of preserving photographic materials from being damaged through han- dling and light exposure. All protective materials should pass the Photographic Activity Test (PAT) as described both by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in standard IT9.2-1988, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in standard 18916:2007(E), Photography – Processed Photographic Materials – Photographic 1.1. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 15

Activity Test for Enclosure Materials. The PAT is an archival science test that determines what kind of enclosures will preserve, prevent, and/or prolong from further deterioration while in storage. The recommended use of archival enclosures includes each item having its own enclosure and that each enclosure is of the appropriate size. Archival enclosures may come in two different forms: paper or plastic. Choosing either option has its advantages and disadvantages.

• Paper enclosures should be non-acidic, lignin-free paper and may come in either buffered or non-buffered stock. An advantage of paper is that it is generally less costly than plastic enclosures. The opaque quality of paper protects photographs from light exposure, and the porous quality protects photographs from humidity and gaseous pollutants. However, for images to be viewed, they must be removed from the enclosure, putting the materials at risk for mishandling and/or vandalism.

• Archival quality plastic enclosures are made of uncoated polyester, polypropylene, or polyethylene. The transparent quality of plastic lends itself to easier access to the image because there is no extra step to remove the photograph. Plastic is also less resistant to tears in comparison to paper. Some disadvantages include being prone to static electricity and a risk of ferrotyping (the act of moisture becoming trapped between the enclosure and item, causing the materials to stick to one another).

After photographic materials are individually enclosed, housing or storage containers provide another protective barrier such as folders and boxes made from archival paperboard as addressed in ISO Standards 18916:2007 and 18902. Sometimes these containers have to be custom-made in order to properly store odd sizes. In general, flat storage in boxes is recommended because it provides more stable support, particularly for materials that are in more fragile condition. Still, boxes and folders should never be over-filled with materials.

1.1.4 Research

Suspended nanoparticles in the glass prevent U.V light from causing chemical reactions that change image colors. For this reason stained glass is being used to capture true color images of Mars for the 2019 ESA Mars rover mission.[24]

1.1.5 Patents

• U.S. Patent 2,059,884—Color photography

1.1.6 See also

People

•

• William Eggleston

•

• Luis Marden

• Otto Pfenninger

• Stephen Shore

• Jules Gervais-Courtellemont

• Léon Gimpel

• Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky

• Luigi Ghirri 16 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

Other topics

• Hand-coloring (easily mistaken for early color photography)

• Photographic processes

• Color motion picture film

•

•

• Film colorization

•

• Timeline of historic inventions

• Photochrome

• The Shackleton Expedition, on which Paget color photography was used, among other types

1.1.7 Notes

[1] Shepherd, Sanger. Provisional Catalogue of Apparatus and Materials for Natural Colour Photography: Sanger Shepherd Process. Archive.org. Retrieved 26 October 2015.

[2] Hudson, Giles (2012). Sarah Angelina Acland: First Lady of Colour Photography. Oxford: Bodleian Library, University of Oxford. ISBN 978 1 85124 372 3. Retrieved 16 January 2013. Distributed by The University of Chicago Press in the US.

[3] “1861: James Clerk Maxwell’s greatest year”. King’s College London. 3 January 2017.

[4] “From Charles Mackintosh’s waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world”. The independent. 30 December 2016.

[5] From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967.

[6] Jacques Bintz, “Gabriel Lippmann 1845–1921”, in Gabriel Lippmann: Commémoration par la section des sciences na- turelles, physiques et mathématiques de l’Institut grand-ducal de Luxembourg du 150e anniversaire du savant né au Lux- embourg, lauréat du prix Nobel en 1908 (Luxembourg: Section des sciences naturelles, physiques et mathématiques de l’Institut grand-ducal de Luxembourg en collaboration avec le Séminaire de mathématique et le Séminaire d’histoire des sciences et de la médecine du centre universitaire de Luxembourg, 1997), Jean-Paul Pier & Jos. A. Massard: éditeurs, Luxembourg 1997. Retrieved 4 December 2010.

[7] Maxwell, James Clerk (1855). “Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness”. Trans. Royal Society of Edinburgh. XXI part II. Retrieved 2014-07-06.

[8] Science progress in the twentieth century: a quarterly journal of scientific work & thought, Volume 2. John Murray. 1908. p. 359. (Note: in apparent deference to the primaries named by Thomas Young, Maxwell calls the short-wavelength primary “violet” in the relevant paragraphs of his 1855 paper, though he actually used blue in his own experiments, which the paper also describes, and in his 1861 demonstration)

[9] “The first colour photograph, 1861”. The Guardian. 3 January 2017.

[10] R.W.G. Hunt (2004). The Reproduction of Colour, 6th edition. Wiley. pp 9–10. R.M. Evans (1961a). “Some Notes on Maxwell’s Colour Photograph.” Journal of Photographic Science 9. pp243–246 R.M. Evans (1961b). “Maxwell’s Color Photography”. Scientific Photography 205. pp 117–128.

[11] Vogel, H: “On the sensitiveness of bromide of silver to the so-called chemically inactive colours”, Chemical News, De- cember 26, 1873:318-319, copying from The Photographic News, date and page not cited but apparently December 12, 1873 (the latter not known to be available online as of August 6, 2010), in turn translated from Vogel’s own publication Photographische Mittheilungen, December, 1873 10(117):233-237. The capital letters used in this and other sources cited refer to the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum, in keeping with contemporary practice. For convenience of reference: C is 656 nm, a slightly deeper red than the output of an average red laser pointer; D is 589 nm, the orange-yellow light of a sodium vapor lamp; E is 527 nm, green. 1.1. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 17

[12] Vogel, H: “Photo-spectroscopic researches”, The Photographic News, March 20, 1874:136-137, translated from Pho- tographische Mittheilungen, February, 1874 10(119):279-283.

[13] Vogel, H: “Rendering actinic non-actinic rays”, The Photographic News, July 3, 1874:320-321, a direct communication (apparently in the original English) to The Photographic News.

[14] Meldola, R. “Recent Researches In Photography”. “Popular Science”, October 1874, Pg.717-720 ISSN 0161-7370

[15] Becquerel, E: “The action of rays of different refrangibility upon the iodide and bromide of silver: the influence of colouring matters”, The Photographic News, October 23, 1874:508-509, translated from Comptes Rendus (1874) 79:185-190 (the latter downloaded from the Bibliotheque Nationale Francaise on January 28, 2006 but not directly linkable). Note one significant error in the Photographic News translation, page 509: "...vigorous band between the rays C and D” (referring to Fraunhofer lines) should be “C and B” per the original French text and in agreement with subsequent mentions in the translation.

[16] Ives, F: Kromskop Color Photography, pages 33-35. The Photochromoscope Syndicate Limited, London, 1898. Only a brief description of this automated camera is given but a line drawing of the mechanism and the patent reference are included. An Ives one-shot camera is described and illustrated on pages 30-33 and a horizontally oriented multiple back attachment is illustrated on page 37.

[17] Abney, W: “Orthochromatic photography”, Journal of the Society of Arts, May 22, 1896 44:587-597 describes and il- lustrates (with spectrum photographs and curves) the characteristics of the Lumière Panchromatic and Cadett Spectrum plates as of 1896. Note that during this period “orthochromatic” was not intended to mean “red-blind,” although most or all commercial products so labeled indeed were, which may explain the subsequent evolution in the meaning of the word. The wild roller-coaster curves necessitated laborious adjustment and testing of the color filters to obtain the three desired curves. In the cases of the red and green filters, that could mean quashing over ninety-nine percent of the overall sensitiv- ity, requiring exposures measured in seconds under circumstances where one-fiftieth of a second would have sufficed for unfiltered monochrome use. Disproportionate blue sensitivity, requiring the use of a yellow filter for accurate monochrome rendition in daylight, was typical of commercial panchromatic emulsions far into the 20th Century. See also the previously referenced Ives, F: Kromskop Color Photography, price list (following page 80) pages 1-2, and the subsequently referenced Joly, J: “On a method...”, page 135 for mentions of the use of the Lumière Panchromatic in those systems. The alternative alluded to in Ives may be the Cadett Spectrum but could also be the Edwards Isochromatic, only slightly sensitive to red, which Ives is on record as having employed at an earlier date. The Cadett Lightning Spectrum plate, with an improved spectral response curve and greatly increased overall speed, was available by mid-1900.

[18] Joly, J: “On a method of photography in natural colors”, Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society, October, 1896 6(2):127-138 includes details such as the actual reasons for the unusual colors employed in the taking screen and examples of the exposures required. The color illustrations have obviously had considerable hand-work done by the engravers and may have been entirely hand-colored using the original transparencies as a guide. As is evident from page 127, publication was delayed by more than a year. The 1895 date is confirmed by the publication of a lengthy abstract in Nature, November 28, 1895 53(1361):91-93.

[19] Honan, William (March 26, 2000). “Ferenc Berko, 84, Pioneer In Use of Color Photography”. The New York Times.

[20] Hedgecoe, John (1998). The Art of Color Photography. Reed Consumer Books.

[21] Tuley, Laura (2007). “An Interview with Harold Baquet”. New Orleans Review.

[22] Woodward, Richard. “Ansel Adams in Color”. Smithsonian Magazine.

[23] “Ansel Adams Photographs”. Center for Creative Photography at the University of Arizona Libraries.

[24] ELLIE ZOLFAGHARIFARD (15 October 2013). “How medieval stained-glass is creating the ultimate SPACE camera: Nanoparticles used in church windows will help scientists see Mars’ true colours under extreme UV light”. Dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-10-26.

1.1.8 References

• Coe, Brian, Colour Photography: the first hundred years 1840-1940, Ash & Grant, 1978. • Coote, Jack, The Illustrated History of Colour Photography, Fountain Press Ltd., 1993, ISBN 0-86343-380-4 • Eastman Kodak Company. (1979). Preservation of photographs. Kodak publication, no. F-30. [Rochester, N.Y.]: Eastman Kodak Co. • Great Britain, & Paine, C. (1996). Standards in the museum care of photographic collections 1996. London: Museums & Galleries Commission. ISBN 0-948630-42-6 18 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

• Keefe, L. E., & Inch, D. (1990). The life of a photograph: archival processing, matting, , storage. : Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-80024-9, ISBN 978-0-240-80024-0 • Lavédrine, B., Gandolfo, J.-P., & Monod, S. (2003). A guide to the preventive conservation of photograph collections. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute. ISBN 0-89236-701-6, ISBN 978-0-89236-701-6 • Photograph preservation and the research library. (1991). Mountain View, Ca: The Research Libraries Group. ISBN 0-87985-212-7 • Penichon, Sylvie (2013). Twentieth-Century Color Photographs: Identification and Care. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN 978-1-60606-156-5 • Reilly, J. M. (1998). Storage guide for color photographic materials. Albany, N.Y.: University of the State of New York ... [et al.]. • Ritzenthaler, M. L., Vogt-O'Connor, D., & Ritzenthaler, M. L. (2006). Photographs: archival care and man- agement. Chicago: Society of American Archivists. ISBN 1-931666-17-2, ISBN 978-1-931666-17-6 • Sipley, Louis Walton, A Half Century of Color, Macmillan, 1951 • Time-Life Books. (1982). Caring for photographs: display, storage, restoration. Life library of photography. Alexandria, Va: Time-Life Books. ISBN 0-8094-4420-8 • Weinstein, R. A., & Booth, L. (1977). Collection, use, and care of historical photographs. Nashville: American Association for State and Local History. ISBN 0-910050-21-X • Wilhelm, H. G., & Brower, C. (1993). The permanence and care of color photographs: traditional and digital color prints, color negatives, slides, and motion pictures. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.: Preservation Pub. Co. ISBN 0-911515-00-3 • Wythe, D. (2004). Museum archives: an introduction. Chicago: Society of American Archivists. ISBN 1- 931666-06-7, ISBN 978-1-931666-06-0

1.1.9 External links

• Color Film Information and Comparisons Chart

General

• Internet Resources compiled by the Northeast Document Conservation Center • “Care and Handling and Storage of Photographs” by Mark Roosa (IFLA) • Conservation Register • Image Permanence Institute • Library of Congress – Information Leaflet: Photographs • National Archives and Records Administration – Cold Storage Handling Guidelines • National Park Service. Conserve-O-Gram (select PDF versions on menu) • Henry Wilhelm

Online collections

• Library of Congress Prokudin-Gorskii collection • 100 of Prokudin-Gorsky’s photographs from 1909 to 1915 with captions in pdf format • Online high-resolution selection of color photographs from 1905 to 1915 by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin- Gorskii • Video (09:03) – notable historical still images – now colorized 1.1. COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 19

Supplies

• Library of Congress List of Photographic Preservation Supplies Chapter 2

Day 2

2.1 Photographic film

This article is mainly concerned with still photography film. For motion picture film, please see film stock.

Undeveloped 35 mm, ISO 125/22°, black and white negative film

Photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film.[1] The emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a very short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change, proportional to the amount of light absorbed by each crystal. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be chemically developed into a visible photograph. In addition to visible light, all films are sensitive to ultraviolet, X-rays and high-energy particles. Unmodified silver halide crystals are sensitive only to the blue part of the , producing unnatural-looking renditions of some colored subjects. This problem was overcome with the discovery that certain dyes, called sensitizing dyes, when adsorbed onto the silver halide crystals made them respond to other colors as well. First orthochromatic (sensitive to blue and green) and finally panchromatic (sensitive to all visible colors) films were developed. Panchromatic film renders all colors in shades of gray approximately matching their subjective brightness. By similar techniques special-purpose films can be made sensitive to the infrared (IR) region of the spectrum.[2] In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver halide crystals. When the exposed silver halide grains are developed, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver, which blocks light and appears as the black part of the film negative. Color film has at least three sensitive layers, incorporating different combinations of sensitizing dyes. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by a yellow filter layer to stop any remaining blue light from affecting the layers below. Next come a green-and-blue sensitive layer, and a red-and-blue sensitive layer, which record the green and red images respectively. During development, the exposed silver halide crystals are

20 2.1. 21

converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. But in a color film, the by-products of the development reaction simultaneously combine with chemicals known as color couplers that are included either in the film itself or in the developer solution to form colored dyes. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, the dye clouds formed are also in proportion to the exposure and development. Following development, the silver is converted back to silver halide crystals in the bleach step. It is removed from the film during the process of fixing the image on the film with a solution of ammonium or sodium thiosulfate (hypo or fixer).[3] Fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers,[4] with upwards of 20 different chemicals in each layer.

2.1.1 History of film

See also: The earliest practical photographic process, the , introduced in 1839, did not use film. The light- sensitive chemicals were formed on the surface of a silver-plated sheet.[5] The process produced paper negatives.[6] Beginning in the 1850s, thin glass plates coated with photographic emulsion became the standard material for use in the camera. Although fragile and relatively heavy, the glass used for photographic plates was of better optical quality than early transparent plastics and was, at first, less expensive. Glass plates continued to be used long after the introduction of film, and were used for [7] and electron micrography until the early 2000s, when they were supplanted by digital recording methods. Ilford continues to manufacture glass plates for special scientific applications.[8] The first flexible photographic roll film was sold by George Eastman in 1885,[9] but this original “film” was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper and attached to a sheet of hardened clear gelatin. The first transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889.[10] It was made from highly flammable nitrocellulose ("celluloid"), now usually called "nitrate film". Although cellulose acetate or "safety film" had been introduced by Kodak in 1908,[11] at first it found only a few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was completed for X-ray films in 1933, but although safety film was always used for 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm films until it was finally discontinued in 1951.[12] Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on the light sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised.[13] They developed H&D curves, which are specific for each film and paper. These curves plot the photographic density against the log of the exposure, to determine sensitivity or speed of the emulsion and enabling correct exposure.[14]

Spectral sensitivity

Early photographic plates and films were usefully sensitive only to blue, violet and ultraviolet light. As a result, the relative tonal values in a scene registered roughly as they would appear if viewed through a piece of deep blue glass. Blue skies with interesting cloud formations photographed as a white blank. Any detail visible in masses of green foliage was due mainly to the colorless surface gloss. Bright and appeared nearly black. Most skin tones came out unnaturally dark, and uneven or freckled complexions were exaggerated. Photographers sometimes compensated by adding in skies from separate negatives that had been exposed and processed to optimize the visibility of the clouds, by manually retouching their negatives to adjust problematic tonal values, and by heavily powdering the faces of their portrait sitters. In 1873, Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the spectral sensitivity could be extended to green and yellow light by adding very small quantities of certain dyes to the emulsion. The instability of early sensitizing dyes and their tendency to rapidly cause fogging initially confined their use to the laboratory, but in 1883 the first commercially dye-sensitized plates appeared on the market. These early products, described as isochromatic or orthochromatic depending on the manufacturer, made possible a more accurate rendering of colored subject matter into a black-and- white image. Because they were still disproportionately sensitive to blue, the use of a yellow filter and a consequently longer exposure time were required to take full advantage of their extended sensitivity. In 1894, the Lumière Brothers introduced their Lumière Panchromatic plate, which was made sensitive, although very unequally, to all colors including red. New and improved sensitizing dyes were developed, and in 1902 the much more evenly color-sensitive Perchromo panchromatic plate was being sold by the German manufacturer Perutz. The 22 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

Advertisement for Ansco Speedex film, 1922 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM 23 commercial availability of highly panchromatic black-and-white emulsions also accelerated the progress of practical color photography, which requires good sensitivity to all the colors of the spectrum for the red, green and blue channels of color information to all be captured with reasonable exposure times. However, all of these were glass-based plate products. Panchromatic emulsions on a film base were not commercially available until the 1910s and did not come into general use until much later. Many photographers who did their own darkroom work preferred to go without the seeming luxury of sensitivity to red—a rare color in nature and uncommon even in man-made objects—rather than be forced to abandon the traditional red darkroom and process their exposed film in complete darkness. Kodak’s popular Verichrome black-and-white snapshot film, introduced in 1931, remained a red-insensitive orthochromatic product until 1956, when it was replaced by Verichrome Pan. Amateur darkroom enthusiasts then had to handle the undeveloped film by the sense of touch alone.

Color

Experiments with color photography began almost as early as photography itself, but the three-color principle under- lying all practical processes was not set forth until 1855, not demonstrated until 1861, and not generally accepted as “real” color photography until it had become an undeniable commercial reality in the early 20th century. Although color photographs of good quality were being made by the 1890s, they required special equipment, long exposures, complex printing or display procedures and highly specialized skills, so they were then exceedingly rare. The first practical and commercially successful color “film” was the Lumière Autochrome, a glass plate product introduced in 1907. It was expensive and not sensitive enough for hand-held “snapshot” use. Film-based versions were introduced in the early 1930s and the sensitivity was later improved. These were “mosaic screen” additive color products, which used a simple layer of black-and-white emulsion in combination with a layer of microscopically small color filter elements. The resulting transparencies or “slides” were very dark because the color filter mosaic layer absorbed most of the light passing through. The last films of this type were discontinued in the 1950s, but Polachrome “instant” slide film, introduced in 1983, temporarily revived the technology. “Color film” in the modern sense of a subtractive color product with a multi-layered emulsion was born with the introduction of Kodachrome for home movies in 1935 and as lengths of 35 mm film for still cameras in 1936. During the next several decades, color remained much more expensive than black-and-white and required much more light, factors which combined to delay its widespread adoption. Decreasing cost and increasing sensitivity gradually overcame these impediments. By the 1970s color film predominated in the consumer market, while the use of black-and-white film was increasingly confined to and fine art photography.

Effect on lens and equipment design

Photographic lenses and equipment are designed around the film to be used. Although the earliest photographic materials were sensitive only to the blue-violet end of the spectrum, partially color-corrected achromatic lenses were normally used, so that when the photographer brought the visually brightest yellow rays to a sharp focus, the visually dimmest but photographically most active violet rays would be correctly focused, too. The introduction of orthochro- matic emulsions required the whole range of colors from yellow to blue to be brought to an adequate focus. Most plates and films described as orthochromatic or isochromatic were practically insensitive to red, so the correct focus of red light was unimportant; a red window could be used to view the frame numbers on the paper backing of roll film, as any red light which leaked around the backing would not fog the film; and red lighting could be used in . With the introduction of panchromatic film the whole visible spectrum needed to be brought to an acceptably sharp focus. In all cases a color cast in the lens glass or faint colored reflections in the image were of no consequence as they would merely change the contrast a little. This was no longer acceptable when using color film. More highly corrected lenses for newer emulsions could be used with older emulsion types, but the converse was not true. The progression of lens design for later emulsions is of practical importance when considering the use of old lenses, still often used on large-format equipment; a lens designed for orthochromatic film may have visible defects with a color emulsion; a lens for panchromatic film will be better but not as good as later designs. The filters used were different for the different film types.

2.1.2 Film basics

There are several types of photographic film, including: 24 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

1 2 Photo 135 3

4

5

6

7 8

9

Layers of 35mm color film: 1. Film base; 2. Subbing layer; 3. Red light sensitive layer; 4. Green light sensitive layer; 5. Yellow filter; 6. Blue light sensitive layer; 7. UV Filter; 8. Protective layer; 9. (Visible light exposing film).

• Print film, when developed, yields transparent negatives with the light and dark areas and colors (if color film is used) inverted to their respective complementary colors. This type of film is designed to be printed onto photographic paper, usually by means of an but in some cases by contact printing. The pa- per is then itself developed. The second inversion that results restores light, shade and color to their normal appearance. Color negatives incorporate an orange color correction mask that compensates for unwanted dye absorptions and improves color accuracy in the prints. Although color processing is more complex and temperature-sensitive than black-and-white processing, the wide availability of commercial color processing and scarcity of service for black-and-white prompted the design of some black-and-white films which are processed in exactly the same way as standard color film.

• Color reversal film produces positive transparencies, also known as diapositives. Transparencies can be re- viewed with the aid of a magnifying and a lightbox. If mounted in small metal, plastic or cardboard frames for use in a or slide viewer they are commonly called slides. Reversal film is often marketed as “slide film”. Large-format color reversal sheet film is used by some professional photographers, typically to originate very-high-resolution imagery for digital scanning into color separations for mass photomechanical reproduction. Photographic prints can be produced from reversal film transparencies, but this process requires the use of an internegative to convert the positive transparency image into a negative transparency, which is then printed as a positive print.[15]

• Black-and-white reversal film exists but is very uncommon. Conventional black-and-white negative film can be reversal-processed to produce black-and-white slides, as by dr5 Chrome.[16] Although kits of chemicals for black-and-white reversal processing may no longer be available to amateur darkroom enthusiasts, an acid bleaching solution, the only unusual component which is essential, is easily prepared from scratch. Black-and- white transparencies may also be produced by printing negatives onto special positive print film, still available from some specialty photographic supply dealers.[17] 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM 25

In order to produce a usable image, the film needs to be exposed properly. The amount of exposure variation that a given film can tolerate while still producing an acceptable level of quality is called its exposure latitude. Color print film generally has greater exposure latitude than other types of film. Additionally, because print film must be printed to be viewed, after-the-fact corrections for imperfect exposure are possible during the printing process. The concentration of dyes or silver halide crystals remaining on the film after development is referred to as optical density, or simply density; the optical density is proportional to the logarithm of the optical transmission coefficient of the developed film. A dark image on the negative is of higher density than a more transparent image. Most films are affected by the physics of silver grain activation (which sets a minimum amount of light required to expose a single grain) and by the statistics of random grain activation by photons. The film requires a minimum amount of light before it begins to expose, and then responds by progressive darkening over a wide dynamic range of exposure until all of the grains are exposed and the film achieves (after development) its maximum optical density. Over the active dynamic range of most films, the density of the developed film is proportional to the logarithm of the total amount of light to which the film was exposed, so the transmission coefficient of the developed film is proportional to a power of the reciprocal of the brightness of the original exposure. The plot of the density of the film image against the log of the exposure is known as an H&D curve.[14] This effect is due to the statistics of grain activation: as the film becomes progressively more exposed, each incident photon is less likely to impact a still- unexposed grain, yielding the logarithmic behavior. A simple, idealized statistical model yields the equation density = 1 - ( 1 - k) light, where light is proportional to the number of photons hitting a unit area of film, k is the probability of a single photon striking a grain (based on the size of the grains and how closely spaced they are), and density is the proportion of grains that have been hit by at least one photon. The relationship between density and log exposure is linear for photographic films except at the extreme ranges of maximum exposure (D-max) and minimum exposure (D-min) on an H&D curve, so the curve is characteristically S-shaped (as opposed to sensors which have a linear response through the effective exposure range.[18] The sensitivity (i.e., the ISO speed) of a film can be affected by changing the length or temperature of development, which would move the H&D curve to the left or right (see figure).[19][20] If parts of the image are exposed heavily enough to approach the maximum density possible for a print film, then they will begin losing the ability to show tonal variations in the final print. Usually those areas will be considered overexposed and will appear as featureless white on the print. Some subject matter is tolerant of very heavy exposure; for example sources of brilliant light such as a light bulb or the sun generally appear best as a featureless white on the print. Likewise, if part of an image receives less than the beginning threshold level of exposure, which depends upon the film’s sensitivity to light—or speed—the film there will have no appreciable image density, and will appear on the print as a featureless black. Some photographers use their knowledge of these limits to determine the optimum exposure for a photograph; for one example, see the Zone System. Most automatic cameras instead try to achieve a particular average density.

2.1.3 Film speed

Main article: Film speed

Film speed describes a film’s threshold sensitivity to light. The international standard for rating film speed is the ISO scale which combines both the ASA speed and the DIN speed in the format ASA/DIN. Using ISO convention film with an ASA speed of 400 would be labeled 400/27°.[19] A fourth naming standard is GOST, developed by the Russian standards authority. See the film speed article for a table of conversions between ASA, DIN, and GOST film speeds. Common film speeds include ISO 25, 50, 64, 100, 160, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200, and 6400. Consumer print films are usually in the ISO 100 to ISO 800 range. Some films, like Kodak’s ,[21] are not ISO rated and therefore careful examination of the film’s properties must be made by the photographer before exposure and development. ISO 25 film is very “slow”, as it requires much more exposure to produce a usable image than “fast” ISO 800 film. Films of ISO 800 and greater are thus better suited to low-light situations and action shots (where the short exposure time limits the total light received). The benefit of slower film is that it usually has finer grain and better color rendition than fast film. Professional photographers of static subjects such as portraits or landscapes usually seek these qualities, and therefore require a to stabilize the camera for a longer exposure. Photographing subjects such as rapidly moving sports or in low-light conditions, a professional will choose a faster film. 26 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2 D

lgH

Plot of image density (D) vs. log exposure (H), yields a characteristic S-curve (H&D curve) for each type of film to determine its sensitivity. Changing the emulsion properties or the processing parameters will move the curve to the left or right. Changing the exposure will move along the curve, helping to determine what exposure is needed for a given film. Note the non-linear response at the far left (“toe”) and right (“shoulder”) of the curve.[19]

A film with a particular ISO rating can be push-processed, or “pushed”, to behave like a film with a higher ISO, by developing for a longer amount of time or at a higher temperature than usual.[22]:160 More rarely, a film can be “pulled” to behave like a “slower” film. Pushing generally coarsens grain and increases contrast, reducing dynamic range, to the detriment of overall quality. Nevertheless, it can be a useful tradeoff in difficult shooting environments, if the alternative is no usable shot at all.

2.1.4 Special films

Instant photography, as popularized by Polaroid, uses a special type of camera and film that automates and integrates development, without the need of further equipment or chemicals. This process is carried out immediately after exposure, as opposed to regular film, which is developed afterwards and requires additional chemicals. See instant film. Films can be made to record non-visible ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) radiation. These films generally require special equipment; for example, most photographic lenses are made of glass and will therefore filter out most ultra- violet light. Instead, expensive lenses made of quartz must be used. Infrared films may be shot in standard cameras 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM 27 using an infrared band- or long-pass filter, although the infrared focal point must be compensated for. Exposure and focusing are difficult when using UV or IR film with a camera and lens designed for visible light. The ISO standard for film speed only applies to visible light, so visual-spectrum light meters are nearly useless. Film manufacturers can supply suggested equivalent film speeds under different conditions, and recommend heavy (e.g., with a certain filter, assume ISO 25 under daylight and ISO 64 under tungsten lighting). This allows a to be used to estimate an exposure. The focal point for IR is slightly farther away from the camera than visible light, and UV slightly closer; this must be compensated for when focusing. Apochromatic lenses are sometimes recommended due to their improved focusing across the spectrum. Film optimized for sensing X-ray radiation is commonly used for medical imaging by placing the subject between the film and a source of X-rays, without a lens, as if a translucent object were imaged by being placed between a light source and standard film. Unlike other types of film, X-ray film has a sensitive emulsion on both sides of the carrier material. This reduces the X-ray exposure for an acceptable image – a desirable feature in medical radiography. The film is usually placed in contact with a thin layer of lead which also enhances its sensitivity. Film optimized for sensing X-rays and for rays is sometimes used for radiation dosimetry and personal mon- itoring. Film has a number of disadvantages as a scientific detector: it is difficult to calibrate for photometry, it is not re- usable, it requires careful handling (including temperature and humidity control) for best calibration, and the film must physically be returned to the laboratory and processed. Against this, photographic film can be made with a higher spatial resolution than any other type of imaging detector, and, because of its logarithmic response to light, has a wider dynamic range than most digital detectors. For example, Agfa 10E56 holographic film has a resolution of over 4,000 lines/mm—equivalent to a pixel size of 0.125 micrometers—and an active dynamic range of over five orders of magnitude in brightness, compared to typical scientific CCDs that might have pixels of about 10 micrometers and a dynamic range of 3–4 orders of magnitude.[23] Special films are used for the long exposures required by astrophotography.

2.1.5 Decline

Film remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century, when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats. The first consumer electronic camera, the Mavica was released in 1981, the first digital camera, the Fuji DS-X released in 1989,[24] coupled with advances in software such as Adobe Photo- shop which was released in 1989, improvements in consumer level digital color printers and increasingly widespread computers in households during the late 20th century facilitated uptake of digital photography by consumers.[18] Al- though modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used by enthusiasts. Film remains the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive “look”.[lower-alpha 1]

2.1.6 DX codes

DX Encoding (Digital indeX), or DX coding was initially developed by Kodak in the 1980s, and eventually adapted by all camera and film manufacturers.[27] It provides information on both the film cassette and on the film regarding the type of film, number of exposures, speed (ISO/ASA rating) of the film. It consists of three types of identification. First is a barcode near the film opening of the cassette, identifying the manufacturer, film type and processing method (see image below left). This is used by photofinishing equipment during film processing. The second part is a barcode on the edge of the film (see image below right), used also during processing, which indicates the image film type, manufacturer, frame number and synchronizes the position of the frame. The third part of DX coding, known as the DX Camera Auto Sensing (CAS) code, consists of a series of 12 metal contacts on the film cassette, which beginning with cameras manufactured after 1985 could detect the type of film, number of exposures and ISO of the film, and use that information to automatically adjust the camera settings for the speed of the film.[27][28][19]

2.1.7 Common sizes of film[19]

See also: 28 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

135 Film Cartridge with DX barcode (top) and DX CAS code on the black and white grid below the barcode. The CAS code shows the ISO, number of exposures, exposure latitude (+3/−1 for print film).

2.1.8 Companies

In production

• ADOX - Made in • Agfa-Gevaert - Made in Belgium • Lucky - Made in • Dai Nippon Printing - Made in • Film Washi - Made in France • Foma - Made in Czech Republic • Fujifilm - Made in Japan • Indu - Made in • Ilford - Made in England • Impossible Project - Made in The Netherlands • Kodak - Made in U.S. • Mitsubishi Imaging - Made in Japan • Shanghai - Made in China • Tasma - Made in Russia 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM 29

DX film edge barcode

Discontinued

• 3M (Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company) - Made in U.S., private label films for many chain stores and photofinishing firms; also sold by 3M themselves under the trade name Dynachrome

• AgfaPhoto - Branded products still produced by other manufacturers under licence

• Ansco - Made in U.S.; in later years known as GAF

• AzoPan - Black and white film, Made in Romania

• AzoColor - Color film, Made in Romania

• Bergger - Made in France

• DuPont (also DuPont-Pathé) - Made in U.S.

• Efke - Made in Croatia (ceased production in 2012)[29]

• Ferrania (which became Imation and sold the Solaris brand) - Made in

• Forte - Made in Hungary

• Minolta - Made in Japan

• Maco - Made in Germany

• ORWO - Made in East Germany

• Perutz - Made in West Germany 30 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

• Polaroid - Impossible project still makes Polaroid films in the Netherlands

• Seagull - Made in China

• Svema - Made in Ukraine

• VALCA - Made in Spain

• Foton - Made in Poland

2.1.9 See also

• APUG

• List of photographic equipment makers

• List of photographic films

• Sensitometry

• Oversampled binary

2.1.10 Notes

[1] The distinctively “look” of film based photographs compared to digital images is likely due to a combination of factors, including (1) differences in spectral and tonal sensitivity (S-shaped density to exposure with film, vs. linear response curve for digital CCD sensors c.f.[25]) (2)resolution (3) continuity of tone [26]

2.1.11 References

[1] Karlheinz Keller et al. “Photography” in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a20_001

[2] Rogers, David (2007). The Chemistry of Photography: From Classical to Digital Technologies. Cambridge, UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-273-9.

[3] Anchell, Steve (2008). The Darkroom Cookbook p.103-105. Elsevier, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK. ISBN 978-0-240-81055-3

[4] Schwalberg Bob (June 1984). “Popular Photography”. Popular Photography. 91 (6): 55.

[5] Osterman, Mark (2007). “Technical Evolution of Photography”. In Peres, Michael. The Focal Encyclopedia of Photogra- phy (4th ed.). Oxford, UK: Focal Press. pp. 28 et. seq. ISBN 978-024080740-9.

[6] Warren, Lynne (2006). The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Photography. Routledge. pp. 515–520. ISBN 978-1-57958- 393-4.

[7] “The Harvard College Observatory Astronomical Plate Stacks”. SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY. Re- trieved 16 December 2015.

[8] “Scientific Products”. Ilford Photo. Retrieved 16 December 2015.

[9] “1878-1929”. kodak.com. 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015.

[10] Hannavy John (2013). Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography. Routledge. p. 251.

[11] “1878-1929”. Kodak.com. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[12] "www.loc.gov". loc.gov. 2014. Retrieved 8 August 2015.

[13] Day Lance McNeil Ian (2002). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. Routledge. p. 631. ISBN 1134650205.

[14] Peres, Michael (2007). The Focal encyclopedia of photography : digital imaging, theory and applications, history, and science (4th ed.). Burlington, MA: Focal Press. ISBN 978-024080740-9. 2.1. PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM 31

[15] Langford, Michael (2010). Langford’s Basic Photography: The guide for serious photographers, 9th ed. Oxford, UK: Focal Press. ISBN 978-0-240-52168-8.

[16] “dr5CHROME B&W reversal process information”.

[17] Haist, Grant (1979). Modern . New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0471022282.

[18] Peres, Michael R. (2008). The concise Focal encyclopedia of photography : from the first photo on paper to the digital revolution. Burlington, Mass.: Focal Press/Elsevier. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-240-80998-4.

[19] Jacobson, Ralph E. (2000). The Focal Manual of Photography: photographic and digital imaging (9th ed.). Boston, Mass.: Focal Press. ISBN 978-0-240-51574-8.

[20] “Basic Sensitometry and Characteristics of Film” (PDF). Kodak Cinema and Television: Technical Information. Kodak. Retrieved 11 August 2015.

[21] “KODAK PROFESSIONAL Technical Pan Film Technical Data Sheet” (PDF). http://www.kodak.com/. Retrieved 13 August 2015. External link in |website= (help)

[22] London, Barbara; Upton, John (1998). Photography (6th ed.). New York: Longman. ISBN 0321011082.

[23] https://books.google.com/books?id=epvvCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67&lpg=PA67

[24] “1988/1989 - First Consumer Digital Cameras”. History of the digital camera and digital imaging. The Digital Camera Museum. Retrieved 10 August 2015.

[25] “H&D curve of film vs digital”. Retrieved August 11, 2015.

[26] Claire Elise Campton (17 August 2016). “Film Photography”. Photopholio. Retrieved 17 August 2016.

[27] Francois (30 January 2008). “The DX story - or how the coding works”. filmwasters.com. Retrieved 8 August 2015.

[28] Grundberg, Andy (12 October 1986). “CAMERA: How to Read the Code on DX Film Cartridges”. The New York Times: Arts Section. The New York Times Company. Retrieved 8 August 2015.

[29] “Fotokemika Ceases Production, Affects Efke/ADOX”. La Vida Leica!. Retrieved 2016-01-01. Chapter 3

Day 3

3.1 Film speed

Not to be confused with . “Slow film” redirects here. For the genre of films, see slow cinema.

Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to measure the sensitivity of digital imaging systems. Relatively insensitive film, with a correspondingly lower speed index, requires more exposure to light to produce the same image density as a more sensitive film, and is thus commonly termed a slow film. Highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed fast films. In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality (via coarser film grain or higher image noise of other types). In short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the quantum efficiency of the film or sensor.

3.1.1 Film speed measurement systems

Historical systems

Warnerke The first known practical sensitometer, which allowed measurements of the speed of photographic ma- terials, was invented by the Polish engineer Leon Warnerke[1] – pseudonym of Władysław Małachowski (1837–1900) – in 1880, among the achievements for which he was awarded the Progress Medal of the Photographic Society of Great Britain in 1882.[2][3] It was commercialized since 1881. The Warnerke Standard Sensitometer consisted of a frame holding an opaque screen with an array of typically 25 numbered, gradually pigmented squares brought into contact with the photographic plate during a timed test exposure under a phosphorescent tablet excited before by the light of a burning Magnesium ribbon.[3] The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in 'degrees’ Warnerke (sometimes seen as Warn. or °W.) corresponding with the last number visible on the exposed plate after development and fixation. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical plate speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time. His system saw some success but proved to be unreliable[1] due to its spectral sensitivity to light, the fading intensity of the light emitted by the phosphorescent tablet after its excitation as well as high built-tolerances.[3] The concept, however, was later built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones (1855–1932) in the development of his plate tester and modified speed system.[3][4]

Hurter & Driffield Another early practical system for measuring the sensitivity of an emulsion was that of Hurter and Driffield (H&D), originally described in 1890, by the Swiss-born Ferdinand Hurter (1844–1898) and British Vero Charles Driffield (1848–1915). In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required. For example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at

32 3.1. FILM SPEED 33

This film container denotes its speed as ISO 100/21°, including both arithmetic (100 ASA) and logarithmic (21 DIN) components. The second is often dropped, making (e.g.) “ISO 100” effectively equivalent to the older ASA speed. (As is common, the “100” in the film name alludes to its ISO rating).

2500 H&D.[5] The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925 (in regard to the light source used) and in 1928 (regarding light source, developer and proportional factor)—this later variant was sometimes called “H&D 10”. The H&D system was officially[6] accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817-50.

Scheiner The Scheinergrade (Sch.) system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner (1858–1913) in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography. Scheiner’s system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. Speed was expressed in degrees Scheiner, originally ranging from 1° Sch. to 20° Sch., where an increment of 19° Sch. corresponded to a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, which meant that an increment of 3° Sch. came close to a doubling of sensitivity.[5][7]

√ 3 19 100 = 2.06914... ≈ 2 The system was later extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder (1855–1944)[1] and Flemish-born botanist Walter Hecht (1896–1960), (who, in 1919/1920, jointly developed their Eder–Hecht neutral wedge sensitometer measuring emulsion speeds in Eder– Hecht grades). Still, it remained difficult for manufactures to reliably determine film speeds, often only by comparing with competing products,[1] so that an increasing number of modified semi-Scheiner-based systems started to spread, which no longer followed Scheiner’s original procedures and thereby defeated the idea of comparability.[1][8] 34 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

Scheiner’s system was eventually abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in widespread use in other countries for some time.

DIN The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by Deutsches Institut für Normung (but still named Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA) at this time), was published in January 1934. It grew out of drafts for a standardized method of sensitometry put forward by Deutscher Normenausschuß für Phototechnik[8] as proposed by the committee for sensitometry of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung[9] since 1930[10][11] and presented by Robert Luther[11][12] (1868–1945) and Emanuel Goldberg[12] (1881–1970) at the influential VIII. International Congress of Photography (German: Internationaler Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie) held in Dresden from August 3 to 8, 1931.[8][13] The DIN system was inspired by Scheiner's system,[1] but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20° (and not 19° as in Scheiner’s system) represented a hundredfold increase in sensitivity, and a difference of 3° was much closer to the base 10 logarithm of 2 (0.30103…):[7]

≈ log10 (2) = 0.30103... 3/10

As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in 'degrees’. Originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with 'tenths’ (for example “18/10° DIN”),[14] where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. 'Tenths’ were later abandoned with DIN 4512:1957-11, and the example above would be written as “18° DIN”.[5] The degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN 4512:1961-10. This revision also saw significant changes in the definition of film speeds in order to accommodate then-recent changes in the American ASA PH2.5- 1960 standard, so that film speeds of black-and-white negative film effectively would become doubled, that is, a film previously marked as “18° DIN” would now be labeled as “21 DIN” without emulsion changes. Originally only meant for black-and-white negative film, the system was later extended and regrouped into nine parts, including DIN 4512-1:1971-04 for black-and-white negative film, DIN 4512-4:1977-06 for color reversal film and DIN 4512-5:1977-10 for color negative film. On an international level the German DIN 4512 system has been effectively superseded in the 1980s by ISO 6:1974,[15] ISO 2240:1982,[16] and ISO 5800:1979[17] where the same sensitivity is written in linear and logarithmic form as “ISO 100/21°" (now again with degree symbol). These ISO standards were subsequently adopted by DIN as well. Finally, the latest DIN 4512 revisions were replaced by corresponding ISO standards, DIN 4512-1:1993-05 by DIN ISO 6:1996-02 in September 2000, DIN 4512-4:1985-08 by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06 and DIN 4512-5:1990-11 by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06 both in July 2002.

BSI The film speed scale recommended by the British Standards Institution (BSI) was almost identical to the DIN system except that the BS number was 10 degrees greater than the DIN number.

Weston Before the advent of the ASA system, the system of Weston film speed ratings was introduced by Edward Faraday Weston (1878–1971) and his father Dr. Edward Weston (1850–1936), a British-born electrical engineer, industrialist and founder of the US-based Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation,[18] with the Weston model 617, one of the earliest photo-electric exposure meters, in August 1932. The meter and film rating system were invented by William Nelson Goodwin, Jr.,[19][20] who worked for them[21] and later received a Howard N. Potts Medal for his contributions to engineering. The company tested and frequently published speed ratings for most films of the time. Weston film speed ratings could since be found on most Weston exposure meters and were sometimes referred to by film manufactures and third parties[22] in their exposure guidelines. Since manufactures were sometimes creative about film speeds, the company went as far as to warn users about unauthorized uses of their film ratings in their “Weston film ratings” booklets.[23] The Weston Cadet (model 852 introduced in 1949), Direct Reading (model 853 introduced 1954) and Master III (models 737 and S141.3 introduced in 1956) were the first in their line of exposure meters to switch and utilize the meanwhile established ASA scale instead. Other models used the original Weston scale up until ca. 1955. The company continued to publish Weston film ratings after 1955,[24] but while their recommended values often differed slightly from the ASA film speeds found on film boxes, these newer Weston values were based on the ASA system and had to be converted for use with older Weston meters by subtracting 1/3 exposure stop as per Weston’s 3.1. FILM SPEED 35 recommendation.[24] Vice versa, “old” Weston film speed ratings could be converted into “new” Westons and the ASA scale by adding the same amount, that is, a film rating of 100 Weston (up to 1955) corresponded with 125 ASA (as per ASA PH2.5-1954 and before). This conversion was not necessary on Weston meters manufactured and Weston film ratings published since 1956 due to their inherent use of the ASA system; however the changes of the ASA PH2.5-1960 revision may be taken into account when comparing with newer ASA or ISO values.

General Electric Prior to the establishment of the ASA scale[25] and similar to Weston film speed ratings an- other manufacturer of photo-electric exposure meters, General Electric, developed its own rating system of so-called General Electric film values (often abbreviated as G-E or GE) around 1937. Film speed values for use with their meters were published in regularly updated General Electric Film Values[26] leaflets and in the General Electric Photo Data Book.[27] General Electric switched to use the ASA scale in 1946. Meters manufactured since February 1946 are equipped with the ASA scale (labeled “Exposure Index”) already. For some of the older meters with scales in “Film Speed” or “Film Value” (e.g. models DW-48, DW-49 as well as early DW-58 and GW-68 variants), replaceable hoods with ASA scales were available from the manufacturer.[26][28] The company continued to publish recommended film values after that date, however, they were then aligned to the ASA scale.

ASA Based on earlier research work by Loyd Ancile Jones (1884–1954) of Kodak and inspired by the systems of Weston film speed ratings[24] and General Electric film values,[26] the American Standards Association (now named ANSI) defined a new method to determine and specify film speeds of black-and-white negative films in 1943. ASA Z38.2.1-1943 was revised in 1946 and 1947 before the standard grew into ASA PH2.5-1954. Originally, ASA values were frequently referred to as American standard speed numbers or ASA exposure-index numbers. (See also: Exposure Index (EI).) The ASA scale is a linear scale, that is, a film denoted as having a film speed of 200 ASA is twice as fast as a film with 100 ASA. The ASA standard underwent a major revision in 1960 with ASA PH2.5-1960, when the method to determine film speed was refined and previously applied safety factors against under-exposure were abandoned, effectively doubling the nominal speed of many black-and-white negative films. For example, an Ilford HP3 that had been rated at 200 ASA before 1960 was labeled 400 ASA afterwards without any change to the emulsion. Similar changes were applied to the DIN system with DIN 4512:1961-10 and the BS system with BS 1380:1963 in the following years. In addition to the established arithmetic speed scale, ASA PH2.5-1960 also introduced logarithmic ASA grades (100 ASA = 5° ASA), where a difference of 1° ASA represented a full exposure stop and therefore the doubling of a film speed. For some while, ASA grades were also printed on film boxes, and they saw life in the form of the APEX speed value Sv (without degree symbol) as well. ASA PH2.5-1960 was revised as ANSI PH2.5-1979, without the logarithmic speeds, and later replaced by NAPM IT2.5-1986 of the National Association of Photographic Manufacturers, which represented the US adoption of the international standard ISO 6. The latest issue of ANSI/NAPM IT2.5 was published in 1993. The standard for color negative film was introduced as ASA PH2.27-1965 and saw a string of revisions in 1971, 1976, 1979 and 1981, before it finally became ANSI IT2.27-1988 prior to its withdrawal. Color reversal film speeds were defined in ANSI PH2.21-1983, which was revised in 1989 before it became ANSI/NAPM IT2.21 in 1994, the US adoption of the ISO 2240 standard. On an international level, the ASA system was superseded by the ISO film speed system between 1982 and 1987, however, the arithmetic ASA speed scale continued to live on as the linear speed value of the ISO system.

GOST GOST (Cyrillic: ГОСТ) was an arithmetic film speed scale defined in GOST 2817-45 and GOST 2817- 50.[29][30] It was used in the former Soviet Union since October 1951, replacing Hurter & Driffield (H&D, Cyrillic: ХиД) numbers,[29] which had been used since 1928. GOST 2817-50 was similar to the ASA standard, having been based on a speed point at a density 0.2 above base plus fog, as opposed to the ASA’s 0.1.[31] GOST markings are only found on pre-1987 photographic equipment (film, cameras, lightmeters, etc.) of Soviet Union manufacture.[32] On 1 January 1987, the GOST scale was realigned to the ISO scale with GOST 10691-84,[33] 36 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

This evolved into multiple parts including GOST 10691.6-88[34] and GOST 10691.5-88,[35] which both became functional on 1 January 1991.

Current system: ISO

The ASA and DIN film speed standards have been combined into the ISO standards since 1974. The current International Standard for measuring the speed of color negative film is ISO 5800:2001[17] (first published in 1979, revised in November 1987) from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Related standards ISO 6:1993[15] (first published in 1974) and ISO 2240:2003[16] (first published in July 1982, revised in September 1994, and corrected in October 2003) define scales for speeds of black-and-white negative film and color reversal film, respectively. The determination of ISO speeds with digital still-cameras is described in ISO 12232:2006 (first published in August 1998, revised in April 2006, and corrected in October 2006). The ISO system defines both an arithmetic and a logarithmic scale.[36] The arithmetic ISO scale corresponds to the arithmetic ASA system, where a doubling of film sensitivity is represented by a doubling of the numerical film speed value. In the logarithmic ISO scale, which corresponds to the DIN scale, adding 3° to the numerical value constitutes a doubling of sensitivity. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as sensitive as one rated ISO 100/21°.[36] Commonly, the logarithmic speed is omitted; for example, “ISO 100” denotes “ISO 100/21°",[37] while logarithmic ISO speeds are written as “ISO 21°" as per the standard.

Conversion between current scales

Conversion from arithmetic speed S to logarithmic speed S° is given by[15]

S◦ = 10 log S + 1 and rounding to the nearest integer; the log is base 10. Conversion from logarithmic speed to arithmetic speed is given by[38]

◦ S = 10(S −1)/10 and rounding to the nearest standard arithmetic speed in Table 1 below. Table notes:

1. Speeds shown in bold under APEX, ISO and ASA are values actually assigned in speed standards from the respective agencies; other values are calculated extensions to assigned speeds using the same progressions as for the assigned speeds. 2. APEX Sv values 1 to 10 correspond with logarithmic ASA grades 1° to 10° found in ASA PH2.5-1960. 3. ASA arithmetic speeds from 4 to 5 are taken from ANSI PH2.21-1979 (Table 1, p. 8). 4. ASA arithmetic speeds from 6 to 3200 are taken from ANSI PH2.5-1979 (Table 1, p. 5) and ANSI PH2.27- 1979. 5. ISO arithmetic speeds from 4 to 3200 are taken from ISO 5800:1987 (Table “ISO speed scales”, p. 4). 6. ISO arithmetic speeds from 6 to 10000 are taken from ISO 12232:1998 (Table 1, p. 9). 7. ISO 12232:1998 does not specify speeds greater than 10000. However, the upper limit for Sₒᵢₑ 10000 is given as 12500, suggesting that ISO may have envisioned a progression of 12500, 25000, 50000, and 100000, similar to that from 1250 to 10000. This is consistent with ASA PH2.12-1961.[41] For digital cameras, , Canon, Sony, , and Fujifilm apparently chose to express the greater speeds in an exact power-of-2 progression from the highest previously realized speed (6400) rather than rounding to an extension of the existing progression. 3.1. FILM SPEED 37

8. Most of the modern 35 mm film SLRs support an automatic film speed range from ISO 25/15° to 5000/38° with DX-coded films, or ISO 6/9° to 6400/39° manually (without utilizing ). The film speed range with support for TTL flash is smaller, typically ISO 12/12° to 3200/36° or less.

9. The Booster[42] accessory for the Canon Pellix QL (1965) and Canon FT QL (1966) supported film speeds from 25 to 12800 ASA.

10. The film speed dial of the Canon A-1 (1978) supported a speed range from 6 to 12800 ASA (but already called ISO film speeds in the manual).[43] On this camera exposure compensation and extreme film speeds were mutually exclusive.

11. The Leica R8 (1996) and R9 (2002) officially supported film speeds of 8000/40°, 10000/41° and 12800/42° (in the case of the R8) or 12500/42° (in the case of the R9), and utilizing its ±3 EV exposure compensation the range could be extended from ISO 0.8/0° to ISO 100000/51° in half exposure steps.[39][40]

12. Digital camera manufacturers’ arithmetic speeds from 12800 to 409600 are from specifications by Nikon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009,[44] 204800 in 2012,[47] 409600 in 2014[49]), Canon (12800, 25600, 51200, 102400 in 2009,[45] 204800 in 2011,[46] 4000000 in 2015[51]), Sony (12800 in 2009,[52] 25600 in 2010,[53] 409600 in 2014[50]), Pentax (12800, 25600, 51200 in 2010,[54] 102400, 204800 in 2014[48]) and Fujifilm (12800 in 2011[55]).

Historic ASA DIN conversion

Before ASA and DIN standard’s unification, the conversion of ASA and DIN is different from the current. The attachment is ASA DIN conversion in a 1952 photography book [56] In which DIN 21 was converted to ASA80 instead of ASA100. Some classic camera’s exposure guide also has the old conversion, for example the exposure guide of classic camera Tessina, DIN 21 is related to ASA80, DIN 18 to ASA 40. User of classic cameras who does not know the historic background, may be confused.

Determining film speed

Film speed is found from a plot of optical density vs. log of exposure for the film, known as the D–log H curve or Hurter–Driffield curve. There typically are five regions in the curve: the base + fog, the toe, the linear region, the shoulder, and the overexposed region. For black-and-white negative film, the “speed point” m is the point on the curve where density exceeds the base + fog density by 0.1 when the negative is developed so that a point n where the log of exposure is 1.3 units greater than the exposure at point m has a density 0.8 greater than the density at point m. The exposure H, in lux-s, is that for point m when the specified contrast condition is satisfied. The ISO arithmetic speed is determined from:

0.8 lx⋅s S = Hm This value is then rounded to the nearest standard speed in Table 1 of ISO 6:1993. Determining speed for color negative film is similar in concept but more complex because it involves separate curves for blue, green, and red. The film is processed according to the film manufacturer’s recommendations rather than to a specified contrast. ISO speed for color reversal film is determined from the middle rather than the threshold of the curve; it again involves separate curves for blue, green, and red, and the film is processed according to the film manufacturer’s recommendations.

Applying film speed

Film speed is used in the exposure equations to find the appropriate exposure parameters. Four variables are available to the photographer to obtain the desired effect: lighting, film speed, f-number ( size), and speed (exposure time). The equation may be expressed as ratios, or, by taking the logarithm (base 2) of both sides, by addition, using the APEX system, in which every increment of 1 is a doubling of exposure; this increment is commonly 38 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

Film speed conversion table of the 50s

known as a “stop”. The effective f-number is proportional to the ratio between the lens and aperture diameter, the diameter itself being proportional to the square root of the aperture area. Thus, a lens set to f/1.4 allows twice as much light to strike the focal plane as a lens set to f/2. Therefore, each f-number factor of the square 3.1. FILM SPEED 39

Classic camera Tessina exposure guide

root of two (approximately 1.4) is also a stop, so lenses are typically marked in that progression: f/1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, etc. The ISO arithmetic speed has a useful property for photographers without the equipment for taking a metered light reading. Correct exposure will usually be achieved for a frontlighted scene in bright sun if the aperture of the lens is set to f/16 and the is the reciprocal of the ISO film speed (e.g. 1/100 second for 100 ISO film). This known as the sunny 16 rule.

Exposure index

Exposure index, or EI, refers to speed rating assigned to a particular film and shooting situation in variance to the film’s actual speed. It is used to compensate for equipment calibration inaccuracies or process variables, or to achieve certain effects. The exposure index may simply be called the speed setting, as compared to the speed rating. For example, a photographer may rate an ISO 400 film at EI 800 and then use push processing to obtain printable negatives in low-light conditions. The film has been exposed at EI 800. Another example occurs where a camera’s shutter is miscalibrated and consistently overexposes or underexposes the film; similarly, a light meter may be inaccurate. One may adjust the EI rating accordingly in order to compensate for these defects and consistently produce correctly exposed negatives. 40 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

ISO 6:1993 method of determining speed for black-and-white film.

3.1.2 Reciprocity

Upon exposure, the amount of light energy that reaches the film determines the effect upon the emulsion. If the brightness of the light is multiplied by a factor and the exposure of the film decreased by the same factor by varying the camera’s shutter speed and aperture, so that the energy received is the same, the film will be developed to the same density. This rule is called reciprocity. The systems for determining the sensitivity for an emulsion are possible because reciprocity holds. In practice, reciprocity works reasonably well for normal photographic films for the range of exposures between 1/1000 second to 1/2 second. However, this relationship breaks down outside these limits, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure.[57]

3.1.3 Film sensitivity and grain

Main article: Film grain The size of silver halide grains in the emulsion affects film sensitivity, which is related to granularity because larger grains give film greater sensitivity to light. Fine-grain film, such as film designed for portraiture or copying original camera negatives, is relatively insensitive, or “slow”, because it requires brighter light or a longer exposure than a “fast” film. Fast films, used for photographing in low light or capturing high-speed motion, produce comparatively grainy images. Kodak has defined a “Print Grain Index” (PGI) to characterize film grain (color negative films only), based on percep- tual just-noticeable difference of graininess in prints. They also define “granularity”, a measurement of grain using an RMS measurement of density fluctuations in uniformly exposed film, measured with a microdensitometer with 48 micrometre aperture.[58] Granularity varies with exposure — underexposed film looks grainier than overexposed film.

Marketing anomalies

Some high-speed black-and-white films, such as 3200 and Kodak T-MAX P3200, are marketed with film speeds in excess of their true ISO speed as determined using the ISO testing method. For example, the Ilford 3.1. FILM SPEED 41

Grainy high-speed B&W film negative product is actually an ISO 1000 film, according to its data sheet. The manufacturers do not indicate that the 3200 number is an ISO rating on their packaging.[59] Kodak and Fuji also marketed E6 films designed for pushing (hence the “P” prefix), such as P800/1600 and Fujichrome P1600, both with a base speed of ISO 400.

3.1.4 Digital camera ISO speed and exposure index

In digital camera systems, an arbitrary relationship between exposure and sensor data values can be achieved by setting the signal gain of the sensor. The relationship between the sensor data values and the lightness of the finished image is also arbitrary, depending on the parameters chosen for the interpretation of the sensor data into an image such as sRGB. For digital photo cameras (“digital still cameras”), an exposure index (EI) rating—commonly called ISO setting—is specified by the manufacturer such that the sRGB image files produced by the camera will have a lightness similar to what would be obtained with film of the same EI rating at the same exposure. The usual design is that the camera’s parameters for interpreting the sensor data values into sRGB values are fixed, and a number of different EI choices are accommodated by varying the sensor’s signal gain in the analog realm, prior to conversion to digital. Some camera designs provide at least some EI choices by adjusting the sensor’s signal gain in the digital realm. A few camera designs also provide EI adjustment through a choice of lightness parameters for the interpretation of sensor data values into 42 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

A CCD image sensor, 2/3 inch size sRGB; this variation allows different tradeoffs between the range of highlights that can be captured and the amount of noise introduced into the shadow areas of the photo. Digital cameras have far surpassed film in terms of sensitivity to light, with ISO equivalent speeds of up to 102,400, a number that is unfathomable in the realm of conventional film photography. Faster processors, as well as advances in software techniques allow this type of processing to be executed the moment the photo is captured, allowing photographers to store images that have a higher level of refinement and would have been prohibitively time consuming to process with earlier generations of digital camera hardware.

The ISO 12232:2006 standard

The ISO standard ISO 12232:2006[60] gives digital still camera manufacturers a choice of five different techniques for determining the exposure index rating at each sensitivity setting provided by a particular camera model. Three of the techniques in ISO 12232:2006 are carried over from the 1998 version of the standard, while two new techniques allowing for measurement of JPEG output files are introduced from CIPA DC-004.[61] Depending on the technique selected, the exposure index rating can depend on the sensor sensitivity, the sensor noise, and the appearance of the resulting image. The standard specifies the measurement of light sensitivity of the entire digital camera system and not of individual components such as digital sensors, although Kodak has reported[62] using a variation to characterize the sensitivity of two of their sensors in 2001. The Recommended Exposure Index (REI) technique, new in the 2006 version of the standard, allows the manufacturer to specify a camera model’s EI choices arbitrarily. The choices are based solely on the manufacturer’s opinion of what EI values produce well-exposed sRGB images at the various sensor sensitivity settings. This is the only technique available under the standard for output formats that are not in the sRGB color space. This is also the only technique available under the standard when multi-zone metering (also called pattern metering) is used. The Standard Output Sensitivity (SOS) technique, also new in the 2006 version of the standard, effectively specifies that the average level in the sRGB image must be 18% gray plus or minus 1/3 stop when the exposure is controlled 3.1. FILM SPEED 43

by an automatic exposure control system calibrated per ISO 2721 and set to the EI with no exposure compensation. Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images— typically JPEG—and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used. The CIPA DC-004 standard requires that Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras use either the REI or SOS techniques, and DC-008[63] updates the specification to differentiate between these values. Consequently, the three EI techniques carried over from ISO 12232:1998 are not widely used in recent camera models (approximately 2007 and later). As those earlier techniques did not allow for measurement from images produced with lossy com- pression, they cannot be used at all on cameras that produce images only in JPEG format. The saturation-based (SAT or Sₐ) technique is closely related to the SOS technique, with the sRGB output level being measured at 100% white rather than 18% gray. The SOS value is effectively 0.704 times the saturation-based value.[64] Because the output level is measured in the sRGB output from the camera, it is only applicable to sRGB images—typically TIFF—and not to output files in raw image format. It is not applicable when multi-zone metering is used. The two noise-based techniques have rarely been used for consumer digital still cameras. These techniques specify the highest EI that can be used while still providing either an “excellent” picture or a “usable” picture depending on the technique chosen.

Measurements and calculations

ISO speed ratings of a digital camera are based on the properties of the sensor and the image processing done in the camera, and are expressed in terms of the luminous exposure H (in lux seconds) arriving at the sensor. For a typical camera lens with an effective focal length f that is much smaller than the distance between the camera and the photographed scene, H is given by

qLt H = , N 2 where L is the luminance of the scene (in candela per m²), t is the exposure time (in seconds), N is the aperture f-number, and

π q = T v(θ) cos4 θ 4 is a factor depending on the transmittance T of the lens, the factor v(θ), and the angle θ relative to the axis of the lens. A typical value is q = 0.65, based on θ = 10°, T = 0.9, and v = 0.98.[65]

Saturation-based speed The saturation-based speed is defined as

78 lx⋅s Ssat = , Hsat

where Hsat is the maximum possible exposure that does not lead to a clipped or bloomed camera output. Typically, the lower limit of the saturation speed is determined by the sensor itself, but with the gain of the amplifier between the sensor and the analog-to-digital converter, the saturation speed can be increased. The factor 78 is chosen such that exposure settings based on a standard light meter and an 18-percent reflective surface will result in an image with a level of 18%/√2 = 12.7% of saturation. The factor √2 indicates that there is half a stop of headroom to deal with specular reflections that would appear brighter than a 100% reflecting white surface.[60]

Noise-based speed Main article: Signal to noise ratio (imaging) The noise-based speed is defined as the exposure that will lead to a given signal-to-noise ratio on individual pixels. Two ratios are used, the 40:1 (“excellent image quality”) and the 10:1 (“acceptable image quality”) ratio. These ratios have been subjectively determined based on a resolution of 70 pixels per cm (178 DPI) when viewed at 25 cm (9.8 inch) distance. The signal-to-noise ratio is defined as the standard deviation of a weighted average of the luminance and color of individual pixels. The noise-based speed is mostly determined by the properties of the sensor and somewhat affected by the noise in the electronic gain and AD converter.[60] 44 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

Digital noise at 3200 ISO vs. 100 ISO

Standard output sensitivity (SOS) In addition to the above speed ratings, the standard also defines the standard output sensitivity (SOS), how the exposure is related to the digital pixel values in the output image. It is defined as

10 lx⋅s Ssos = , Hsos

where Hsos is the exposure that will lead to values of 118 in 8-bit pixels, which is 18 percent of the saturation value in images encoded as sRGB or with gamma = 2.2.[60]

Discussion The standard specifies how speed ratings should be reported by the camera. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is higher than the saturation-based speed, the noise-based speed should be reported, rounded downwards to a standard value (e.g. 200, 250, 320, or 400). The rationale is that exposure according to the lower saturation- based speed would not result in a visibly better image. In addition, an exposure latitude can be specified, ranging from the saturation-based speed to the 10:1 noise-based speed. If the noise-based speed (40:1) is lower than the saturation-based speed, or undefined because of high noise, the saturation-based speed is specified, rounded upwards to a standard value, because using the noise-based speed would lead to overexposed images. The camera may also report the SOS-based speed (explicitly as being an SOS speed), rounded to the nearest standard speed rating.[60]

For example, a camera sensor may have the following properties: S40:1 = 107 , S10:1 = 1688 , and Ssat = 49 . According to the standard, the camera should report its sensitivity as

ISO 100 (daylight) ISO speed latitude 50–1600 ISO 100 (SOS, daylight).

The SOS rating could be user controlled. For a different camera with a noisier sensor, the properties might be S40:1 = 40 , S10:1 = 800 , and Ssat = 200 . In this case, the camera should report

ISO 200 (daylight), 3.1. FILM SPEED 45 as well as a user-adjustable SOS value. In all cases, the camera should indicate for the white balance setting for which the speed rating applies, such as daylight or tungsten (incandescent light).[60] Despite these detailed standard definitions, cameras typically do not clearly indicate whether the user “ISO” setting refers to the noise-based speed, saturation-based speed, or the specified output sensitivity, or even some made-up number for marketing purposes. Because the 1998 version of ISO 12232 did not permit measurement of camera output that had lossy compression, it was not possible to correctly apply any of those measurements to cameras that did not produce sRGB files in an uncompressed format such as TIFF. Following the publication of CIPA DC-004 in 2006, Japanese manufacturers of digital still cameras are required to specify whether a sensitivity rating is REI or SOS. As should be clear from the above, a greater SOS setting for a given sensor comes with some loss of image quality, just like with analog film. However, this loss is visible as image noise rather than grain. Current (January 2010) APS and 35mm sized sensors, both CMOS and CCD based, do not produce significant noise until about ISO 1600.[66]

3.1.5 See also

• Frame rate

• Lens speed

3.1.6 References

[1] DIN 4512:1934-01. Photographische Sensitometrie, Bestimmung der optischen Dichte. Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA), 1934: In the introduction to the standard, Warnerke's system is described as the first practical system used to measure emul- sion speeds, but as being unreliable. In regard to Scheiner’s system, it states: “Auch hier erwies sich nach einiger Zeit, daß das Meßverfahren trotz der von Eder vorgenommenen Abänderungen den Anforderungen der Praxis nicht vollständig Rech- nung zu tragen vermag, so daß jeder Hersteller […] nach seinem eigenen System die Empfindlichkeit in Scheinergraden ermitteln muß, häufig in sehr primitiver Weise durch […] Vergleich mit Erzeugnissen anderer Hersteller. Die so ermit- telten Gebrauchs-Scheinergrade haben mit dem ursprünglich […] ausgearbeiteten Meßverfahren nach Scheiner sachlich nichts mehr zu tun. […] Als Folge hiervon ist allmählich eine Inflation in Empfindlichkeitsgraden eingetreten, für die das Scheiner’sche Verfahren nichts mehr als den Namen hergibt.”

[2] Royal Photographic Society. Progress medal. Web-page listing people, who have received this award since 1878 (“Archived copy”. Archived from the original on August 22, 2012. Retrieved April 19, 2013.): “Instituted in 1878, this medal is awarded in recognition of any invention, research, publication or other contribution which has resulted in an important advance in the scientific or technological development of photography or imaging in the widest sense. This award also carries with it an Honorary Fellowship of The Society. […] 1882 Leon Warnerke […] 1884 J M Eder […] 1898 Ferdinand Hurter and Vero C Driffield […] 1910 Alfred Watkins […] 1912 H Chapman Jones […] 1948 Loyd A Jones […]"

[3] Berhard Edward Jones (editor). Cassell’s cyclopaedia of photography, Cassell, London, 1911 (). Reprinted as Encyclopae- dia of photography - With a New Picture Portfolio and introduction by Peter C. Bunnell and Robert A. Sobieszek. Arno Press Inc., New York 1974, ISBN 0-405-04922-6, pp. 472–473: ‘Soon after the introduction of the gelatine dry plate, it was usual to express the speed of the emulsion as “x times,” which meant that it was x times the speed of a wet col- lodion plate. This speed was no fixed quantity, and the expression consequently meant but little. Warnerke introduced a sensitometer, consisting of a series of numbered squares with increasing quantities of opaque pigment. The plate to be tested was placed in contact with this, and an exposure made to light emanating from a tablet of luminous paint, excited by burning magnesium ribbon. After development and fixation the last number visible was taken as the speed of the plate. The chief objections to this method were that practically no two numbered tablets agreed, that the pigment possessed selective spectral absorption, and that the luminosity of the tablet varied considerably with the lapse of time between its excitation and the exposure of the plate. […] Chapman Jones has introduced a modified Warnerke tablet containing a series of twenty-five graduated densities, a series of coloured squares, and a strip of neutral grey, all five being of approximately equal luminosity, and a series of four squares passing a definite portion of the spectrum; finally, there is a square of a line design, over which is superposed a half-tone negative. This “plate tester,” […] is used with a standard candle as the source of light, and is useful for rough tests of both plates and printing papers.’

[4] Paul Nooncree Hasluck (1905). The Book of Photography: Practical, Theoretical and Applied. (): “THE CHAPMAN JONES PLATE TESTER. A convenient means of testing the colour rendering and other properties of a sensitive plate, or for ascertaining the effect of various colour screens, is afforded by the plate tester devised by Mr. Chapman Jones in 1900. This consists of a number of graduated squares by which the sensitiveness and range of gradation of the plate examined may be determined; a series of squares of different colours and mixtures of colours of equal visual intensity, which will 46 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

indicate the colour sensitiveness; and a strip of uncoloured space for comparison purposes. It is simply necessary to expose the plate being tested, in contact with the screen, to the light of a standard candle. A suitable frame and stand are supplied for the purpose; any other light may, however, be used if desired. The plate is then developed, when an examination of the negative will yield the desired information. The idea of the coloured squares is based on that of the Abney Colour Sensitometer, where three or four squares of coloured and one of uncoloured glass are brought to an equal visual intensity by backing where necessary with squares of exposed celluloid film developed to suitable density.”

[5] Arthur Lindsay MacRae Sowerby (editor) (1961). Dictionary of Photography: A Reference Book for Amateur and Profes- sional Photographers (19th ed.). London: Iliffe Books Ltd. pp. 582–589.

[6] Konovalov, Leonid (2007). Characteristic curve (PDF). Moscow: ВГИК. p. 24. Retrieved November 9, 2012.

[7] Martin Riat. Graphische Techniken - Eine Einführung in die verschiedenen Techniken und ihre Geschichte. E-Book, 3. German edition, Burriana, spring 2006 (), based on a Spanish book: Martin Riat. Tecniques Grafiques: Una Introduccio a Les Diferents Tecniques I a La Seva Historia. 1. edition, Aubert, September 1983, ISBN 84-86243-00-9.

[8] Samuel Edward Sheppard. Resumé of the Proceedings of the Dresden International Photographic Congress. In: Sylvan Har- ris (editor). Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers. Volume XVIII, Number 2 (February 1932), pp. 232-242 (): ‘[…] The 8th International Congress of Photography was held at Dresden, Germany, from August 3 to 8, 1931, inclu- sive. […] In regard to sensitometric standardization, several important developments occurred. First, the other national committees on sensitometric standardization accepted the light source and filter proposed by the American Committee at Paris, 1925, and accepted by the British in 1928. In the meantime, no definite agreement had been reached, nor indeed had very definite proposals been made on the subjects of sensitometers or exposure meters, development, density measure- ment, and methods of expressing sensitometric results, although much discussion and controversy on this subject had taken place. At the present Congress, a body of recommendations for sensitometric standards was put forward by the Deutschen Normenausschusses fur Phototechnik, which endeavored to cover the latter questions and bring the subject of sensitometric standardization into the industrial field. It was stated by the German committee that this action had been forced on them by difficulties arising from indiscriminate and uncontrolled placing of speed numbers on photographic sensitive goods, a situation which was summarized at the Congress by the term "Scheiner-inflation.” The gist of these recommendations was as follows: (a) Acceptance of the light source and daylight filter as proposed by the American commission. (b) As exposure meter, a density step-wedge combined with a drop shutter accurate to 1/20 second. (c) Brush development in a tray with a prescribed solution of metol-hydroquinone according to a so-called “optimal” development. (d) Expression of the sensitivity by that illumination at which a density of 0.1 in excess of fog is reached. (e) Density measurement shall be carried out in diffused light according to details to be discussed later. These proposals aroused a very lively discussion. The American and the British delegations criticized the proposals both as a whole and in detail. As a whole they considered that the time was not ripe for application of sensitometric standards to industrial usage. In matters of detail they criticized the proposed employment of a step-wedge, and the particular sensitivity number proposed. The latter approaches very roughly the idea of an exposure for minimum gradient, but even such a number is not adequate for certain photographic uses of certain materials. The upshot of the discussion was that the German proposals in somewhat modified form are to be submitted simply as proposals of the German committee for sensitometric standardization to the various national committees for definite expression of opinion within six months of the expiration of the Congress. Further, in case of general approval of these recommendations by the other national committees, that a small International Committee on Sensitometric Standardization shall, within a further period of six months, work out a body of sensitometric practices for commercial usage. In this connection it should be noted that it was agreed that both the lamps and filters and exposure meters should be certified as within certain tolerances by the national testing laboratories of the countries in question. […]’

[9] Martin Biltz. Über DIN-Grade, das neue deutsche Maß der photographischen Empfindlichkeit. In: Naturwissenschaften, Volume 21, Number 41, 1933, pp. 734-736, Springer, doi:10.1007/BF01504271: "[…] Im folgenden soll an Hand der seither gebräuchlichen sensitometrischen Systeme nach Scheiner […], nach Hurter und Driffield […] und nach Eder und Hecht […] kurz gezeigt werden, wie man bisher verfahren ist. Im Anschlusse daran wird das neue vom Deutschen Nor- menausschusse für Phototechnik auf Empfehlung des Ausschusses für Sensitometrie der Deutschen Gesellschaft für pho- tographische Forschung vorgeschlagene System […] betrachtet werden. […]".

[10] E. Heisenberg. Mitteilungen aus verschiedenen Gebieten – Bericht über die Gründung und erste Tagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für photographische Forschung (23. bis 25. Mai 1930). In: Naturwissenschaften, Volume 18, Number 52, 1930, pp. 1130-1131, Springer, doi:10.1007/BF01492990: "[…] Weitere 3 Vorträge von Prof. Dr. R. Luther, Dresden, Prof. Dr. Lehmann, , Prof. Dr. Pirani, Berlin, behandelten die Normung der sensitometrischen Methoden. Zu normen sind: die Lichtquelle, die Art der Belichtung (zeitliche oder Intensitätsabstufung), die Entwicklung, die Auswertung. Auf den Internationalen Kongressen in Paris 1925 und London 1928 sind diese Fragen schon eingehend behandelt und in einzelnen Punkten genaue Vorschläge gemacht worden. Die Farbtemperatur der Lichtquelle soll 2360° betragen. Vor dieselbe soll ein Tageslichtfilter, welches vom Bureau of Standards ausgearbeitet worden ist, geschaltet werden. Herr Luther hat an der Filterflüssigkeit durch eigene Versuche gewisse Verbesserungen erzielt. Schwierigkeiten bereitet die Konstanthaltung der Farbtemperatur bei Nitralampen. Herr Pirani schlug deshalb in seinem Vortrag die Verwendung von Glimmlampen vor, deren Farbe von der Stromstärke weitgehend unabhängig ist. In der Frage: Zeit- oder Intensitätsskala befürworten die Herren Luther und Lehmann die Intensitätsskala. Herr Lehmann behandelte einige Fragen, die mit der 3.1. FILM SPEED 47

Herstellung der Intensitätsskala zusammenhängen. Ausführlicher wurde noch die Auswertung (zahlenmäßige Angabe der Empfindlichkeit und Gradation) besprochen, die eine der wichtigsten Fragen der Sensitometrie darstellt. In der Diskussion wurde betont, daß es zunächst nicht so sehr auf eine wissenschaftlich erschöpfende Auswertung ankomme als darauf, daß die Empfindlichkeit der Materialien in möglichst einfacher, aber eindeutiger und für den Praktiker ausreichender Weise charakterisiert wird. […]". [11] Waltraud Voss. Robert Luther – der erste Ordinarius für Wissenschaftliche Photographie in Deutschland - Zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften an der TU Dresden (12). In: Dresdner UniversitätsJournal, 13. Jahrgang, Nr. 5, p. 7, 12 March 2002, (): "[…] Luther war Mitglied des Komitees zur Veranstaltung internationaler Kongresse für wissenschaftliche und angewandte Photographie; die Kongresse 1909 und 1931 in Dresden hat er wesentlich mit vorbereitet. 1930 gehörte er zu den Mitbegründern der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Photographische Forschung. Er gründete und leitete den Ausschuss für Sensitometrie der Gesellschaft, aus dessen Tätigkeit u.a. das DIN-Verfahren zur Bestimmung der Empfindlichkeit photographischer Materialien hervorging. […]" [12] Michael Keeble Buckland. The Kinamo movie camera, Emanuel Goldberg and Joris Ivens. Preprint of Film History 20, No. 1 (2008), pp. 49-58 (): "Ivens returned to Dresden in August 1931 to attend the VIII International Congress of Photography, organised by Goldberg; John Eggert, head of research at the Agfa plant in Wolfen, near Leipzig; and Robert Luther, the founding Director of the Institute for Scientific Photography at the Technical University in Dresden and Goldberg’s dissertation advisor. The proceedings were heavily technical and dominated by discussion of the measurement of film speeds. The Congress was noteworthy because a film speed standard proposed by Goldberg and Luther was approved and, in Germany, became DIN 4512, […]". [13] John Eggert, Arpad von Biehler (editors). Bericht über den VIII. Internationalen Kongreß für wissenschaftliche und ange- wandte Photographie Dresden 1931. J. A. Barth-Verlag, Leipzig, 1932. [14] Walther Benser (1957). Wir photographieren farbig. Europäischer Buchklub. p. 10. [15] ISO 6:1993: Photography – Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems – Determination of ISO speed. [16] ISO 2240:2003: Photography – Colour reversal camera films – Determination of ISO speed. [17] ISO 5800:1987: Photography – Colour negative films for still photography – Determination of ISO speed. [18] Charles J. Mulhern. Letter to John D. de Vries. 15th June 1990, (Copyscript on John D. de Vries’ web-site): “In 1931, Edward Faraday Weston applied for a U.S patent on the first Weston Exposure meter, which was granted patent No. 2016469 on October 8, 1935, also an improved version was applied for and granted U.S patent No. 2042665 on July 7th 1936. From 1932 to around 1967, over 36 varieties of Weston Photographic Exposure Meters were produced in large quantities and sold throughout the world, mostly by Photographic dealers or agents, which also included the Weston film speed ratings, as there were no ASA or DIN data available at that time.” [19] William Nelson Goodwin, Jr. Weston emulsion speed ratings: What they are and how they are determined. American Photographer, August 1938, 4 pages. [20] Everett Roseborough. The Contributions of Edward W. Weston and his company. In: Photographic Canadiana, Volume 22, Issue 3, 1996, (). [21] Martin Tipper. Weston — The company and the man. In: www.westonmeter.org.uk, a web-page on Weston exposure meters: "[…] the Weston method of measuring film speeds. While it had some shortcomings it had the advantage of being based on a method which gave practical speeds for actual use and it was independent of any film manufacturer. Previous speed systems such as the H&D and early Scheiner speeds were both threshold speeds and capable of considerable manipulation by manufacturers. Weston’s method measured the speed well up on the curve making it more nearly what one would get in actual practice. (This means that he was a bit less optimistic about film sensitivity than the manufacturers of the day who were notorious for pretending their films were more sensitive than they really were.) A certain Mr. W. N. Goodwin of Weston is usually credited with this system.” [22] Harold M. Hefley. A method of calculating exposures for photomicrographs. In: Arkansas Academy of Science Journal, Issue 4, 1951, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA, (), research paper on an exposure system for micro-photography based on a variation of Weston film speed ratings. [23] Weston (publisher). Weston film ratings — Weston system of emulsion ratings. Newark, USA, 1946. Booklet, 16 pages, (): ‘You cannot necessarily depend on Weston speed values from any other source unless they are marked “OFFICIAL WESTON SPEEDS BY AGREEMENT WITH THE WESTON ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENT CORPORATION"’. [24] Sangamo Weston (publisher). Weston ratings. Enfield, UK, 1956. Booklet, 20 pages, (): “WESTON RATINGS—Correct exposure depends on two variables: (1) the available light and (2) its effect on the film in use. WESTON have always considered these two to be of equal importance and therefore introduced their own system of film ratings. Subsequently this system was found to be so successful that it was widely accepted in photographic circles and formed the basis for internationally agreed standards.” 48 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

[25] General Electric (publisher). GW-68. Manual GES-2810, USA: The manual states that ASA was working on standardized values, but none had been established at this time.

[26] General Electric (publisher). General Electric Film Values. Leaflet GED-744, USA, 1947. General Electric publication code GED-744, Booklet, 12 pages, (): “This General Electric Film Value Booklet contains the […] exposure-index numbers for […] photographic films in accordance with the new system for rating photographic films that has been devised by the American Standards Association. This system has been under development for several years and is the result of co-operative effort on the part of all the film manufacturers, meter manufacturers, the Optical Society of America, and the Bureau of Standards. It was used by all of the military services during the war. The new ASA exposure-index numbers provide the photographer with the most accurate film-rating information that has yet been devised. The G-E exposure meter uses the ASA exposure-index numbers, not only in the interest of standardization, but also because this system represents a real advancement in the field of measurement. The exposure-index number have been so arranged that all earlier model G-E meters can be used with this series of numbers. For some films the values are exactly the same; and where differences exist, the new ASA exposure-index value will cause but a slight increase in exposure. However […] a comparison of the new ASA exposure-index numbers and the G-E film values is shown […] A complete comparison of all systems of emulsion speed values can be found in the G-E Photo Data Book. […] All G-E meters manufactured after January, 1946, utilize the ASA exposure indexes. Although the new ASA values can be used with all previous model G-E meters, interchangeable calculator-hoods with ASA exposure indexes are available for Types DW-48, DW-49, and DW-58 meters.”

[27] General Electric (publisher). General Electric Photo Data Book. GET-I717.

[28] General Electric. Attention exposure meter owners. Advertisement, 1946 (): “Attention! Exposure meter owners! Mod- ernizing Hood $3.50 […] Modernize your G-E meter (Type DW-48 or early DW-58) with a new G-E Hood. Makes it easy to use the new film-exposure ratings developed by the American Standards Association … now the only basis for data published by leading film makers. See your photo dealer and snap on a new G-E hood! General Electric Company, Schenectady 5, N.Y.”.

[29] Yu. N. Gorokhovskiy. Fotograficheskaya metrologiya. Uspekhi Nauchnoy Fotografii (Advances in Scientific Photography), Volume 15, 1970, pp. 183-195 (English translation: Photographic Metrology. NASA Technical Translation II F-13,921, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. 20546, November 1972, ).

[30] GOST 2817-50 Transparent sublayer photographic materials. Method of general sensitometric test.(): GOST 2817-45 was replaced by GOST 2817-50, which in turn was replaced by GOST 10691.6-88, which defines black-and-white films, whereas GOST 10691.5-88 defines black-and-white films for .

[31] Leslie D. Stroebel; Richard D. Zakia (1993). The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography (3rd ed.). Focal Press. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-240-51417-8.

[32] Krasnogorskiy Zavod (Cyrillic: Красногорский завод). “Questions and answers: Film speeds” (in Russian). Retrieved 6 August 2011.

[33] GOST 10691.0-84 Black-and-white photographic materials with transparent sublaver. Method of general sensitometric test. ().

[34] GOST 10691.6-88 Black-and-white phototechnical films, films for scientific researches and industry. Method for determi- nation of speed numbers.().

[35] GOST 10691.5-88 Black-and-white aerophotographic films. Method for determination of speed numbers.().

[36] R. E. Jacobson; Sidney F. Ray; Geoffrey G. Attridge; Norman R. Axford (2000). The manual of photography (9th ed.). Focal Press. pp. 305–307. ISBN 978-0-240-51574-8.

[37] Carson Graves (1996). The zone system for 35mm photographers. Focal Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-240-80203-9.

[38] ISO 2721:1982. Photography — Cameras — Automatic controls of exposure (paid download). Geneva: International Organization for Standardization Archived August 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine..

[39] AG (2002). Leica R9 Bedienungsanleitung / Instructions. Leica publication 930 53 VII/03/GX/L, Solms, Germany, p. 197 (): “Film speed range: Manual setting from ISO 6/9° to ISO 12500/42° (with additional exposure compensation of up to ±3 EV, overall films from ISO 0.8/0° to ISO 100000/51° can be exposed), DX scanning from ISO 25/15° to ISO 5000/38°.”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[40] Leica Camera AG (1996). Leica Instructions - Leica R8. Solms, Germany, p. 16 (): ‘The DX-setting for automatic speed scanning appears after the position “12800”.’ and p. 65 (): “Film speed range: Manual setting from ISO 6/9° to ISO 12,800/42°. (With additional override of −3 EV to +3 EV, films from 0 DIN to 51 DIN can be exposed as well.) DX scanning from ISO 25/15° to ISO 5000/38°.”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[41] ASA PH2.12-1961, Table 2, p. 9, showed (but did not specify) a speed of 12500 as the next full step greater than 6400. 3.1. FILM SPEED 49

[42] Canon. (): “Acceptable film speed has been increased to a range of between ASA 25 and an incredible ASA 12,800 by the use of the CANON BOOSTER. The light-measuring range of the newly developed CANON FT QL has been extended from a low of EV −3.5, f/1.2 15 seconds to EV 18 with ASA 100 film. This is the first time a TTL camera has been capable of such astonishing performance.”

[43] Canon (1978). Canon A-1 Instructions. p. 28, p. 29, p. 46, p. 70, p. 98 ()

[44] Nikon USA Web page for . Accessed 11 January 2010.

[45] Canon USA Web page for Canon EOS-1D Mark IV. Accessed 11 January 2010.

[46] Canon USA Web page for Canon EOS-1D X. Accessed October 2011.

[47] page for Nikon D4. Accessed 6 January 2012.

[48] Pentax 645Z specifications ()

[49] specifications ()

[50] Sony α ILCE-7S specifications ()

[51] Canon Deutschland (2015-07-30). “Unsichtbares wird sichtbar! Canon präsentiert die ME20F-SH für Full-HD Farbvideos bei extrem wenig Licht”. Press release (in German). Retrieved 2015-07-30.

[52] Sony Europe Web page for DSLR-A500/DSLR-A550 (2009-08-27): “Dramatically reduced picture noise now allows super-sensitive shooting at up to ISO 12800, allowing attractive results when shooting handheld in challenging situations like candlelit interiors.”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[53] Sony Europe Web page for DSLR-A560/DSLR-A580 Archived August 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. (2010-08-27): “Multi-frame Noise Reduction ‘stacks’ a high-speed burst of six frames, creating a single low-noise exposure that boosts effective sensitivity as high as ISO 25600.”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[54] Pentax USA Web page for Pentax K-5 (2010): “ISO Sensitivity: ISO 100-12800 (1, 1/2, 1/3 steps), expandable to ISO 80–51200”. Accessed 29 July 2011.

[55] Fujifilm Canada Web page for Fuji FinePix X100 (2011-02): “Extended output sensitivity equivalent ISO 100 or 12800”. Accessed 30 July 2011.

[56] 1952 Singapore

[57] Ralph W. Lambrecht; Chris Woodhouse (2003). Way Beyond Monochrome. Newpro UK Ltd. p. 113. ISBN 978-0- 86343-354-2.

[58] “Kodak Tech Pub E-58: Print Grain Index”. Eastman Kodak, Professional Division. July 2000.

[59] Fact Sheet, Delta 3200 Professional. Knutsford, U.K.: Ilford Photo.

[60] ISO 12232:2006. Photography — Digital still cameras — Determination of exposure index, ISO speed ratings, standard out- put sensitivity, and recommended exposure index (paid download). Geneva: International Organization for Standardization Archived August 7, 2008, at the Wayback Machine..

[61] CIPA DC-004. Sensitivity of digital cameras. Tokyo: Camera & Imaging Products Association.

[62] Kodak Image Sensors – ISO Measurement. Rochester, NY: Eastman Kodak.

[63] “Exchangeable image file format for digital still cameras: Exif Version 2.3” (PDF). CIPA. Retrieved 5 December 2014.

[64] New Measures of the Sensitivity of a Digital Camera. Douglas A. Kerr, August 30, 2007.

[65] ISO 12232:1998. Photography — Electronic still-picture cameras — Determination of ISO speed, p. 12.

[66] “D200 Users manual” (PDF). Nikon. Retrieved 20 September 2015.

• ISO 6:1974, ISO 6:1993 (1993-02). Photography — Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems — Determination of ISO speed. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. • ISO 2240:1982 (1982-07), ISO 2240:1994 (1994-09), ISO 2240:2003 (2003–10). Photography — Colour reversal camera films — Determination of ISO speed. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. • ISO 2720:1974. General Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type) — Guide to Product Specification. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. 50 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

• ISO 5800:1979, ISO 5800:1987 (1987-11), ISO 5800:1987/Cor 1:2001 (2001–06). Photography — Colour negative films for still photography — Determination of ISO speed. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. • ISO 12232:1998 (1998-08), ISO 12232:2006 (2006-04-15), ISO 12232:2006 (2006-10-01). Photography — Digital still cameras — Determination of exposure index, ISO speed ratings, standard output sensitivity, and recommended exposure index. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization. • ASA Z38.2.1-1943, ASA Z38.2.1-1946, ASA Z38.2.1-1947 (1947-07-15). American Standard Method for Determining Photographic Speed and Speed Number. New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ASA PH2.5-1954. • ASA PH2.5-1954, ASA PH2.5-1960. American Standard Method for Determining Speed of photographic Negative Materials (Monochrome, Continuous Tone). New York: of America Standards Institute (USASI). Superseded by ANSI PH2.5-1972. • ANSI PH2.5-1972, ANSI PH2.5-1979 (1979-01-01), ANSI PH2.5-1979(R1986). Speed of photographic negative materials (monochrome, continuous tone), method for determining). New York: American National Standards Institute. Superseded by NAPM IT2.5-1986. • NAPM IT2.5-1986, ANSI/ISO 6-1993 ANSI/NAPM IT2.5-1993 (1993-01-01). Photography — Black-and- White Pictorial Still Camera Negative Film/Process Systems — Determination of ISO Speed (same as ANSI/ISO 6-1993). National Association of Photographic Manufacturers. This represents the US adoption of ISO 6. • ASA PH2.12-1957, ASA PH2.12-1961. American Standard, General-Purpose Photographic Exposure Meters (photoelectric type). New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ANSI PH3.49-1971. • ANSI PH2.21-1983 (1983-09-23), ANSI PH2.21-1983(R1989). Photography (Sensitometry) Color reversal camera films - Determination of ISO speed. New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ANSI/ISO 2240-1994 ANSI/NAPM IT2.21-1994. • ANSI/ISO 2240-1994 ANSI/NAPM IT2.21-1994. Photography - Colour reversal camera films - determination of ISO speed. New York: American National Standards Institute. This represents the US adoption of ISO 2240. • ASA PH2.27-1965 (1965-07-06), ASA PH2.27-1971, ASA PH2.27-1976, ANSI PH2.27-1979, ANSI PH2.27- 1981, ANSI PH2.27-1988 (1988-08-04). Photography - Colour negative films for still photography - Determi- nation of ISO speed (withdrawn). New York: American Standards Association. Superseded by ANSI IT2.27- 1988. • ANSI IT2.27-1988 (1994-08/09?). Photography Color negative films for still photography - Determination of ISO speed. New York: American National Standards Institute. Withdrawn. This represented the US adoption of ISO 5800. • ANSI PH3.49-1971, ANSI PH3.49-1971(R1987). American National Standard for general-purpose photo- graphic exposure meters (photoelectric type). New York: American National Standards Institute. After several revisions, this standard was withdrawn in favor of ANSI/ISO 2720:1974. • ANSI/ISO 2720:1974, ANSI/ISO 2720:1974(R1994) ANSI/NAPM IT3.302-1994. General Purpose Photo- graphic Exposure Meters (Photoelectric Type) — Guide to Product Specification. New York: American National Standards Institute. This represents the US adoption of ISO 2720. • BSI BS 1380:1947, BSI BS 1380:1963. Speed and exposure index. British Standards Institution. Superseded by BSI BS 1380-1:1973 (1973-12), BSI BS 1380-2:1984 (1984-09), BSI BS 1380-3:1980 (1980-04) and others. • BSI BS 1380-1:1973 (1973-12-31). Speed of sensitized photographic materials: Negative monochrome material for still and cine photography. British Standards Institution. Replaced by BSI BS ISO 6:1993, superseded by BSI BS ISO 2240:1994. • BSI BS 1380-2:1984 ISO 2240:1982 (1984-09-28). Speed of sensitized photographic materials. Method for de- termining the speed of colour reversal film for still and amateur cine photography. British Standards Institution. Superseded by BSI BS ISO 2240:1994. • BSI BS 1380-3:1980 ISO 5800:1979 (1980-04-30). Speed of sensitized photographic materials. Colour negative film for still photography. British Standards Institution. Superseded by BSI BS ISO 5800:1987. 3.2. FILM STOCK 51

• BSI BS ISO 6:1993 (1995-03-15). Photography. Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems. Determination of ISO speed. British Standards Institution. This represents the British adoption of ISO 6:1993.

• BSI BS ISO 2240:1994 (1993-03-15), BSI BS ISO 2240:2003 (2004-02-11). Photography. Colour reversal camera films. Determination of ISO speed. British Standards Institution. This represents the British adoption of ISO 2240:2003.

• BSI BS ISO 5800:1987 (1995-03-15). Photography. Colour negative films for still photography. Determination of ISO speed. British Standards Institution. This represents the British adoption of ISO 5800:1987.

• DIN 4512:1934-01, DIN 4512:1957-11 (Blatt 1), DIN 4512:1961-10 (Blatt 1). Photographische Sensitometrie, Bestimmung der optischen Dichte. Berlin: Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA). Superseded by DIN 4512- 1:1971-04, DIN 4512-4:1977-06, DIN 4512-5:1977-10 and others.

• DIN 4512-1:1971-04, DIN 4512-1:1993-05. Photographic sensitometry; systems of black and white negative films and their process for pictorial photography; determination of speed. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Nor- mung (before 1975: Deutscher Normenausschuß (DNA)). Superseded by DIN ISO 6:1996-02.

• DIN 4512-4:1977-06, DIN 4512-4:1985-08. Photographic sensitometry; determination of the speed of colour reversal films. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. Superseded by DIN ISO 2240:1998-06.

• DIN 4512-5:1977-10, DIN 4512-5:1990-11. Photographic sensitometry; determination of the speed of colour negative films. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. Superseded by DIN ISO 5800:1998-06.

• DIN ISO 6:1996-02. Photography - Black-and-white pictorial still camera negative film/process systems - De- termination of ISO speed (ISO 6:1993). Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. This represents the German adoption of ISO 6:1993.

• DIN ISO 2240:1998-06, DIN ISO 2240:2005-10. Photography - Colour reversal camera films - Determination of ISO speed (ISO 2240:2003). Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. This represents the German adoption of ISO 2240:2003.

• DIN ISO 5800:1998-06, DIN ISO 5800:2003-11. Photography - Colour negative films for still photography - Determination of ISO speed (ISO 5800:1987 + Corr. 1:2001). Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung. This represents the German adoption of ISO 5800:2001.

• Leslie B. Stroebel, John Compton, Ira Current, Richard B. Zakia. Basic Photographic Materials and Processes, second edition. Boston: Focal Press, 2000. ISBN 0-240-80405-8.

3.1.7 External links

• What is the meaning of ISO for digital cameras? Digital Photography FAQ

• Signal-dependent noise modeling, estimation, and removal for digital imaging sensors

3.2 Film stock

This article is about motion picture film. For still photography film, see photographic film. “Film roll” redirects here. For the photographic film roll, see roll film. Film stock is an analog medium that is used for recording motion pictures or animation. It is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light- sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film.[1] The emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a very short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change, proportional to the amount of light absorbed by each crystal. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be chemically developed into a visible photograph. In addition to visible light, all films are sensitive to X-rays and high-energy particles. Most are at least slightly sensitive to invisible ultraviolet (UV) light. Some special-purpose films are sensitive into the infrared (IR) region of the spectrum. 52 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

A film strip

In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver, which blocks light and appears as the black part of the film negative. Color film has at least three sensitive layers. Dyes, which adsorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green and red layers. During development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. But in a color film, the by-products of the development reaction simultaneously combine with chemicals known as color couplers that are included either in the film itself or in the developer solution to form colored dyes. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, the dye clouds formed are also in proportion to the exposure and development. Following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step. It is removed from the film in the fix step. Fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, with upwards of 20 different chemicals in each layer.

3.2.1 History

1888–1899: Before standardization

Early motion picture experiments in the 1880s were performed using a fragile paper roll film, with which it was difficult to view a single, continuously moving image without a complex apparatus. The first transparent and flexible film base material was celluloid, which was discovered and refined for photographic use by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin, and George Eastman.[2] Eastman Kodak made celluloid film commercially available in 1889; Thomas Henry Blair, in 1891, was its first competitor. The stock had a frosted base to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted light. Emulsions were orthochromatic. By November 1891 William Dickson, at Edison's laboratory, was using Blair’s stock for Kinetoscope experiments.[2] Blair’s company supplied film to Edison for five years. Between 1892 and 1893, Eastman experienced problems with production. Because of patent lawsuits in 1893, Blair left his American company and established another in Britain. Eastman supplied Edison with film. 3.2. FILM STOCK 53

Blair’s new company supplied European filmmaking pioneers, including Birt Acres, Robert Paul, George Albert Smith, Charles Urban, and the Lumiere Brothers. By 1896 the new required a fully transparent film base that Blair’s American operation could not supply. Eastman shortly thereafter bought the company out and became the leading supplier of film stock. Louis Lumiere worked with Victor Planchon to adapt the Lumiere “Blue Label” (Etiquette Bleue) photographic plate emulsion for use on celluloid roll film, which began in early 1896. Eastman’s first motion picture film stock was offered in 1889.[3] At first the film was the same as photographic film. By 1916, separate “Cine Type” films were offered.[3] From 1895, Eastman supplied their motion picture roll film in rolls of 65 feet, while Blair’s rolls were 75 feet. If longer lengths were needed, the unexposed negative rolls could be cemented in a darkroom, but this was largely undesirable by most narrative filmmakers. The makers of Actuality films were much more eager to undertake this method, however, in order to depict longer actions, and created cemented rolls as long as 1000 feet. American Mutoscope and Biograph was the first known company to use this for the Jeffries-Sharkey fight on November 3, 1899.

1900–1919: Towards the standard picture film

As the quantity of film and filmmakers grew, the demand for standardization increased. Between 1900 and 1910, film formats gradually became standardized and film stocks improved. A number of film gauges were made. Eastman increased the length of rolls to 200 feet without major adjustments to the emulsion, retaining a large market share. Lumiere reformulated its stock to match the speed of Eastman film, naming it 'Etiquette Violette' (Violet Label). Blair sold his English company to Pathé in 1907 and retired to the US. Pathe began to supplement its operation in 1910 by purchasing film prints, stripping the emulsion from the film base and re-coating it. 35mm film began to become the dominant gauge because of the popularity of Edison’s and Lumière’s cameras. Consumers usually purchased unperforated film and had to punch it by perforators that were often imprecise, causing difficulty in making prints for the opposite perforation format. In 1908, the perforators began to be made by Bell and Howell. Eastman Kodak used the Bell and Howell’s machine to perforate its films. In 1909, Edison’s organization of the Motion Picture Patents Trust agreed to what would become the standard: 35 mm gauge, with Edison perforations and a 1.33 aspect ratio.[4] Agfa began to produce motion picture film in 1913, but remained a largely local supplier until World War I boycotts of popular French, American and Italian film stocks allowed the UFA film studio to flourish, boosting Agfa’s orders. All film stocks were manufactured on a nitrate film base, which is highly flammable. Nitrate film fires were difficult to extinguish. A significant number of fatal accidents occurred in theatrical projection booths, where the heat of the projector lamp made ignition most likely. Amateur filmmaking (home movies) slowly developed during this period. Kodak developed a heat-resistant 'safety base' for home projection. In 1909, tests showed cellulose diacetate to be a viable replacement base, and Kodak began selling acetate-base films the following year in 22 mm widths for Edison’s work on the Home Kinetoscope, which was commercially released in 1912. Eastman Kodak introduced a non-inflammable 35 mm film stock in 1909. The plasticizers used to make the film flexible evaporated quickly, making the film dry and brittle, causing splices to part and perforations to tear. In 1911 the major American film studios returned to using nitrate stock.[5] More amateur formats began to use acetate based film, and several, including Kodak’s own 16 mm format, were designed specifically to be manufactured with safety base. Kodak released Cine Negative Film Type E in 1916 and Type F (later known as Negative Film Par Speed Type 1201) in 1917. As both of these orthochromatic films were no faster than previous offerings; the improvements were in granularity and sharpness.

1920s: Diversification of film sensitivity

Film stock manufacturers began to diversify their products. Each manufacturer had previously offered one negative stock (usually orthochromatic) and one print stock. In 1920, a variant of Type F film known as X-back was introduced to counteract the effects of static electricity on the film, which can cause sparking and create odd exposure patterns on the film. A resin backing was used on the film, which rendered the film too opaque to allow focusing through the back of the film, a common technique for many cameras of that era. The X-back stock was popular on the east coast of the US. Other manufacturers were established in the 1920s, including American E.I. Dupont de Nemours in 1926 and Belgian Gevaert in 1925. Panchromatic film stock became more common. Created in 1913 for use in color film processes such as Kinemacolor, panchromatic was first used in a black-and-white film for exterior sequences in Queen of the Sea (1918) and originally available as a special order product.[6] The stock’s increased sensitivity to red light made it an attractive option for day for night shooting. Kodak financed a feature in 1922, shot entirely with panchromatic stock, The Headless Horseman, to promote the film when Kodak introduced it as a standard option. Panchromatic film stock was expensive and no motion pictures were produced in entirety on it for several years. The 54 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

A silent home movie on 16mm black-and-white reversal double perforation film stock cross-cutting between panchromatic and orthochromatic stocks caused continuity problems with costume tones and panchromatic film was often avoided. Orthochromatic film remained dominant until the mid-1920s due to Kodak’s lack of competition in the panchromatic market. In 1925, Gevaert introduced an orthochromatic stock with limited color sensitivity and a fully panchromatic stock, Pan-23. In 1926, Kodak lowered the price of panchromatic stock to parity with its orthochromatic offering 3.2. FILM STOCK 55 and the panchromatic stock began to overtake the orthochromatic stock’s market share within a few years.[7] Similar panchromatic film stocks were manufactured by Agfa and Pathé, the shift to panchromatic stocks had largely been completed by 1928, and Kodak discontinued orthochromatic stock in 1930.[8]

Color films

Further information: Color motion picture film

Experiments with color films were made as early as the late 19th century, but practical color film was not commercially viable until 1908, and for amateur use when Kodak introduced Kodachrome for 16 mm in 1935 and 8 mm in 1936. Before 1941, commercially successful color processes used special cameras loaded with black-and-white separation stocks rather than color negative. Kinemacolor (1908–1914), processes 1 through 4 (1917–1954), and Cinecolor used one, two or three strips of monochrome film stock sensitized to certain primary colors or exposed behind color filters in special cameras. Technicolor introduced a color reversal stock, called Monopack, for location shooting in 1941; it was ultimately a 35 mm version of Kodachrome that could be used in standard motion picture cameras. Eastman Kodak introduced their first 35mm color negative stock, film 5247, in 1950. A higher quality version in 1952, Eastman Color Negative film 5248, was quickly adopted by Hollywood for color motion picture production, replacing both the expensive three-strip Technicolor process and Monopack.

3.2.2 Classification and properties

There are several variables in classifying stocks; in practice, one orders raw stock by a code number, based on desired sensitivity to light.

Base

Further information: Film base

A piece of film consists of a light-sensitive emulsion applied to a tough, transparent base, sometimes attached to anti-halation backing or “rem-jet” layer (now only on camera films). Originally the highly flammable cellulose nitrate was used. In the 1930s, film manufacturers introduced "safety film" with a cellulose triacetate plastic base. All amateur film stocks were safety film, but the use of nitrate persisted for professional releases. Kodak discontinued the manufacture of nitrate base in 1951, and the industry transitioned entirely to safety film in 1951 in the United States and by 1955 internationally. Since the late 1990s, almost all release prints have used polyester film stock.

Emulsion

The emulsion consists of silver halide grains suspended in a gelatin colloid; in the case of color film, there are three layers of silver halide, which are mixed with color couplers and interlayers that filter specific light spectra. These end up creating yellow, cyan, and magenta layers in the negative after development.

Chemistry

Development chemicals applied to an appropriate film can produce either a positive (showing the same densities and colors as the subject) or negative image (with dark highlights, light shadows, and, in principle, complementary colors). The first films were darkened by light: negative films. Later films that produce a positive image became known as reversal films; processed transparent film of this type can be projected onto a screen. Negative images need to be transferred onto photographic paper or other substrate which reverses the image again, producing a final positive image. Creating a positive image from a negative film can also be done by scanning the negative to create a computer file which can then be reversed by software. 56 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

A short strip of undeveloped 35 mm color negative film. 3.2. FILM STOCK 57

Image record

Different emulsions and development processes exist for a variety of image recording possibilities: the two most common of which are black and white, and color. However, there are also variant types, such as infrared film (in black and white or false color); specialist technical films, such as those used for X-rays; and obsolete processes, such as orthochromatic film. Generally, however, the vast majority of stock used today is “normal” (visible spectrum) color, although “normal” black and white also commands a significant minority percentage.

Physical characteristics

Film is also classified according to its gauge and the arrangement of its perforations— gauges range from 8 mm to 70 mm or more, while perforations may vary in shape, pitch, and positioning. The film is also distinguished by how it is wound with regard to perforations and base or emulsion side, as well as whether it is packaged around a core, a daylight spool, or within a cartridge. Depending on the manufacturing processes and camera equipment, lengths can vary anywhere from 25 to 2000 feet. Common lengths include 25 feet for 8 mm, 50 feet for Super 8, 100 and 400 feet for 16 mm, 400 and 1000 feet for 35 mm, and 1000 for 65/70 mm.

Responsivity

A critical property of a stock is its film speed, determined by ASA or its sensitivity to light listed by a measurement on the raw stock which must be chosen with care. Speed determines the range of lighting conditions under which the film can be shot, and is related to granularity and contrast, which influence the look of the image. The stock manufacturer will usually give an exposure index (EI) number equal to the ASA which they recommend exposing for. However, factors such as forced or non-standard development (such as or cross processing), compensation for filters or shutter angle, as well as intended under- and over-exposure may cause the cinematographer to actually “rate” the stock differently from the EI. This new rating is not a change to the stock itself — it is merely a way of calculating exposure without figuring out the compensation after each light reading.

Color temperature

Another important quality of color film stock in particular is its color balance, which is defined by the color tem- perature at which it accurately records white. Tungsten lighting is defined at 3200 K, which is considered “warmer” in tone and shifted towards orange; daylight is defined at 5600 K, which is considered “colder” and shifted towards blue. This means that unfiltered tungsten stock will look normal shot under tungsten lights, but blue if shot during daylight. Conversely, daylight stock shot in daylight will look normal, but orange if shot under tungsten lights. issues such as these can be compensated for by other factors such as lens filters and color gels placed in front of the lights. The color temperature of a film stock is generally indicated next to the film speed number — e.g. 500T stock is color film stock with an ASA of 500 and balanced for tungsten light; 250D would have an ASA of 250 and be balanced for daylight. While black-and-white film has no color temperature itself, the silver halide grains themselves tend to be slightly more responsive to blue light, and therefore will have daylight and tungsten speeds — e.g. Kodak’s Double-X stock is rated 250D/200T, since the tungsten light will give slightly less exposure than an equivalent amount of daylight.

3.2.3 Deterioration

All plastic is subject to deterioration through physical or chemical means, and thus, motion picture film is subject to the same deterioration. Films deteriorate over time, which can damage individual frames or even lead to the entire film being destroyed. Cellulose nitrate, cellulose diacetate and triacetate are known to be unstable mediums: improperly preserved film can deteriorate in a period of time much faster than many photographs or other visual presentations. Cellulose nitrate, because of its unstable chemistry, eventually breaks down, releasing nitric acid, further catalyzing the decomposition. In the final stages of celluloid decomposition, the film turns into a rust-like powder. Likewise, tri-acetate stock is also vulnerable to deterioration. Because of the small gauge of the film, owners of home-made films often find that their film can become shrunken and brittle to the point where the film is unwatchable in the space of a few years. In general, decaying acetate film breaks down into , and similar to celluloid decomposition, leads to an auto-catylictic breakdown of the base that cannot be reversed. The result of the acetic acid released is a strong odor of vinegar, which is why the decay process in the archival community is known as "vinegar syndrome". 58 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

Modern polyester-based stocks are far more stable by comparison and are rated to last hundreds of years if stored properly.

3.2.4 Intermediate and print stocks

35 mm film print frames. At far left and far right, outside the perforations, is the SDDS soundtrack as an image of a digital signal. Between the perforations is the Dolby Digital soundtrack (note the tiny Dolby “Double D” logo in the center of each area between the perforations). Just inside the perforations, on the left side of the image, is the analog optical soundtrack, with two channels encoded using Dolby SR noise reduction that can be dematrixed into four channels using Dolby Pro Logic. The optical timecode used to synchronize a DTS soundtrack, which sits between the optical soundtrack and the image, is not pictured. Finally, the image here is an anamorphic image used to create a 2.39:1 aspect ratio when projected through an anamorphic lens. Note the thin frame lines of anamorphic prints.

The distinction between camera stocks and print stocks involves a difference in the recording process. When the work print or edit master has been approved, the Original Camera Negative (OCN) is assembled by a negative cutter using the edited work print or EDL (edit decision list) as a guide. A series of Answer Prints are then made from the OCN. During the Answer Print stage, corrections in the film’s density and color are corrected (timed) to the filmmakers’ tastes. Interpositive (IP) prints are struck from the OCN, checked to make sure they look the same as the custom 3.2. FILM STOCK 59 timed Answer Print, and then each IP is used to make one or more Dupe Negative (DN) copies. The release prints are then generated from the DN(s). Recently, with the development of (DI), it has become possible to completely edit, composite visual effects, and color grade the image digitally at full resolution and bit-depth. In this workflow, the answer print is generated digitally and then written out to the IP stage using a laser film . Due to the specialized nature of the exposure and the higher degree of control afforded by the film lab equipment, these intermediate and release stocks are specially designed solely for these applications and are generally not feasi- ble for camera shooting. Because intermediates only function to maintain the image information accurately across duplication, each manufacturer tends to only produce one or two different intermediate stocks. Similarly, stocks usually are available only in two varieties: a “normal” print or a deluxe print (on more-costly print film like Kodak Vision Premiere) with slightly greater saturation and contrast.

3.2.5 Decline

Use of film remained the dominant form of until the early 21st century when digital formats, such as the RED Camera series, supplanted the use of film in many applications. became the first studio to distribute films exclusively digitally, and other studios have chosen to follow suit. This has also led to the replacement of film projectors with digital projection.[9]

3.2.6 See also

• Direct film • Film format • • Fujifilm • List of film formats • List of motion picture film stocks • Color motion picture film • Photographic film with emphasis on film for still photography. • ORWO • Tasma • Video

3.2.7 References

Notes

[1] Karlheinz Keller et al. “Photography” in Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a20_001

[2] http://www.kodak.com/ek/US/en/Our_Company/History_of_Kodak/Milestones_-_chronology/1878-1929.htm

[3] http://www.aipcinema.com/ficheiros/Conteudos/KODAK_FILM_HISTORY.pdf

[4] The gauge and perforations are almost identical to modern film stock; the full silent ratio is also used as the film gate in movie cameras, although portions of the image are later cropped out in post-production and projection.

[5] Eileen Bowser, The Transformation of Cinema 1907–1915, Charles Scribner’s Sons 1990, p. 74–75. ISBN 0-684-18414-1.

[6] Koszarski (1994). p. 140.

[7] Salt (1992). p. 179. “There was apparently some question as to differences in relative contrast between the two stocks. As Barry Salt notes, “this claim is almost impossible to substantiate now, given the extreme difficulty there is in seeing a reasonable number of original prints of films shot on both stocks.” 60 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

[8] Kodak: Chronology of Motion Picture Films, 1889 to 1939.

[9] Digital Cinema Conversion Nears End Game

Bibliography

• Koszarski, Richard (1994). An Evening’s Entertainment: The Age of the Silent Feature Picture, 1915-1928, University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08535-0.

• Salt, Barry (1992). Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis. London: Starword.

Further reading

• Ascher, Steve and Edward Pincus. The Filmmaker’s Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age. New York: Penguin Group, 1999.

• Fujifilm UK. A Brief History of Fujifilm, 2001. Retrieved 2007-07-09.

• Fujifilm USA. Motion Picture Chronology, 2001. Retrieved 2007-07-09.

• Kodak. Chronology of Motion Picture Films, 2005. Retrieved 2009-06-29.

3.3 Zone System

The Zone System is a photographic technique for determining optimal film exposure and development, formulated by Ansel Adams and Fred Archer.[1] Adams described the Zone System as "[...] not an invention of mine; it is a codification of the principles of sensitometry, worked out by Fred Archer and myself at the Art Center School in Los Angeles, around 1939–40.”[2] The technique is based on the late 19th century sensitometry studies of Hurter and Driffield. The Zone System provides photographers with a systematic method of precisely defining the relationship between the way they visualize the photographic subject and the final results. Although it originated with black-and-white sheet film, the Zone System is also applicable to roll film, both black-and-white and color, negative and reversal, and to digital photography.

3.3.1 Principles

Visualization

An expressive image involves the arrangement and rendering of various scene elements according to the photogra- pher’s desire. Achieving the desired image involves image management (placement of the camera, choice of lens, and possibly the use of camera movements) and control of image values. The Zone System is concerned with control of image values, ensuring that light and dark values are rendered as desired. Anticipation of the final result before making the exposure is known as visualization.

Exposure metering

Any scene of photographic interest contains elements of different luminance; consequently, the “exposure” actually is many different exposures. The exposure time is the same for all elements, but the image varies with the luminance of each subject element. Exposure is often determined using a reflected-light[3] exposure meter. The earliest meters measured overall average luminance; meter calibration was established to give satisfactory exposures for typical outdoor scenes. However, if the part of a scene that is metered includes large areas of unusually high or low reflectance, or unusually large areas of highlight or shadow, the “effective” average reflectance[4] may differ substantially from that of a “typical” scene, and the rendering may not be as desired. An averaging meter cannot distinguish between a subject of uniform luminance and one that consists of light and dark elements. When exposure is determined from average luminance measurements, the exposure of any given 3.3. ZONE SYSTEM 61

scene element depends on the relationship of its reflectance to the effective average reflectance. For example, a dark object of 4% reflectance would be given a different exposure in a scene of 20% effective average reflectance than it would be given in a scene of 12% reflectance. In a sunlit outdoor scene, the exposure for the dark object would also depend on whether the object was in sunlight or shade. Depending on the scene and the photographer’s objective, any of the previous exposures might be acceptable. However, in some situations, the photographer might wish to specifically control the rendering of the dark object; with overall average metering, this is difficult if not impossible. When it is important to control the rendering of specific scene elements, alternative metering techniques may be required. It is possible to make a meter reading of an individual scene element, but the exposure indicated by the meter will render that element as a medium gray; in the case of a dark object, that result is usually not what is desired. Even when metering individual scene elements, some adjustment of the indicated exposure is often needed if the metered scene element is to be rendered as visualized.

Exposure zones

In the Zone System, measurements are made of individual scene elements, and exposure is adjusted based on the photographer’s knowledge of what is being metered: a photographer knows the difference between freshly fallen snow and a black horse, while a meter does not. Much has been written on the Zone System, but the concept is very simple—render light subjects as light, and dark subjects as dark, according to the photographer’s visualization. The Zone System assigns numbers from 0 through 10[5] to different brightness values, with 0 representing black, 5 middle gray, and 10 pure white; these values are known as zones. To make zones easily distinguishable from other quantities, Adams and Archer used Roman rather than Arabic numerals. Strictly speaking, zones refer to exposure,[6] with a Zone V exposure (the meter indication) resulting in a mid-tone rendering in the final image. Each zone differs from the preceding or following zone by a factor of two, so that a Zone I exposure is twice that of Zone 0, and so forth. A one-zone change is equal to one stop,[7] corresponding to standard aperture and shutter controls on a camera. Evaluating a scene is particularly easy with a meter that indicates in (EV), because a change of one EV is equal to a change of one zone. Many small- and medium-format cameras include provision for exposure compensation; this feature works well with the Zone System, especially if the camera includes spot metering, but obtaining proper results requires careful me- tering of individual scene elements and making appropriate adjustments.

Zones, the physical world and the print

The relationship between the physical scene and the print is established by characteristics of the negative and the print. Exposure and development of the negative are usually determined so that a properly exposed negative will yield an acceptable print on a specific photographic paper. Although zones directly relate to exposure, visualization relates to the final result. A black-and-white photographic print represents the visual world as a series of tones ranging from black to white. Imagine all of the tonal values that can appear in a print, represented as a continuous gradation from black to white:

Full Tonal Gradation

From this starting point, zones are formed by:

• Dividing the tonal gradation into eleven equal sections.

Note: You may need to adjust the brightness and contrast of your monitor to see the gradations at the dark and light end of the scales.

• Blending each section into one tone that represents all the tonal values in that section.

• Numbering each section with Roman numerals from 0 for the black section to X for the white one. 62 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

Eleven-Step Gradation

Zones as tone and texture

Adams (1981, 52) distinguished among three different exposure scales for the negative:

• The full range from black to white, represented by Zone 0 through Zone X.

• The dynamic range comprising Zone I through Zone IX, which Adams considered to represent the darkest and lightest “useful” negative densities.

• The textural range comprising Zone II through Zone VIII. This range of zones conveys a sense of texture and the recognition of substance.

He noted that negatives can record detail through Zone XII and even higher, but that bringing this information within the exposure scale of the print is extremely difficult with normal processing. Adams (1981, 60) described the zone scale and its relationship to typical scene elements:[8] For cinematography, in general, parts of the scene falling in Zone III will have textured black, and objects on Zone VII will have textured white. In other words, if the text on a piece of white paper is to be readable, light and expose the white so that it falls on Zone VII. This is a general rule of thumb. Some film stocks have steeper curves than others, and the cinematographer needs to know how each one handles all shades of black-to-white.

3.3.2 Technique

Effective film speed

The ISO standard for black-and-white negative film, ISO 6:1993, specifies development criteria that may differ from those used in practical photography (previous standards, such as ANSI PH2.5-1979, also specified chemistry and development technique). Consequently, the Zone System practitioner often must determine the speed for a particular combination of film, developer, and enlarger type; the speed determination is commonly based on Zone I. Although the method for determining speed for the Zone System is conceptually similar to the ISO method for determining speed, the Zone System speed is an effective speed[9] rather than an ISO speed.

Exposure

A dark surface under a bright light can reflect the same amount of light as a light surface under dim light. The human eye would perceive the two as being very different but a light meter would measure only the amount of light reflected, and its recommended exposure would render either as Zone V. The Zone System provides a straightforward method for rendering these objects as the photographer desires. The key element in the scene is identified, and that element is placed on the desired zone; the other elements in the scene then fall where they may. With negative film, exposure often favors shadow detail; the procedure then is to

1. Visualize the darkest area of the subject in which detail is required, and place it on Zone III. The exposure for Zone III is important, because if the exposure is insufficient, the image may not have satisfactory shadow detail. If the shadow detail is not recorded at the time of exposure, nothing can be done to add it later.

2. Carefully meter the area visualized as Zone III and note the meter’s recommended exposure (the meter gives a Zone V exposure).

3. Adjust the recommended exposure so that the area is placed on Zone III rather than Zone V. To do this, use an exposure two stops less than the meter’s recommendation. 3.3. ZONE SYSTEM 63

Development

For every combination of film, developer, and paper there is a “normal” development time that will allow a properly exposed negative to give a reasonable print. In many cases, this means that values in the print will display as recorded (e.g., Zone V as Zone V, Zone VI as Zone VI, and so on). In general, optimal negative development will be different for every type and grade of paper. It is often desirable for a print to exhibit a full range of tonal values; this may not be possible for a low-contrast scene if the negative is given normal development. However, the development can be increased to increase the negative contrast so that the full range of tones is available. This technique is known as expansion, and the development usually referred to as “plus” or “N+”. Criteria for plus development vary among different photographers; Adams used it to raise a Zone VII placement to Zone VIII in the print, and referred to it as “N + 1” development. Conversely, if the negative for a high-contrast scene is given normal development, desired detail may be lost in either shadow or highlight areas, and the result may appear harsh. However, development can be reduced so that a scene element placed on Zone IX is rendered as Zone VIII in the print; this technique is known as contraction, and the development usually referred to as “minus” or “N−”. When the resulting change is one zone, it is usually called “N − 1” development. It sometimes is possible to make greater adjustments, using “N + 2” or “N − 2” development, and occasionally even beyond. Development has the greatest effect on dense areas of the negative, so that the high values can be adjusted with minimal effect on the low values. The effect of expansion or contraction gradually decreases with tones darker than Zone VIII (or whatever value is used for control of high values). Specific times for N+ or N− developments are determined either from systematic tests, or from development tables provided by certain Zone System books.

Additional darkroom processes

Adams generally used toning when processing prints. Selenium toner acts as a preservative and can alter the color of a print, but Adams used it subtly, primarily because it can add almost a full zone to the tonal range of the final print, producing richer dark tones that still hold shadow detail. His book The Print described using the techniques of to selectively darken or lighten areas of the final print. The Zone System requires that every variable in photography, from exposure to darkroom production of the print, be calibrated and controlled. The print is the last link in a chain of events, no less important to the Zone System than exposure and development of the film. With practice, the photographer visualizes the final print before the shutter is released.

3.3.3 Application to other media

Roll film

Unlike sheet film, in which each negative can be individually developed, an entire roll must be given the same de- velopment, so that N+ and N− development are normally unavailable.[10] The key element in the scene is placed on the desired zone, and the rest of the scene falls where it will. Some contrast control is still available with the use of different paper grades. Adams (1981, 93–95) described use of the Zone System with roll film. In most cases, he recommended N − 1 development when a single roll was to be exposed under conditions of varying contrast, so that exposure could be sufficient to give adequate shadow detail but avoid excessive density and grain build-up in the highlights.

Color film

Because of color shifts, color film usually does not lend itself to variations in development time. Use of the Zone System with color film is similar to that with black-and-white roll film, except that the exposure range is somewhat less, so that there are fewer zones between black and white. The exposure scale of color reversal film is less than that of color negative film, and the procedure for exposure usually is different, favoring highlights rather than shadows; 64 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3 the shadow values then fall where they will. Whatever the exposure range, the meter indication results in a Zone V placement. Adams (1981, 95–97) described the application to color film, both negative and reversal.

Digital photography

The Zone System can be used in digital photography just as in film photography; Adams (1981, xiii) himself antici- pated the digital image. As with color reversal film, the normal procedure is to expose for the highlights and process for the shadows. Until recently, digital sensors had a much narrower dynamic range than color negative film, which, in turn, has less range than monochrome film. But an increasing number of digital cameras have achieved wider dynamic ranges. One of the first was Fujifilm’s FinePix S3 Pro digital SLR, which has their proprietary “Super CCD SR sensor” specifically developed to overcome the issue of limited dynamic range, using interstitial low-sensitivity photosites (pixels) to capture highlight details. The CCD is thus able to expose at both low and high sensitivities within one shot by assigning a honeycomb of pixels to different intensities of light. Greater scene contrast can be accommodated by making one or more exposures of the same scene using different exposure settings and then combining those images. It often suffices to make two exposures, one for the shadows, and one for the highlights; the images are then overlapped and blended appropriately, so that the resulting composite represents a wider range of colors and tones. Combining images is often easier if the image-editing software includes features, such as the automatic layer alignment in CS3, that assist precise registration of multiple images. Even greater scene contrast can be handled by using more than two exposures and combining with a feature such as Merge to HDR in Photoshop CS2 and later. A simplified approach has been adopted by Apple Inc. as a selectible HDR option in later versions of the iPhone. The tonal range of the final image depends on the characteristics of the display medium. Monitor contrast can vary significantly, depending on the type (CRT, LCD, etc.), model, and calibration (or lack thereof). A computer printer’s tonal output depends on the number of inks used and the paper on which it is printed. Similarly, the density range of a traditional photographic print depends on the processes used as well as the paper characteristics.

Histograms Most high-end digital cameras allow viewing a histogram of the tonal distribution of the captured image. This histogram, which shows the concentration of tones, running from dark on the left to light on the right, can be used to judge whether a full tonal range has been captured, or whether the exposure should be adjusted, such as by changing the exposure time, lens aperture, or ISO speed, to ensure a tonally rich starting image.[11]

3.3.4 Misconceptions and criticisms

The Zone System gained an early reputation for being complex, difficult to understand, and impractical to apply to real-life shooting situations and equipment. Criticism has been raised on grounds that the Zone System obscures simple densitometry considerations by needlessly introducing its own terminology for otherwise trivial concepts. Noted photographer Andreas Feininger wrote in 1976,

I deliberately omitted discussing the so-called Zone System of film exposure determination in this book because in my opinion it makes mountains out of molehills, complicates matters out of all propor- tions, does not produce any results that cannot be accomplished more easily with methods discussed in this text, and is a ritual if not a form of cult rather than a practical technical procedure.[12]

Much of the difficulty may have resulted from Adams’s early books, which he wrote without the assistance of a professional editor; he later conceded (Adams 1985, 325) that this was a mistake. Picker (1974) provided a concise and simple treatment that helped demystify the process. Adams’s later Photography Series published in the early 1980s (and written with the assistance of Robert Baker) also proved far more comprehensible to the average photographer. The Zone System has often been thought to apply only to certain materials, such as black-and-white sheet film and black-and-white photographic prints. At a time when introduction of electronic still image cameras to the consumer market was imminent (e.g. the Sony Mavica), Adams (1981, xii) stated

I believe the electronic image will be the next major advance. Such systems will have their own inherent and inescapable structural characteristics, and the artist and functional practitioner will again strive to comprehend and control them. 3.3. ZONE SYSTEM 65 which is sometimes interpreted as evidence that Adams envisioned his Zone System to be useful for electronic or even digital image capture/processing. However, in this quotation there is no claim that the Zone System would be a suitable instrument to comprehend and control the new imaging devices, and Adams explicitly states that electronic systems may have their own characteristics (which might thus require different approaches). Yet another misconception is that the Zone System emphasizes technique at the expense of creativity. Some practi- tioners have treated the Zone System as if it were an end in itself, but Adams made it clear that the Zone System was an enabling technique rather than the ultimate objective.

3.3.5 See also

• Densitometry

•

•

3.3.6 Notes

[1] Encyclopedia Americana. 30. Scholastic Library Publishing. 2006. p. 137. ISBN 0-7172-0139-2. By 1939 he had devised the Zone System... Robinson, Edward M. (2007). Crime scene photography. Academic Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-12-369383-7. ...Ansel Adams’ zone system, formulated in 1939–1940.

[2] Dowdell, John J.; Zakia, Richard D. (1973). Zone systemizer for creative photographic control, Part 1. Morgan & Morgan. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-87100-040-8.

[3] Adams (1981, 30) considered the incident-light meter, which measures light falling on the subject, to be of limited usefulness because it takes no account of the specific subject luminances that actually produce the image.

[4] A typical scene includes areas of highlight and shadow, and has scene elements at various angles to the light source, so it usually is possible to use the term “average” reflectance only loosely. Here, “effective” average reflectance is used to include these additional effects.

[5] Adams (1981) designated 11 zones; other photographers, including Picker (1974) and White, Zakia, and Lorenz (1976) used 10 zones. Either approach is workable if the photographer is consistent in her methods.

[6] Adams (1981) distinguished among exposure zones, negative density values, and print values. The negative density value is controlled by exposure and the negative development; the print value is controlled by the negative density value, and the paper exposure and development. Commonly, “zone” is also used, if somewhat loosely, to refer to negative density values and print values.

[7] Photographers commonly refer to exposure changes in terms of “stops”, but properly, a stop is a device that regulates the amount of light, while a step is a division of a scale. The standard exposure scale consists of power-of-two steps; a one-step exposure increase doubles the exposure, while a one-step decrease halves the exposure. Davis (1999, 13) recommended the term “stop” to avoid confusion with the steps of a photographic step tablet, which may not correspond to standard power-of-two exposure steps. ISO standards generally use “step”.

[8] Adams’s description of zones and their application to typical scene elements was somewhat more extensive than the table in this article. The application of Zone IX to glaring snow is from Adams (1948).

[9] The effective speed determined for a given combination of film and developer is sometimes described as an “Exposure Index” (EI), but an “EI” often represents a fairly arbitrary choice rather than the systematic speed determination done for use with the Zone System.

[10] If a roll-film camera accepts interchangeable backs, it is possible to use N+ and N− development by designating different backs for different development, and changing backs when the image so requires. Without interchangeable backs, different camera bodies can be designated for different development, but this usually is practical only with small-format cameras.

[11] Discussion on how histograms can be used to implement the Zone System in digital photography

[12] Feininger, Andreas, Light and Lighting in Photography, Prentice-Hall, 1976 66 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

3.3.7 References

• Adams, Ansel. 1948. The Negative: Exposure and Development. Ansel Adams Basic Photography Series/Book 2. Boston: New York Graphic Society. ISBN 0-8212-0717-2

• Adams, Ansel. 1981. The Negative. The New Ansel Adams Basic Photography Series/Book 2. ed. Robert Baker. Boston: New York Graphic Society. ISBN 0-8212-1131-5. Reprinted, Boston: Little, , & Company, 1995. ISBN 0-8212-2186-8. Page references are to the 1981 edition. • Adams, Ansel. 1985. Ansel Adams: An Autobiography. ed. Mary Street Alinder. Boston: Little, Brown, & Company. ISBN 0-8212-1596-5 • ANSI PH2-1979. American National Standard Method for Determining Speed of Photographic Negative Ma- terials (Monochrome, Continuous-Tone). New York: American National Standards Institute. • Davis, Phil. 1999. Beyond the Zone System. 4th ed. Boston: Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-80343-4

• ISO 6:1993. Photography—Black-and-White Pictorial Still Camera Negative Film/Process Systems. International Organization for Standardization. • Latour, Ira H. 1998. Ansel Adams, The Zone System and the California School of Fine Arts. History of Pho- tography, v22, n2, Summer 1998, pg 148. ISSN 0308-7298/98. • Picker, Fred. 1974. Zone VI Workshop: The Fine Print in Black & White Photography. Garden City, N.Y.: Amphoto. ISBN 0-8174-0574-7 • White, Minor, Richard Zakia, and Peter Lorenz. 1976. The New Zone System Manual. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Morgan & Morgan ISBN 0-87100-100-4

3.3.8 Further reading

• Farzad, Bahman. The Confused Photographer’s Guide to Photographic Exposure and the Simplified Zone System. 4th ed. Birmingham, AL: Confused Photographer’s Guide Books, 2001. ISBN 0-9660817-1-4 • Johnson, Chris. The Practical Zone System, Fourth Edition: For Film and Digital Photography. 4th ed. Boston: Focal Press, 2007. ISBN 0-240-80756-1 • Lav, Brian. Zone System: Step-by-Step Guide for Photographers. Buffalo, NY: Amherst Media, 2001. ISBN 1-58428-055-7

3.3.9 External links

• A basic explanation

• A simplified Zone system for making good exposures, also very practical • Clarkvision More about digital dynamic range

• A Simplified Zone System • Guide to Exposure from the Zone System to HDRi Chapter 4

Day 4

4.1 Negative (photography)

In photography, a negative is an image, usually on a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film, in which the lightest areas of the photographed subject appear darkest and the darkest areas appear lightest. This reversed order occurs because of the light-sensitive chemicals a camera film must use to capture an image quickly enough for ordinary picture-taking, which are darkened, rather than bleached, by exposure to light and subsequent photographic processing. In the case of color negatives, the colors are also reversed into their respective complementary colors. Typical color negatives have an overall dull orange tint due to a color- feature that ultimately results in improved color reproduction. Negatives are normally used to make positive prints on photographic paper by projecting the negative onto the paper with a photographic enlarger or making a . The paper is also darkened in proportion to its exposure to light, so a second reversal results which restores light and dark to their intended uses. Negatives were once commonly made on a thin sheet of glass rather than a plastic film, and some of the earliest negatives were made on paper. It is incorrect to call an image a negative solely because it is on a transparent material. Transparent prints can be made by printing a negative onto special positive film, as is done to make traditional motion picture film prints for use in theaters. Some films used in cameras are designed to be developed by reversal processing, which produces the final positive, instead of a negative, on the original film. Positives on film or glass are known as transparencies or diapositives, and if mounted in small frames designed for use in a slide projector or magnifying viewer they are commonly called slides.

4.1.1 Negative image

A positive image is a normal image. A negative image is a total inversion, in which light areas appear dark and vice versa. A negative color image is additionally color-reversed, with red areas appearing cyan, greens appearing magenta and blues appearing yellow, and vice versa. Film negatives usually have less contrast, but a wider dynamic range, than the final printed positive images. The contrast typically increases when they are printed onto photographic paper. When negative film images are brought into the digital realm, their contrast may be adjusted at the time of scanning or, more usually, during subsequent post-processing.

4.1.2 Negative film

Main article: Photographic film Film for cameras that use the 35 mm still format is sold as a long strip of emulsion-coated and perforated plastic spooled in a light-tight cassette. Before each exposure, a mechanism inside the camera is used to pull an unexposed area of the strip out of the cassette and into position behind the camera lens. When all exposures have been made the strip is rewound into the cassette. After the film is chemically developed, the strip shows a series of small negative

67 68 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

Color positive picture (A) and negative (B), monochrome positive picture (C) and negative (D)

images. It is usually then cut into sections for easier handling. cameras use 120 film, which yields a strip of negatives 60 mm wide, and cameras capture each image on a single sheet of film which may be as large as 20 x 25 cm (8 x 10 inches) or even larger. Each of these photographed images may be referred to as a negative and an entire strip or set of images may be collectively referred to as “the negatives”. They are the master images, from which all positive prints will derive, so they are handled and stored with special care. Many photographic processes create negative images: the chemicals involved react when exposed to light, and during 4.1. NEGATIVE (PHOTOGRAPHY) 69 developing these exposed chemicals are retained and become opaque while the unexposed chemicals are washed away. However, when a negative image is created from a negative image (just like multiplying two negative numbers in mathematics) a positive image results (see Color print film, C-41 process). This makes most chemical-based pho- tography a two-step process. These are called negative films and processes. Special films and development processes have been devised such that positive images can be created directly from film; these are called positive, or slide, or (perhaps confusingly) reversal film (see Transparency, Black and white reversal film, E-6 process). Despite the market’s evolution away from film, there is still a desire and market for products which allow fine art photographers to produce negatives from digital images for their use in alternative processes such as , , platinum prints, and many others.[1]

4.1.3 References

[1] “HP Introduces Large Format Photo Negative Application for Fine-art Quality Professional Photo Edition”. bespoke.co.uk.

4.1.4 External links

• Scanning film negatives (Hebrew) at the Wayback Machine (archived June 28, 2012) 70 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

A strip of four color negatives on 35 mm film 4.2. LATENT IMAGE 71

4.2 Latent image

For other uses, see Latent image (disambiguation).

A latent image is an invisible image produced by the exposure to light of a photosensitive material such as photographic film. When photographic film is developed, the area that was exposed darkens and forms a visible image. In the early days of photography, the nature of the invisible change in the silver halide crystals of the film’s emulsion coating was unknown, so the image was said to be “latent” until the film was treated with photographic developer. In more physical terms, a latent image is a small cluster of metallic silver atoms formed in or on a silver halide crystal due to reduction of interstitial silver by photoelectrons (a photolytic silver cluster). If intense exposure continues, such photolytic silver clusters grow to visible sizes. This is called printing out the image. On the other hand, the formation of a visible image by the action of photographic developer is called developing out the image.

“Printed out” image on a 35mm B&W film, overexposed by approximately 24 stops (about two days of exposure at f/2), without any chemical processing, showing that the silver clusters can grow up to visible sizes without developing.

The size of a silver cluster in the latent image can be as small as a few silver atoms. However, in order to act as an effective latent image center, at least four silver atoms are necessary. On the other hand, a developed silver grain can have billions of silver atoms. Therefore, photographic developer acting on the latent image is a chemical amplifier with a gain factor up to several billion. The development system was the most important technology that increased 72 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4 the photographic sensitivity in the history of photography.

4.2.1 Mechanism of formation

The action of the light on the silver halide grains within the emulsion forms sites of metallic silver in the grains. The basic mechanism by which this happens was first proposed by R W Gurney and N F Mott in 1938. The incoming photon liberates an electron, called a photoelectron, from a silver halide crystal. Photoelectrons migrate to a shallow electron trap site (a sensitivity site), where the electrons reduce silver ions to form a metallic silver speck. A positive hole must also be generated but it is largely ignored. Subsequent work has slightly modified this picture, so that 'hole' trapping is also considered (Mitchell, 1957). Since then, understanding of the mechanism of sensitivity and latent image formation has been greatly improved.

4.2.2 Photographic sensitivity

One very important way to increase photographic sensitivity is to manipulate the electron traps in each crystal. A pure, defect-free crystal exhibits poor photographic sensitivity, since it lacks a shallow electron trap that facilitates the formation of a latent image. In such a case, many of the photoelectrons will recombine with the silver halide crystal and be wasted. Shallow electron traps are created by sensitization, introduction of a crystalline defect (edge dislocation), and incorporating a trace amount of non-silver salt as a dopant. The location, kind and number of shallow traps have a huge influence on the efficiency by which the photoelectrons create latent image centers, and consequently, on photographic sensitivity. Another important way to increase photographic sensitivity is to reduce the threshold size of developable latent im- ages. Gold sensitization of Koslowski creates metallic gold specks on the crystal surface, which by itself does not render the crystal developable. When a latent image is formed around the gold speck, the presence of gold is known to reduce the number of metallic silver atoms necessary to render the crystal developable. Another important concept in increasing photographic sensitivity is to separate photoholes away from photoelectrons and sensitivity sites. This should reduce the probability of recombination. Reduction sensitization is one possible implementation of this concept. The recent 2-electron sensitization technique is built on this concept. However, the scientific understanding of the behavior of photoholes is more limited than that of photoelectrons. On the other hand, a deep electron trap or a site that facilitates recombination will compete for photoelectrons and therefore reduces the sensitivity. However, these manipulations are used, for example, to enhance contrast of the emulsion.

4.2.3 Reciprocity Law Failure

Reciprocity law failure is a phenomenon where the same amount of exposure (irradiance multiplied by duration of exposure) produces different image density when the irradiance (and thus duration) is varied. There are two kinds of reciprocity failure. They are both related to poor efficiency of utilizing photoelectrons to create latent image centers.

High intensity reciprocity failure (HIRF)

High intensity reciprocity failure (HIRF) is common when the crystal is exposed by intense but brief light, such as flash tube. This reduces photographic speed and contrast. This is common with emulsions optimized for highest sensitivity with long exposure using old emulsion technology. HIRF is due to creation of many latent subimages that are not developable due to small size. Because of brief and intense exposure, many photoelectrons are created simultaneously. They make many latent subimages (that cannot render the crystal developable), rather than one or a few latent images (that can). HIRF can be improved by incorporating dopants that create temporary deep electron traps, optimizing the degree of sulfur sensitization, introducing crystalline defects (edge dislocation). In recent years, many photographic prints are made by scanning laser exposure. Each location on a photographic paper is exposed by a very brief but intense laser. Problems due to HIRF were the major technical challenge in development 4.2. LATENT IMAGE 73 of such products. Color photographic papers are usually made with very high percentage of silver chloride (about 99%) and the rest is bromide and/or iodide. Chloride emulsions have particularly poor HIRF and usually suffer from LIRF. Paper manufacturers use dopants and precise control of the dislocation sites to improve (to virtually eliminate) HIRF for this new application.

Low intensity reciprocity failure (LIRF)

Low intensity reciprocity failure (LIRF) occurs when the crystal is exposed with weak light of long duration, such as in astronomical photography. LIRF is due to inefficiency of forming a latent image, and this reduces photographic speed but increases contrast. Due to low level of exposure irradiance (intensity), a single crystal may have to wait for a significant amount of time between absorbing sufficient number of photons. In the process of making a stable latent image center, a smaller and less stable silver speck is made. Further generation of photoelectrons is necessary to grow this small speck to a larger, stable, latent image. There is a finite probability that this intermediate unstable speck will decompose before next available photoelectrons can stabilize it. This probability increases with decreasing irradiance level. LIRF can be improved by optimizing the stability of latent subimage, optimizing sulfur sensitization, and introduction of crystalline defects (edge dislocation).

4.2.4 Location of latent image

Depending on the silver halide crystal, the latent image may be formed inside or outside of the crystal. Depending on where the LI is formed, the photographic properties and the response to developer vary. Current emulsion technology allows very precise manipulation of this factor in a number of ways. Each emulsion has a place within each crystal where LIs are formed preferentially. They are called “sensitivity centers.” Emulsions that form LIs in the interior are called internal(ly) sensitive emulsions, and those that form LI on the surface are called surface sensitive emulsions. The sensitivity type largely reflects the site of very shallow electron traps that form latent images effectively. Most, if not all, old technology negative film emulsions had many unintentionally created edge dislocation sites (and other crystalline defects) internally and sulfur sensitization was performed on the surface of the crystal. Because multiple sensitivity centers are present, the emulsion had both internal and surface sensitivity. That is, photoelectrons may migrate to one of many sensitivity centers. In order to exploit the maximum sensitivity of such emulsions, it is generally considered that the developer must have some silver halide solvent action to make the internal latent image sites accessible. Many modern negative emulsions introduce a layer just under the crystal surface where a sufficient number of edge dislocations are intentionally created, while maintaining the bulk of the crystal interior defect-free. Chemical sensitization (e.g., sulfur plus gold sensitization) is applied on the surface. As a result, the photoelectrons are concentrated to a few sensitivity sites on or very near the crystal surface, thereby greatly enhancing the efficiency with which the latent image is produced. Emulsions with different structures were made for other applications, such as direct positive emulsions. Direct positive emulsion has fog centers built into the core of the emulsion, which is bleached by photoholes generated upon exposure. This type of emulsion produces a positive image upon development in a conventional developer, without reversal processing.

4.2.5 Development of silver halide crystals

A developer solution converts silver halide crystals to metallic silver grains, but it acts only on those having latent image centers. (A solution that converts all silver halide crystals to metallic silver grains is called fogging developer and such a solution is used in the second developer of reversal processing.) This conversion is due to electrochemical reduction, wherein the latent image centers act as a catalyst.

Reduction potential of the developer

A developer solution must have a reduction potential that is strong enough to develop sufficiently exposed silver halide crystals having a latent image center. At the same time, developer must have reduction potential that is weak enough 74 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4 not to reduce unexposed silver halide crystals. In a suitably formulated developer, electrons are injected to the silver halide crystals only through silver speck (latent image). Therefore, it is very important for the chemical reduction potential of the developer solution (not the standard reduction potential of the developing agent) to be somewhere higher than the Fermi energy level of small metallic silver clusters (that is, the latent image) but well below the conduction band of unexposed silver halide crystals. Generally, weakly exposed crystals have smaller silver clusters. Silver clusters of smaller sizes have a higher Fermi level, and therefore more crystals are developed as the developer’s reduction potential is increased. However, again, the developer potential must be well below the conduction band of silver halide crystal. Thus there is a limit in increasing the photographic speed of the system by boosting the developer potential; if the solution’s reduction potential is set high enough to exploit smaller silver cluster, at some point the solution begins to reduce silver halide crystals regardless of exposure. This is called fog, which is metallic silver made from non-imagewise (exposure-nonspecific) reduction of silver halide crystals. It was also found that, when developer solution is optimally formulated, the maximum photographic speed is rather insensitive to the choice of developing agent (James 1945), and there exists a limit for the size of silver cluster that can be developed. One way to improve this problem is the use of the gold sensitization technique of Koslowski. A small metallic gold cluster whose Fermi level is high enough to prevent development of the crystal is used to decrease the threshold size of metallic silver cluster that can render the crystal developable. For further discussion, refer to Tani 1995 and Hamilton 1988.

4.2.6 Stability of latent image

Under normal conditions the latent image, which may be as small as a few atoms of metallic silver on each halide grain, is stable for many months. Subsequent development can then reveal a visible metallic image. A famous instance of latent-image stability are the pictures taken by Nils Strindberg, the photographer in S. A. Andrée’s ill-fated arctic balloon expedition of 1897. The pictures of the expedition and of the balloon stranded on the ice were not discovered and developed until some 33 years later.

4.2.7 See also

• Film base

4.2.8 References

• Coe, Brian, 1976, The Birth of Photography, Ash & Grant.

• Mitchell, J.W., 1957, Photographic Sensitivity, Rep. Prog. Phys., vol. 20, pp. 433–515.

• Tani, T., 1995, Photographic Sensitivity, Oxford University Press., pp. 31–32, 84-85, 89-91.

• Mitchell, J. W., 1999, Evolution of the concepts of photographic sensitivity, J. Imag. Sci. Tech., 43, 38-48.

• James, T. H., 1945, Maximum emulsion speed in relation to the developing agent, J. Franklin Inst., 239, 41-50.

4.3 Fogging (photography)

For fogging used in censorship, see Fogging (censorship).

Fogging in photography is the deterioration in the quality of the image caused either by extraneous light or the effects of a processing chemical. 4.3. FOGGING (PHOTOGRAPHY) 75

4.3.1 Taxonomy of fogging

One kind of fog is produced from a silver halide crystal having a fog centre created by various reactions. One obvious case is when the emulsion is inadvertently exposed to light. In this case, the fog centre is created as latent image and made into visible fog by the action of the developer. Another case is when the fog centre is created chemically, with propylene glycol and white wax. There is another kind of chemical fog, broadly classified as silver stain. This kind of fog does not require a fog centre in each silver halide crystal, since they can grow on other substrates other than photosensitive silver halide crystals.

4.3.2 Light fogging

Light fogging can occur to the film in the camera because of a defect in the manufacture or use of the camera and is seen as dark areas in the negative which tend to occur over the full width of the film including the margins. Light fogging on a print usually only occurs because of poor control of lighting in the darkroom and is seen as an overall dark veil across the print or, occasionally, as unintended solarisation.

4.3.3 Chemical fogging

Unintentional fogging

Chemical fogging occurs at the processing stage when old or spent chemicals are used, chemicals are used in the wrong sequence, inadequate washing between processing stages or inappropriate chemicals are used. Because of the wide range of cause, the effects can be diverse ranging from coloured streaks and blotches through to the lack of an image or a totally black image. The most common cause is the use of old or spent chemistry which often results in a lack of contrast and an undesirable background colour - usually brown.

Silver stains The silver stain does not require fog centres on crystals, although they tend to occur in or near exposed areas. The silver stain can take a range of appearances, but one example is dichroic fog. Silver stains form on various hosts, such as tiny silver sulfide particles that may be present in the emulsion coating. They are very tiny and not visible, unless they are grown to larger sizes. Usual developers (that require silver ions supplied from within the silver halide crystal) do not grow these particles, but physical developers (that use silver ions from the solution to grow the development site) do. All modern practical developers function primarily as non-physical developers, but this type of fog may be seen when developed film is brought directly into exhausted fixer solution. Silver stain is a common problem in roller transporter processors, since the material (usually paper) is pinched between squeegee rollers to remove excess developer and brought into the fixing bath without intermediate rinse or stop. Developers for such applications usually contain an antistaining agent, usually soluble organic thiols that form soluble but non-reactive silver compounds with free silver ions. With modern emulsion technology and well formulated developers, silver stain has become uncommon.

Intentional fogging

In reversal processing, the material is fogged before the second developer. This is often done by exposure to light, but sometimes chemical fogging is used. One common way to do this is to use a mildly strong reducing agent (much stronger than developing agents) to create fog centres consisting of a metallic silver cluster, which can be viewed as a chemically induced analogue of latent image. Stannous chloride, dimethyl amine borane, and hydrazine derivatives are used. These compounds are not very stable in contact with air, as you expect from their nature being a reducing agent. Another possible way, though less common, is to create fog centres consisting of large specks of silver sulfide. Sodium sufide, alkaline solution of thiourea, and other compounds having labile sulfur element can be used.

4.3.4 See also

• Photographic processing • Photography 76 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

• Latent image

4.3.5 References Chapter 5

Day 5

5.1 Film base

A film base is a transparent substrate which acts as a support medium for the photosensitive emulsion that lies atop it. Despite the numerous layers and coatings associated with the emulsion layer, the base generally accounts for the vast majority of the thickness of any given film stock. Historically there have been three major types of film base in use: nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate), cellulose acetate (cellulose triacetate, cellulose diacetate, cellulose acetate propionate, and cellulose acetate butyrate), and polyester (polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (Kodak trade-name: ESTAR)).

5.1.1 Nitrate

Nitrate film base was the first transparent flexible plasticized base commercially available, thanks to celluloid develop- ments by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin, and Eastman Kodak in the 1880s. Eastman was the first to manufacture this for public sale, in 1889. Unfortunately, nitrate also had the drawback that it was extremely flammable (being essentially the same chemically as guncotton) and decomposed after several decades into a no less flammable gas, leaving the film sticky and goo-like (and ultimately dust). As this happened, the likelihood of auto-ignition increased even further. Projection booth fires were not uncommon in the early decades of cinema if a film managed to be exposed to too much heat while passing through the projector’s film gate, and several incidents of this type resulted in audience deaths by flames, smoke, or the resulting stampede. An accident of this kind was recreated in Cinema Paradiso (1988). The year 1978 was particularly devastating for film archives when both the United States National Archives and Records Administration and George Eastman House had their nitrate film vaults auto-ignite. Eastman House lost the original camera negatives for 329 films, while the National Archives lost 12.6 million feet of newsreel footage. Because cellulose nitrate contains oxygen, nitrate fires can be very difficult to extinguish. The US Navy has produced an instructional movie about the safe handling and usage of nitrate films which includes footage of a full reel of nitrate film burning underwater. The base is so flammable that intentionally igniting the film for test purposes is recommended in quantities no greater than one frame without extensive safety precautions. Many nitrate films have been transferred in recent decades to safety stock, and original nitrate prints are generally stored separately to prevent a nitrate fire from destroying other non-nitrate films; the gas they give off also affects the emulsion of safety film. Usually nitrate collections are even split up into several different fireproof rooms to minimize damage to an entire collection should a fire occur in one part. It is normal for a theater today to pass rigorous safety standards and precautions before being certified to run nitrate films; this includes a fireproof projection booth, fire chambers surrounding the feed and take-up reels, and several fire extinguishers built into the projector and aimed at the projector’s film gate in case a trigger piece of film fabric ignites. Nitrate film is classified as “dangerous goods”, which requires licenses for storage and transportation.

77 78 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

5.1.2 Acetate

Further information: Cellulose acetate film

Despite the dangers of the nitrate film base being known practically since its development, it was used in virtually all major motion pictures prior to 1952, when Kodak completed a four-year conversion program to the sole manufactur- ing of acetate base film stocks. Kodak began working with acetate “safety film” as early as 1909, and started selling it in 1910 for 22 mm film. Acetate has always been used with 8 mm and 16 mm formats, as they were originally created for amateur home movie usage, and generally was used for most sub-35 mm formats to minimize risk to the general public. (Several formats, such as 17.5 mm, which were often re-slit from 35 mm were nitrate, however. One of Kodak’s reasons for choosing 16 mm instead of 17.5 mm for a standard amateur format width was specifically to prevent nitrate re-slits from being used in home movies.) All motion picture camera negatives are now shot on acetate film because it is safer than nitrate but not as strong as polyester bases, which may damage the camera rather than the film should a jam occur. Acetate can also be spliced with film cement, while polyester can only be spliced with tape or an ultrasonic splicer, so polyester would be hard to edit. Acetate film does not burn under intense heat, but rather melts, causing a bubbling burn-out effect - this can be seen simulated in films such as Persona (1966) or Velvet Goldmine, or, if one is unlucky, in real life during a film screening when a frame becomes stuck in the projector’s film gate. Acetate films are also subject to degradation over time. With exposure to heat, moisture or acids the acetyl groups which are attached to long chains of cellulose which form the film base are broken from their molecular bonds and free acetic acid is released with a characteristic smell of vinegar. This is known as vinegar syndrome. As the degradation progresses the film base becomes brittle and shrinks.

5.1.3 Polyester

Polyester is the most recent film base to have been developed. It was first used for specialized photography applications in 1955, but it was only in the 1990s that it became overwhelmingly popular for motion picture prints. It is highly preferable for post-production, exhibition, and archival purposes because of its flexibility, strength, and stability. Its strength is sometimes also seen as a disadvantage, however, in that polyester-base films are so resistant to breakage that they are often more likely to break the film equipment should a jam or extra tension occur. Movie cameras therefore do not use this base for shooting the original camera negative, as it is vastly preferable and less costly in time and money for the film to break instead (besides which, cameras require “short-pitch” BH “negative” perforations and a lap-spliceable triacetate base, whereas projectors customarily require “long-pitch” KS “positive” perforations with either triacetate or polyester base—polyester base being the current practice).

5.1.4 Identifying a film base

There are several factors which can aid in identification of the film base of a roll of film. Many are not 100% conclusive, and it is best to use a selection of these to positively verify a film base.

• Printing along the edge of the film:

• for older films, will often say “nitrate” or “safety” on it, however this text may print through from a negative or other intermediate stock. • may include a date code[1] (Kodak print films prior to 2001) or an actual printed 4-digit year. • may include an emulsion number uniquely identifying the print stock (newer stocks, only)

• No Kodak film manufactured after 1951 is nitrate, and no film of any kind is polyester before 1955 (and which was initially introduced by DuPont, not Kodak—Kodak came much later, after DuPont had abandoned the market).

• Deterioration artifacts are distinct between nitrate (noxious nitric acid gas; amber discoloration; soft, sticky, or powdery film) and acetate (acetic acid gas, red or blue discoloration, shrinkage, brittleness, presence of bubbles or crystals).

• Polyester shows red and green interference colors when viewed through cross-polarized filters.

• A solution of diphenylalanine and sulfuric acid will turn nitrate deep blue. 5.2. PHOTOGRAPHIC EMULSION 79

• A highly controlled burn of one frame of nitrate will result in a bright yellow flame which consumes the film almost completely. (ONLY PERFORM WITH THE HIGHEST OF CAUTION)

• Nitrate film is soluble in a variety of solvents - namely methyl alcohol, ethyl, and ether.

• Float testing of the specific gravity of the base in trichloroethylene should cause nitrate to sink, acetate to float, and polyester to remain around the middle. However, this can be complicated by impurities and deterioration factors.

• Light aimed through the side of a roll of film will shine through if it is polyester, but will not if it is acetate.

• Polyester film is very strong and hard to tear off, unlike acetate.

5.1.5 References

Notes

[1] Kodak H-1: Film Identification, retrieved 28 March 2007.

Further reading

• Wilhelm, Henry and Carol Brower. The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs: Traditional and Digital Color Prints, Color Negatives, Slides, and Motion Pictures, Chapter 19 - Frost Free Refrigerators for Storing Color and Black-and-White Films and Prints. Grinnell, Iowa : Preservation Publishing Company, 1993.

• National Film Preservation Foundation The Film Preservation Guide - The Basics for Archives, Libraries, and Museums. San Francisco, California : National Film Preservation Foundation, 2004.

• Kodak Chronology of Motion Picture Films

• NEDCC Technical Leaflet - A Short Guide to Film Base Photographic Materials: Identification, Care, and Duplication

5.1.6 External links

5.2 Photographic emulsion

Photographic emulsion is a light-sensitive colloid used in film-based photography. Most commonly, in silver-gelatin photography, it consists of silver halide crystals dispersed in gelatin. The emulsion is usually coated onto a substrate of glass, films (of cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate or polyester), paper, or fabric. Photographic emulsion is not a true emulsion, but a suspension of solid particles (silver halide) in a fluid (gelatin in solution). However, the word emulsion is customarily used in a photographic context. Gelatin or gum arabic layers sensitized with dichromate used in the dichromated colloid processes carbon and gum bichromate are sometimes called emulsions. Some processes do not have emulsions, such as platinum, , salted paper, or kallitype.

5.2.1 Components

Photographic emulsion is a fine suspension of insoluble light-sensitive crystals in a colloid sol, usually consisting of gelatin. The light-sensitive component is one or a mixture of silver halides: silver bromide, chloride and iodide. The gelatin is used as a permeable binder, allowing processing agents (e.g., developer, fixer, toners, etc.) in aqueous solution to enter the colloid without dislodging the crystals. Other polymer macromolecules are often blended, but gelatin has not been entirely replaced. The light-exposed crystals are reduced by the developer to black metallic silver particles that form the image. Colour films and papers have multiple layers of emulsion, made sensitive to different parts of the visible spectrum by different colour sensitizers, and incorporating different dye couplers which produce superimposed yellow, magenta and cyan dye images during development. Panchromatic black-and-white film also includes colour sensitizers, but as part of a single emulsion layer. 80 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

5.2.2 Manufacture

A solution of silver nitrate is mixed into a warm gelatin solution containing potassium bromide, sodium chloride or other alkali metal halides. A reaction precipitates fine crystals of insoluble silver halides that are light-sensitive. The silver halide is actually being 'peptized' by the gelatin. The type and quantity of gelatin used influences the final emulsion’s properties. A pH buffer, crystal habit modifier, metal dopants, ripener, ripening restrainer, surfactants, defoamer, emulsion stabilizer and biocide are also used in emulsion making. Most modern emulsions are “washed” to remove some of the reaction byproducts (potassium nitrate and excess salts). The “washing” or desalting step can be performed by ultrafiltration, dialysis, coagulation (using acylated gelatin), or a classic noodle washing method. Emulsion making also incorporates steps to increase sensitivity by using chemical sensitizing agents and sensitizing dyes.

5.2.3 See also

• Nuclear emulsion

•

5.2.4 References

• Reilly, James M. Care and Identification of 19th-Century Photographic Prints. Eastman Kodak, Rochester, NY: 1986.

5.2.5 External links

• Contemporary handcrafted silver gelatin emulsions

• Contemporary photographic emulsion based on historical silver gelatin formula

• Working with liquid photographic emulsion in a nutshell

5.3 Gelatin silver process

The gelatin silver process is the photographic process used with currently available black-and-white films and print- ing papers. The gelatin silver process was introduced by Richard Leach Maddox in 1871 with subsequent considerable improve- ments in sensitivity obtained by Charles Harper Bennett in 1878. Research over the last 125 years has led to current materials that exhibit low grain and high sensitivity to light. A suspension of silver salts in gelatin is coated onto a support such as glass, flexible plastic or film, baryta paper, or resin-coated paper. These light-sensitive materials are stable under normal keeping conditions and are able to be exposed and processed even many years after their manufacture. This is in contrast to the collodion wet-plate process dominant from the 1850s–1880s, which had to be exposed and developed immediately after coating.

5.3.1 History

The gelatin silver process was introduced by Richard Leach Maddox in 1871 with subsequent considerable improve- ments in sensitivity obtained by Charles Harper Bennett in 1878. Gelatin silver print paper was made as early as 1874 on a commercial basis, but it was poor quality because the dry- plate emulsion was coated onto the paper only as an afterthought. Coating machines for the production of continuous rolls of sensitized paper were in use by the mid-1880s, though widespread adoption of gelatin silver print materials did not occur until the 1890s. The earliest papers had no baryta layer, and it was not until the 1890s that baryta coating became a commercial operation, first in Germany, in 1894, and then taken up by Kodak by 1900. 5.3. GELATIN SILVER PROCESS 81

Although the baryta layer plays an important part in the manufacture of smooth and glossy prints, the baryta paper of the 1890s did not produce the lustrous or glossy print surface that became the standard for fine art photography in the twentieth century. Matting agents, textured papers, and thin baryta layers that were not heavily calendered produced a low-gloss and textured appearance. The higher gloss papers first became popular in the 1920s and 30s as photography transitioned from into modernism, photojournalism, and “straight” photography.

5.3.2 Timeline

• 1874 — First commercial production of gelatin developing out paper (DOP) • 1885 — Coating machines first used in gelatin DOP manufacture for manufacture of continuous rolls • 1894 — Baryta layer added to commercial gelatin DOP manufacture • 1920s — Increasing popularity of glossy and semi-gloss papers • 1960s — Color photography eclipses black and white for the first time

5.3.3 Technology

Overview

The gelatin silver print or gelatin developing out paper (DOP) is a monochrome imaging process based on the light sensitivity of silver halides. They have been made for both contact printing and enlarging purposes by modifying the paper’s light sensitivity. A brief exposure to a negative produces a latent image, which is then made visible by a developing agent. The image is then made permanent by treatment in a photographic fixer, which removes the remaining light sensitive silver halides. And finally, a water bath clears the fixer from the print. The final image consists of small particles of silver bound in a layer of gelatin. This gelatin image layer is only one of the four layers found in a typical gelatin silver print, which typically include the overcoat, image layer, baryta, and paper support.

Layer structure

A gelatin silver print is composed of four layers: paper base, baryta, gelatin binder, and a protective gelatin layer or overcoat. The multi-layer structure of the gelatin silver print and the sensitivity of the silver imaging salts require specialized coating equipment and fastidious manufacturing technique to produce a consistent product that is free of impurities harmful to the image. The paper base or support serves as the substrate onto which the subsequent layers are attached. Paper is in many ways an ideal support: it is lightweight, flexible, and strong enough to withstand both wet processing and regular handling. The photographic paper base must be free of photoactive impurities such as iron and lignins. In order to obtain this purity, the paper was originally made from cotton rags, though after World War I there was a transition to purified wood pulp, which has been used ever since. The second layer is the baryta, a white opaque coating made primarily from gelatin and barium sulfate. Its purpose is to cover the paper fibers and form a smooth surface upon which to coat the gelatin. Surface textures are created by a variety of textured felts used in the drying of the paper, calendaring, and embossing before or after application of the baryta layer depending on the desired effect. The third layer is the gelatin binder that holds the silver grains of the photographic image. Gelatin has many qualities that make it an ideal photographic binder. Among these are toughness and abrasion resistance when dry and its ability to swell and allow the penetration of processing solutions. The fourth layer, called the overcoat, supercoat, or topcoat, is a very thin layer of hardened gelatin that is applied on top of the gelatin binder. It acts as a protective layer, providing superior abrasion resistance to the print surface.

Image and processing

Before a paper is exposed, the image layer is a clear gelatin matrix holding the light-sensitive silver halides. For gelatin silver prints, these silver halides are typically combinations of silver bromide and silver chloride. Exposure to a negative is typically done with an enlarger, although contact printing was also popular, particularly among amateurs 82 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5 in the early twentieth century and among users of large format cameras. Wherever the light strikes the paper the silver halides form small specks of silver metal on their surface. Light causes a reduction of the silver salt to silver metal. This exposure is the greatest in areas of the print corresponding to clear parts of the negatives, which become the shadows or high density areas of the print. This process is the formation of the latent image, as it forms an invisible image in the paper that is subsequently made visible by development. So the paper is now placed in the developer, which transforms the silver halide particles that have a latent image speck on them into metallic silver. Now the image is visible, but the remaining unexposed silver halide must still be removed to make the image permanent. But first the print is placed into the , which stops development and prevents the developer from contaminating the next bath: the fixer. The fixer, typically sodium thiosulfate, is able to remove the unexposed silver halide by forming a water-soluble complex with it. And finally, a water wash sometimes preceded by a washing aid removes the fixer from the print, leaving an image composed of silver particles held in the clear gelatin image layer. Toning is sometimes used for permanence or aesthetic purposes and follows the fixing step. Selenium, gold, and sulfur toners are the most common and act by either partially converting the silver to another compound (such as silver selenide or silver sulfide) or partially replacing the silver with another metal (such as gold).[1] When small crystals (called grains) of silver salts such as silver bromide and silver chloride are exposed to light, a few atoms of free metallic silver are liberated. These free silver atoms form the latent image. This latent image is relatively stable and will persist for some months without degradation provided the film is kept dark and cool. Films are developed using solutions that reduce silver halides in the presence of free silver atoms. An 'amplification' of the latent image occurs as the silver halides near the free silver atom are reduced to metallic silver. The strength, temperature and time for which the developer is allowed to act allow the photographer to control the contrast of the final image. The development is then stopped by neutralizing the developer in a second bath. Once development is complete, the undeveloped silver salts must be removed by fixing in sodium thiosulphate or ammonium thiosulphate, and then the negative or print must be washed in clean water. The final image consists of metallic silver embedded in the gelatin coating. All gelatin silver photographic materials are subject to deterioration. The silver particles that comprise the image are susceptible to oxidation, leading to yellowing and fading of the image. Poor processing can also result in various forms of image degradation, due to residual silver-thiosulfate complexes. Toning increases the stability of the silver image by coating the silver image with a less easily oxidized metal such as gold, or by converting portions of the silver image particles into more stable compounds, such as silver selenide or silver sulfide.[1]

5.3.4 Digital silver gelatin printing

Also known as digital bromides, black and white silver gelatin prints imaged via digital output devices such as the Durst Lambda and the Océ LightJet, have been developed for the art market by Ilford Imaging – now Harman Technology in collaboration with Steve McLeod. By adapting a large format paper processor in conjunction with the manufacturers, McLeod’s innovation led the way for the possibility of producing large resin coated (RC) and fibre based (FB) black and white prints. Ilford, in collaboration with Metro Imaging, London adapted their FB Galerie emulsion paper and its light sensitivity so that it would be receptive to full spectrum RGB laser channels.

5.3.5 In molecular biology

An essentially identical procedure called “silver staining” is utilized in molecular biology to visualize DNA or pro- teins after gel electrophoresis, usually SDS-PAGE. The latent image is formed by the DNA or protein molecules (i.e. the reduced silver selectively precipitates onto those molecules). It is known for being nearly as sensitive as autoradiography, the “gold standard” technique, but one not widely used due to the use of radioactive materials.[2]

5.3.6 References

[1] Weaver, Gawain (2008). “A Guide to Fiber-Base Gelatin Silver Print Condition and Deterioration” (PDF). George Eastman House, International Museum of Photography and Film. Retrieved 30 October 2009. 5.3. GELATIN SILVER PROCESS 83

[2] Bassam, Brant J (25 October 2007). “Silver staining DNA in polyacrylamide gels” (PDF). Nature Protocols. 2: 2649–2654. doi:10.1038/nprot.2007.330. Retrieved 5 October 2015.

5.3.7 Bibliography

Adams, Ansel (1950). The print : contact printing and enlarging (2 ed.). Boston: New York Graphic Society. ISBN 0821207180. Eaton, G. T. (1965). Photographic chemistry in black-and-white and color photography. Hastings-on-Hudson, N.Y., Morgan & Morgan. Gray, G. G. (1987). From Papyrus to RC Paper: History of Paper Supports. Pioneers of Photography: Their Achievements in Science and Technology. E. Ostroff. Springfield, VA, The Society for Imaging Science and Tech- nology: 37-46. Jacobson, Ralph E. (2000). The manual of photography : photographic and digital imaging (9th ed.). Boston, Mass.: Focal Press. ISBN 0240515749. Rogers, David (2007). The chemistry of photography : from classical to digital technologies. Cambridge: RSC Publ. ISBN 0-85404-273-3. Weaver, G. (2008) A Guide to Fiber-Base Gelatin Silver Print Condition and Deterioration, Retrieved from Wentzel, F. and L. W. Sipley (1960). Memoirs of a photochemist. Philadelphia: American Museum of Photography.

5.3.8 External links

• Notes on Photographs @ George Eastman House • Graphics Atlas @ Image Permanence Institute

• “Silver gelatin dry plate process”. alternative photography.com. Retrieved 2040-10-10. Check date values in: |access-date= (help) Chapter 6

Day 6

6.1 Darkroom

For other uses, see Darkroom (disambiguation). A darkroom is a workshop used by photographers working with photographic film to make prints and carry out

A darkroom in Union City High School, which is adjacent to the school’s photography classroom.

other associated tasks. It is a room that can be made completely dark to allow the processing of the light sensitive photographic materials, including film and photographic paper. Various equipment is used in the darkroom, including an enlarger, baths containing chemicals, and running water. Darkrooms have been created and used since the inception of photography in the early 19th century. Darkrooms have many various manifestations, from the elaborate space used by Ansel Adams[1] to a retooled ambulance wagon used by Timothy H. O'Sullivan.[2] From the initial development to the creation of prints, the darkroom process allows

84 6.1. DARKROOM 85

In the darkroom.

complete control over the medium. Due to the popularity of color photography and complexity of processing color film (see C-41 process) and printing color photographs and also to the rise, first of Polaroid technology and later digital photography, darkrooms are decreasing in popularity, though are still commonplace on college campuses, schools and in the studios of many professional photographers. Other applications of darkrooms include the use in nondestructive testing, such as magnetic particle inspection. 86 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

6.1.1 Darkroom equipment

A portable darkroom in 19th century Ireland. The wet collodion photography process, used at the time, required that the image be developed while the plate was still wet, creating the need for portable darkrooms such as this one.

In most darkrooms, an enlarger, an optical apparatus similar to a slide projector, that projects the image of a negative onto a base, finely controls the focus, intensity and duration of light, is used for . A sheet of photographic paper is exposed to the enlarged image from the negative. When making black-and-white prints, a safelight is commonly used to illuminate the work area. Since the majority of black-and-white papers are sensitive to only blue, or to blue and green light, a red- or amber-colored light can be safely used without exposing the paper. Color print paper, being sensitive to all parts of the visible spectrum, must be kept in complete darkness until the prints are properly fixed. Another use for a darkroom is to load film in and out of cameras, development spools, or film holders, which requires complete darkness. Lacking a darkroom, a photographer can make use of a changing bag, which is a small bag with sleeved arm holes specially designed to be completely light proof and used to prepare film prior to exposure or developing.

Print processing

Main article:

During exposure, values in the image can be adjusted, most often by "dodging" (reducing the amount of light to a specific area of an image by selectively blocking light to it for part or all of the exposure time) and/or “burning” (giving additional exposure to specific area of an image by exposing only it while blocking light to the rest). Filters, usually thin pieces of colored plastic, can be used to increase or decrease an image’s contrast (the difference between dark tones and light tones). One method of photographic printing, called “split filter printing,” is where the photographer determines two separate exposure times using two separate filters (typically a 0 or 00, and a 5) to create a single print.[3] This method allows the photographer to achieve a broad tonal range, with detailed highlights and rich blacks. 6.2. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES 87

After exposure, the photographic printing paper (which still appears blank) is ready to be processed.[4] Photographers generally begin printing a roll of film by making a contact print of their negatives to use as a quick reference to decide which images to enlarge. Some large format photographers, such as Edward Weston, make only contact prints of their large (4x5”, 5x7”, 8x10” or larger) negatives. The paper that has been exposed is processed, first by immersion in a photographic developer, halting development with a stop bath, and fixing in a photographic fixer. The print is then washed to remove the processing chemicals and dried. There are a variety of other, additional steps a photographer may take, such as toning.

6.1.2 See also

• Photographic plate • Photographic studio

6.1.3 References

[1] “Black and White Photography - Darkroom Layout & Equipment”. Danmassey.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-08-02.

[2] “for history”. Retrieved 2011-08-02.

[3] “Split Filter Printing Darkroom Technique | Guide to Film Photography”. www.guidetofilmphotography.com. Retrieved 2016-01-14.

[4] “How to Print B&W Photographs in a Darkroom” (PDF). Retrieved 2011-08-02.

6.1.4 External links

6.2 List of photographic processes

A list of photographic processing techniques.

6.2.1 Color

• Agfacolor • Anthotype • Autochrome Lumière, 1903 • , 1862 • Chromogenic positive (Ektachrome) • E-3 process • E-4 process • E-6 process • Chromogenic negative • C-41 process • RA-4 process • Dufaycolor • Dye destruction • Cibachrome • Ilfochrome 88 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

• Dye-transfer process

• Kodachrome

• K-12 process • K-14 process

• Heliochrome

• Lippmann plate, 1891

• One-light

6.2.2 Black and White (Monochrome)

A

• Abration tone

• Acetate film

• Albertype

• , 1850

• Algraphy

•

• Amphitype

• Amylotype

• Anaglyph

• Anthrakotype

• Archertype

• Argentotype

• Argyrotype

• Aristo paper

• Aristotype

• Aristo

• Artotype

• Atrephograph

• Atrograph

• Aurotype

• Autotype 6.2. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES 89

B

• Barrieotype • Baryta coated paper • Bayard process • Bichromate process • Bichromated gelatin • Bichromated gum arabic • Bichromatic albumen • Bitumen of Judea, 1826 • Breyertype • Bromide paper • bromoil process, 1907 • Burneum

C

• Caffenol • Calotype, 1841 • Cameo • Carbon print, 1855 • Carbro Print • Carbro • Casein pigment • Catalysotype • Catalisotype • Catatype • Cellulose diacetate negative • Cellulose nitrate negative • Cellulose triacetate negative • Ceroleine • Chalkotype • Charbon Velour • Chlorobromide paper • Chromatype • Chripotype • Chrysotype, 1842 • Chrystollotype 90 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

• Cliché verre

• Collodion paper

• Collodion process, 1851

• Collotype, 1870

• Color paper

• Contact print

• Contact sheet

• Contretype

• Copper Photogravure

• Crystoleum

• Crystal photo 1850

• Cyanotype, 1842

D

• Daguerreotype, 1839

• Dallastype

• Diaphanotype

• Diazotype

• dr5 chrome B&W positive process

• Dry collodion negative

• Dry collodion process

• Dry plate

• Dye coupler process

• Dye destruction process

• Dye diffusion transfer process

• Dye transfer print

E

• Eburneum

• Ectograph

• Ectographe

• Electrotype

• Energiatype

• Enamaline

• Enamel photograph 6.2. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES 91

F

• Feertype

• Ferroprussiate paper

• Ferrotype

• Fluorotype

G

• Gaslight paper

• Gaudinotype

• Gelatino-Bromide emulsions, 1875

• Gelatin-silver process

• Gem tintype

• Ghost photograph

• Gum bichromate

• Gum Bichromate Print

• Gum Dichromate

• Gum over platinum

• = *Photogravure

H

• Hallotype

•

• Heliotype

• Hellenotype

• Hillotype

• Hyalotype −1850

• Hydrotype

• Hypersensitization

• Highgrid 2014

I

• Inkodye

• Intermediate negative

• Internegative

• Iron salt process

• Ivorytype −1855 92 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

J

• Jews pith

K

• Kallitype

L

• Lambertype

• Leggotype

• LeGray

• Levytype

• Linograph

• Linotype

M

• Mariotype

• Meisenbach process

• Melainotype

• Melanograph

• Metotype

• Mordançage

N

• Negative

O

• Oil Print Process

• Opalotype

• Ozobrom process

• Ozobrome

• Ozotype

• Ozotype process 6.2. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESSES 93

P

• Palladiotype, 1914 • Palladium Print • Palladium processing • Palladiotype • Pannotype • Paper negative • Paynetype • Photocollography • • Photogravure • Photolithography • Photosculpture • Phototype • Photo instrumentation • Physautotype • Pinatype process • Platinotype, 1873 • Playertype • Plumbeotype, developed by John Plumbe

R

Rayograph

S

• • Salted paper • Self-toning paper • Sepia • Sepia paper • Shellac • Siderotype • Silver bromide • Silver chloride collodion • Simpsontype • Sphereotype 94 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

• Stand development

• Stanhope • Stannotype

•

T

• Talbotype

• Tintype or Ferrotype • Tithnotype

• Transferotype

U

• Uranium print

V

• Van Dyke

• Vesicular film

W

• Wash-off Relief • Wax paper

• Wet collodion plate • Wet collodion process

• Wet plate process • Woodburytype

• Wothlytype

6.2.3 References

• Alternative Photographic Process Mailing list archive Chapter 7

Day 7

7.1 Photochrom

An 1890s photochrom print of Neuschwanstein Castle, Bavaria, Germany.

Photochrom, sometimes spelled Fotochrom or Photochrome[Note 1] (although this term more often refers to later photographic postcards),[2] and also called the Aäc process, is a process for producing colorized images from black- and-white photographic negatives via the direct photographic transfer of a negative onto lithographic printing plates. The process is a photographic variant of chromolithography, a broader term that refers to color lithography in general.

95 96 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

7.1.1 History

The process was invented in the 1880s by Hans Jakob Schmid (1856–1924), an employee of the Swiss company Orell Gessner Füssli—a printing firm whose history began in the 16th century.[3] Füssli founded the stock company Photochrom Zürich (later Photoglob Zürich AG) as the business vehicle for the commercial exploitation of the process and both Füssli[3] and Photoglob[4] continue to exist today. From the mid-1890s the process was licensed by other companies, including the Detroit Photographic Company in the US (making it the basis of their “phostint” process),[5] and the Photochrom Company of London. The photochrom process was most popular in the 1890s, when true color photography was first developed but was still commercially impractical. In 1898 the US Congress passed the Private Mailing Card Act which let private publishers produce postcards. These could be mailed for one cent each, while the letter rate was two cents. Publishers created thousands of photochrom prints, usually of cities or landscapes, and sold them as postcards. In this format, photochrom reproductions became popular.[6] The Detroit Photographic Company reportedly produced as many as seven million photochrom prints in some years, and ten to thirty thousand different views were offered. After World War One, which ended the craze for collecting Photochrom postcards, the chief use of the process was for posters and art reproductions. The last Photochrom printer operated up to 1970.[7]

7.1.2 Process

A tablet of lithographic limestone called a “litho stone” was coated with a light-sensitive surface composed of a thin layer of purified bitumen dissolved in . A worker then pressed a reversed half-tone negative against the coating and exposed it to daylight for 10 to 30 minutes in summer, or up to several hours in winter. The image on the negative caused varying amounts of light to fall on different areas of the coating, causing the bitumen to harden in proportion to the amount of light. The worker then used a solvent such as turpentine to remove the unhardened bitumen, and retouched the tonal scale of the chosen color to strengthen or soften tones as required. This resulted in an image being imprinted on the stone in bitumen. Each tint was applied using a separate stone that bore the appropriate retouched image. The finished print was produced using at least six, but more commonly 10 to 15, tint stones.[7]

• A photochrom of Mulberry Street in c 1900, which shows the evocative coloration characteristic of the process. 7.1. PHOTOCHROM 97

• A photochrom of Hildesheim town hall in the 1890s, using fewer color plates.

• Photochrom of the old Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford-on-Avon, England, c. 1890–1900. 98 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

• A circa-1900 photochrom print of Shelbourne Hotel.

• A photochrom of Belgian milk peddlers with a dogcart, c. 1890–1900. 7.1. PHOTOCHROM 99

• A photochrom of an elderly Irish woman using a spinning wheel, Co. Galway Ireland, c. 1890s.

• Entrance to Fingal’s Cave near low tide, 1900. 100 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

• HMY Osborne photochrom print, circa 1895

• Ruins of the Castle of Arques, near Dieppe, France, ca. 1895 7.1. PHOTOCHROM 101

• Bergen, Norway, c. 1890s. Visible are Domkirken in the bottom left side, Korskirken in the middle, the bay (Vågen) and the Bergenhus Fortress to the right of the opening of Vågen.

• A circa 1897-1924 photochrome print of Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial, in Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia, U.S.A. (Detroit Photographic Company)

7.1.3 Notes

[1] “Photochrom” (English pronunciation: /ˈfoʊtəˌkroʊm, -toʊ-/[1]) is the spelling used by the Library of Congress, for his- torical reasons, in its classification and description of its collection of such images. Variants of the spelling exist, both in English and in German. “Photochrome” is the English spelling used in some contexts, even by the Library of Congress in a few of its image descriptions. "Fotochrom" is the German spelling used today by Orell Füssli, the Swiss company that invented the process.

7.1.4 References

[1] “Photochrom”. Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2016-01-22. 102 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

[2] “Photochrome (1939-Present)". University of Vermont. Archived from the original on 2008-07-24.

[3] “Orell Füssli Company History (in German)". Ofv.ch. Retrieved 2012-06-16.

[4] “History / Erfolgsgeschichte” (in German). Retrieved 28 October 2012.

[5] “MetropoPostcard Guide to Printing Techniques 5”. metropostcard.com.

[6] Marc Walter & Sabine Arque, “The World in 1900”, Thames & Hudson, 2007 contains about 300 well-reproduced pho- tochromes from around the world.

[7] Hannavy, John (2008). Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-century Photography. CRC Press. pp. 1078–1079. ISBN 0-415- 97235-3.

7.1.5 External links

• Description of the Photochrom process

• The Library of Congress Public Domain Photochrom Prints Search

• Search at the Zurich Central Library (holds probably world’s largest collection: 7600 of their 10000 prints are accessible online)

• Detroit Photographic Company’s Views of North America, ca. 1897-1924 from the Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library

7.2 Redscale

For a plant with this common name, see Atriplex rosea. Redscale is a technique of shooting photographic film where the film is exposed from the wrong side, i.e. the emulsion is exposed through the base of the film. Normally, this is done by winding the film upside-down into an empty film canister. The name “redscale” comes because there is a strong color shift to red due to the red-sensitive layer of the film being exposed first, rather than last [the red layer is normally the bottom layer in C-41 (color print) film]. All layers are sensitive to blue light, so normally the blue layer is on top, followed by a filter. In this technique, blue light exposes the layers containing red and green dyes, but the layer containing blue dye is left unexposed due to the filter. E-6 (color slide) film has also been used for this technique. Depending on the type of film used, the resulting colors seem to range from maroon, to red, to orange, to yellow. The technique seems to have been discovered accidentally. Some people shooting large format color film would load the individual negatives backwards. This phenomenon is likely as old as color film itself. However, it has only recently gained popularity as an effect intentionally sought. The technique is considered by some to be part of the lo-fi photography movement, along with use of toy cameras, pinhole cameras, instant cameras, and sprocket hole photography. The Lomographic Society International has produced a pre-loaded redscale 35mm film, that will fit in all standard 35mm cameras. Because of the nature of the film, shots need to be over exposed by one to three stops to achieve correct exposure on developing. The amount of over exposure determines the intensity of the red. When redscale film is shot at the posted ASA the resulting photos are almost all red, over exposure allows light to reach the less sensitive green and blue layers of the film. Exposures of 5 stops or more over posted speed can result in the red layer washing out completely and the resulting images appearing mostly yellow.

7.2.1 See also

• Cross processing 7.2. REDSCALE 103

7.2.2 External links

• Instructions on how to make redscale film • Redscale Technique

• Flickr 'redscale' group - examples and discussion • Make Your Own RedScale

• An introduction to Redscale film • Recreate the Redscale film effect in Photoshop 104 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

The same scene shot with redscale film at 7 different exposure settings. Scroll up and down swiftly to see an intriguing effect. 7.3. 105

7.3 Reversal film

A single slide, showing a color transparency in a plastic frame

In photography, reversal film is a type of photographic film that produces a positive image on a transparent base. The film is processed to produce transparencies or diapositives (abbreviated as “diafilm” in many countries) instead of negatives and prints. Reversal film is produced in various sizes, from 35 mm roll film to 8×10 inch sheet film. A slide is a specially mounted individual transparency intended for projection onto a screen using a slide projector. This allows the photograph to be viewed by a large audience at once. The most common form is the 35 mm slide, with the image framed in a 2×2 inch cardboard or plastic mount. Some specialized labs produce photographic slides from digital camera images in formats such as JPEG, from computer-generated presentation graphics, and from a wide variety of physical source material such as fingerprints, microscopic sections, paper documents, astronomical images, etc. Reversal film is sometimes used as motion picture film, mostly in the 16 mm, Super 8 and 8 mm “cine” formats, to yield a positive image on the camera original. This avoids the expense of using negative film, which requires additional film and processing to create a positive film print for projection.

7.3.1 History 106 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

A slide projector, showing the lens and a typical double slide carrier.

Additive method

The earliest practical and commercially successful color photography reversal process was the Lumière Autochrome, introduced in 1907. This was an additive method, using a panchromatic emulsion coated on a thin glass plate previ- ously coated with a layer of dyed potato starch grains. Autochrome plates were discontinued in the 1930s[1] after the introduction of Lumière Filmcolor in sheet film and Lumicolor in roll film sizes. Also using the additive principle and reversal processing were the Agfa color screen plates and films and Dufaycolor film, all of which were discontinued by 1961.[2]

Subtractive methods

Leopold Godowsky, Jr. and Leopold Mannes, working with the Eastman Kodak Company, developed Kodachrome, the first commercially successful color film to use the subtractive method. Kodachrome was introduced in 1935 as 16mm motion picture film, and in 1936 as 35mm film for still cameras.[3] The Kodachrome films contained no color dye couplers; these were added during processing. In late 1936, Agfacolor Neu was launched, Agfa having overcome earlier difficulties with color sensitivity problems. This film had the dye couplers incorporated into the emulsion, making processing simpler than for Kodachrome.[2] Early color negative film had many shortcomings, including the high cost of the film, processing and printing, the mediocre color quality, rapid fading and discoloration of highlights [4] of some types of print that became noticeable after several years. Amateurs who owned projection equipment used reversal films extensively because the cost of projection equipment and slide film was offset by not having to pay for prints. Eventually, print quality improved and prices decreased, and, by the 1970s, color negative film and color prints had largely displaced slides as the primary method of amateur photography. Until about 1995, color transparency was preferred for publication because of the films’ higher contrast and resolution, and was widely used in commercial and advertising photography, reportage, sports, stock and . Digital media gradually replaced transparency film. [5] 7.3. REVERSAL FILM 107

7.3.2 Film types

All color reversal film sold today is developed with the E-6 process. The non-substantive Kodachrome films, the last of which was discontinued in 2009, were processed with the K-14 process.[6] Polaroid produced an instant slide film called Polachrome. It was packaged in cassettes like normal 35mm film. A separate processing unit was used to develop it after exposure.

Black and white

Black-and-white transparencies can be made directly with some modern black-and-white films, which normally yield negatives. The negative image is developed but not fixed. The negative image is removed by bleaching with a solution of potassium permanganate or in dilute sulfuric acid, which is removed by washing and a clearing bath containing sodium metabisulfite or potassium metabisulfite. The remaining silver halide salts are re- exposed to light, developed and fixed, and the film is washed and dried.[7] 1 1 Black-and-white transparencies were once popular for presentation of lecture materials using 3 ⁄4" by 4” (3 ⁄4" square in the UK) glass-mounted slides. Such positive black-and-white projection is now rarely done, except in motion pictures. Even where black-and-white positives are currently used, the process to create them typically uses an internegative with standard processing instead of a chemical reversal process. Black-and-white reversal films are less common than color reversal films.

• Agfa-Gevaert discontinued its Agfa Scala 200x Professional black-and-white reversal film. This could be developed with their proprietary Scala process. • The Foma company of the Czech Republic produces the only remaining dedicated black-and-white reversal film for 35 mm stills, Fomapan R 100, which is also available in movie film formats.[8][9]

• Kodak & Foma currently produce kits for reversal processing. • Kodak formerly offered a kit (“Direct Positive Film Developing Outfit”) for reversal processing of its now- discontinued Panatomic X film, which doubled the effective film speed from 32 to 64. The bleaching bath used potassium dichromate and sodium bisulfate; the redeveloper was a fogging developer, and so unstable that its shelf-life after mixing was only slightly longer than the amount of time needed to process a single roll. This was replaced with a “T-Max Direct Positive Film Developing Outfit,”[10] which uses potassium permanganate and sulfuric acid in the bleach.[11] In this kit, the fogging redeveloper is stable, but the bleach is not, with a shelf-life, once mixed, of no more than two weeks. • dr5 Chrome process, which produces black-and-white transparencies from most traditional halide (i.e., non- chromogenic) black-and-white negative films. • Kodak Tri-X Reversal Film 7266 and Kodak Plus-X Reversal Film 7265 are black-and-white reversal films used for movie making.[12]

[13]

7.3.3 Pros and cons

Pros:

• Shows what exactly was captured on film without printing.[14] • Better scanning capabilities • Bright colors[15][16]

Cons:

• 1½ stops of exposure latitude, compared to three stops for color negative film.[17] • Lower film speeds than color negative. 108 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

7.3.4 Uses

Slide projector Leitz Prado

Viewing

Main articles: Slide projector and Slide viewer

Finished transparencies are most frequently displayed by projection. Some projectors use a sliding mechanism to manually pull the transparency out of the side of the machine, where it is replaced by the next image. Modern, advanced projectors typically use a carousel that holds a large number of slides; a mechanism automatically pulls a single slide from the carousel and places it in front of the lamp. Small externally lit or battery-powered magnifying viewers are available. In traditional newsrooms and magazine offices slides were viewed using a lightbox and a loupe, this allowed rapid side by side comparison of similar images.

Slide copier

A slide copier is a simple optical device which can be fastened to the of a camera to enable slide duplicates to be made. Whilst these devices were formerly used to make duplicates on to slide film, they are often now used in conjunction with digital cameras to digitize images from film-based transparencies. This method usually gives better resolution than using attachments for digital A4 flat-bed scanners. The devices are typically about 30 cm long, and screw into an intermediate 't-mount' attached to the camera. The lens in the copier does not need to be complex, because the systems are usually stopped down to small f numbers 7.3. REVERSAL FILM 109

(e.g. for the Makinon Zoom Unit, f/16 at 1:1 magnification, falling to f/22 at 3:1 magnification), and the object and image distances are similar, so that many aberrations are minimized.

Gallery

• Slide frames, 1940 (metal or card) to 1985 (plastic)

• Slide viewer

• Slide viewer

• Slide archive box

• Slide frame 6×6 cm

• Slide frames 6×6 centimeters (2.4 in) 110 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

• A type 120 reversal film from the mid-1950s: the Italian Ferraniacolor

7.3.5 See also

• Filmstrip

• Slide copier

•

• View-Master

7.3.6 References and notes

[1] Various print and online sources offer discontinuation dates ranging from 1932 to 1938.

[2] A.L.M. Sowerby (ed.) (1961). Dictionary of Photography: A Reference Book for Amateur and Professional Photographers (19th Ed.). London: Iliffe Books Ltd. pp. 126–132.

[3] http://www.invent.org/Hall_Of_Fame/223.html

[4] http://www.preservation101.org/session2/expl_iv_cs-photo_cd.asp shows examples of the severe yellowing eventually pro- duced by this staining and briefly explains the cause. This was a problem with early Kodacolor prints.

[5] Langford, Michael (2000). Basic Photography (7th Ed.). Oxford: Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-51592-7.

[6] “Death of Kodachrome belies technological leap it represented”. Condé Nast Digital. 30 June 2009. Retrieved 21 Septem- ber 2010.

[7] unknown (September 2003). “Ilford Application Sheet - Reversal Processing: Using Black-and-White Films to Produce Monochrome Transparencies” (PDF). Ilford Imaging UK Ltd. Retrieved 10 May 2009.

[8] unknown (2004). “Fomapan R 100”. FOMA BOHEMIA, spol. s r.o. Retrieved 10 May 2009.

[9] “Fomapan R” (PDF). Fomapan R. Retrieved 6 April 2016.

[10] “Kodak Technical Data: Kodak Professional T-Max 100 Direct Positive Film Developing Outfit” (PDF). Retrieved 10 October 2012.

[11] “MSDS, Kodak T-Max 100 Direct Positive Film Reversal Bleach” (PDF). Palomar College Facilities Dept. Retrieved 10 October 2012.

[12] “Black and White Reversal Film : KODAK TRI-X Reversal Film 7266 (16 mm) Technical Data”. Eastman Kodak Com- pany. 2003. Archived from the original on April 8, 2009. Retrieved 10 May 2009.

[13] “Black and White Reversal Film : KODAK PLUS-X Reversal Film 7265 (16 mm) Technical Data”. Eastman Kodak Company. 2003. Archived from the original on September 24, 2009. Retrieved 10 May 2009.

[14] http://vividlight.com/articles/216.htm

[15] http://istillshootfilm.org/post/109320786450/what-is-slide-film-an-introduction-to-color

[16] http://vividlight.com/articles/216.htm

[17] http://istillshootfilm.org/post/109320786450/what-is-slide-film-an-introduction-to-color 7.3. REVERSAL FILM 111

7.3.7 External links

• Kodak TRI-X Reversal Film 7266 • Ilford B&W reversal processing description

• Ilford B&W reversal processing PDF manual • dr5CHROME (B&W reversal)

• Color Reversal Film Information and Comparison Chart Chapter 8

Day 8

8.1 E-6 process

The E-6 process (often abbreviated to E-6) is a chromogenic photographic process for developing Ektachrome, Fujichrome and other color reversal (slide) photographic film. Unlike some color reversal processes (such as Kodachrome K-14) that produce positive transparencies, E-6 processing can be performed by individual users with the same equipment that is used for processing black and white negative film or C-41 color negative film. The process is highly sensitive to temperature variations: A heated water bath is mandatory to stabilize the temperature at 100.0 °F (37.8 °C) for the first developer and first wash to maintain process tolerances.

8.1.1 History

The E-6 process superseded Kodak's E-3 and E-4 processes. The E-3 process required fogging with light to accom- plish image reversal and produced transparencies that faded quickly. The E-4 process used polluting chemicals, such as a highly toxic reversal agent Tertiary Butyl-Amine Borane(TBAB).

8.1.2 Process variations

There are two versions of the E-6 process. Commercial laboratories use a six-bath chemical process. The 'hobby' type chemistry kits, such as those produced by Tetenal, use three chemical baths that combine the color developer and fogging bath solutions, and the pre-bleach, bleach and fixer bath solutions. The three-bath process has a discrete color developer step in between.[1] However, the three-bath version of the process suffers from poor process control, with color shifts and color crossover, mainly because of insufficient bleaching, fixing or both in the bleach-fixer (“blix”) stage.

8.1.3 Six-bath process version

The steps for developing color transparency films using process E6 are:

• First developer bath: 6:00 @ 100.0 °F (37.8 °C). This uses a potassium hydroquinone monosulfate - phenidone black & white film developer, with the preferred form of phenidone being 4-hydroxymethyl-4-methyl-1- phenyl-3-pyrazolidinone (13047-13-7). The first developer forms a negative silver image in each layer of the film. The first developer is time and temperature sensitive because it controls contrast.[2] • First wash: Water stop bath, 2:00 @ 100.0 °F (37.8 °C). This step once used an acetic acid stop bath, but was replaced with a water-only bath for process economy, with concomitant slight reduction of first developer strength.[2] • Reversal bath: 2:00 @ 96-103 °F (35.6-39.4 °C). This bath prepares the film for the color developer step. A chemical reversal agent is absorbed into the emulsion, which is instantly effective. The reversal step can also

112 8.1. E-6 PROCESS 113

be carried out using 800 footcandle-seconds (8.6 klx·s) of light - this variation is used by process engineers to troubleshoot reversal bath chemistry problems such as contamination and issues of low tank turnover as process volumes decline.[2]

• Color developer bath: 6:00 @ 96-103 °F (35.6-39.4 °C). This step is carried out to completion. The developer contains CD-3 developing agent, and acts upon the chemically exposed silver halide that was not developed in the first developer to form a positive silver image. The metallic negative silver image formed in the first developer has no part in the reaction of this step. As the color development progresses, a metallic positive silver image is formed and the color developing agent is oxidized. Oxidized color developer molecules react with the color couplers and color dyes are formed in each of the three layers of the film.[2] Each layer of the film contains different color couplers, which react with the same oxidized developer molecules but form different color dyes. Variation in color developer pH causes color shifts on the green-magenta axis with Kodak E100G & E100GX and Fujichrome films and on the yellow-blue axis with older Ektachrome films.[3]

• Pre-bleach bath: 2:00 @ 90-103 °F (32.2-39.4 °C). This bath was previously called “conditioner”, but was renamed pre-bleach in the mid-1990s to reflect the removal of from the process used in the final rinse. In this solution, formaldehyde acts as a dye preservative and EDTA is used to “kick off” the bleach. The pre-bleach bath relies on carry-over of the color developer to function properly, therefore there is no wash step between the color developer and pre-bleach baths.[2]

• Bleach bath: 6:00 @ 92-103 °F (33.3-39.4 °C). This is a process-to-completion step, and relies on carry-over of pre-bleach to initiate the bleach. The bleach converts metallic silver into silver bromide, which is converted to soluble silver compounds by the fixer. During bleaching, iron (III) EDTA is converted to iron (II) EDTA (Fe3+ EDTA + Ag + Br−→ Fe2+ EDTA + AgBr) before fixing. Kodak also has a process variant which uses a higher concentration of bleach and a 4:00 bath time; but with process volumes declining, this variant has become uneconomical.[2]

• Wash step (optional): Rinses off the bleach and extends the life of the fixer bath. This wash step is recom- mended for rotary tube, sink line and other low volume processing.[2]

• Fixer bath: 4:00 @ 92-103 °F (33.3-39.4 °C). This is a process-to-completion step.[2]

• Second fixer stage (optional): Using fresh fixer. The archival properties of film and paper are greatly improved using a second fixing stage in a reverse cascade.[4] Many C-41RA (rapid access) processors also use 2 stage reverse cascade fixing for faster throughput.

• Final wash: 4:00 @ 92-103 °F (33.3-39.4 °C).[2]

• Final rinse: 1:00 @ 80-103 °F (26.7-39.4 °C). Up until the mid-1990s, the final rinse was called a stabilizer bath, since it contained formaldehyde. Currently, the final rinse uses a surfactant, and miconazole, an anti- fungal agent.[2]

• Drying: Drying in a dust-free environment.[2]

8.1.4 See also

• Replenishment (photography)

8.1.5 References

[1] Rinses, washes, stop baths and stabilizer/final rinse (the final step of the process) are not counted in the counting of baths when describing both the conventional six bath and hobbyist three bath processes.

[2] “Process E-6 Using KODAK Chemicals, Process E-6 Publication Z-119”. Kodak. Retrieved 2007-07-04.

[3] “KODAK PROFESSIONAL EKTACHROME Films E100G and E100GX”. Kodak. Retrieved 2007-07-04.

[4] Schwartz, Dan (March 8, 2004). “Why two step fixing is a Really Good Thing”. Photo.net. Retrieved 2007-07-04. Note that this is the Photo.Net discussion thread of the 1998 technical paper by Dr. Michael J. Gudzinowicz. 114 CHAPTER 8. DAY 8

8.1.6 External links

• Kodak Process E-6 Publication Z-119

• Kodak Q-LAB Process Control Handbook - more details than processing manual Z-119

• Kodak Professional First Developer Replenisher, Process E-6 (PDF)

• FujiFilm USA Product Bulletin Library technical data sheets

• E-6 Ektachrome DIY processing super-8 & 16mm.

8.2 C-41 process

C-41 is a chromogenic color print film developing process introduced by Kodak in 1972, superseding the C-22 process. C-41, also known as CN-16 by Fuji, CNK-4 by Konica, and AP-70 by AGFA, is the most popular film process in use, with most photofinishing labs devoting at least one machine to this development process. Processed C-41 negatives, as with all color films, consist of an image formed of dye. Due to the long-term instability of dyes, C-41 negatives can fade or color-shift over time. This was a significant problem with early films; whether the newer films are archival or not is a subject of some debate.

8.2.1 Film layers

Before Processing After Processing

Protective Layer

Blue Sensitive Layer Containing Colorless Yellow Coupler Yellow Negative Image

Yellow Filter Layer

Green Sensitive Layer Containing Magenta Negative Image and Yellow Colored Magenta Coupler Yellow Colored Residual Coupler

Cyan Senstive Layer Light Magenta Image Interlayer

Red Sensitive Layer Containing Cyan Negative Image and Red Colored Cyan Coupler Red Colored Residual Coupler

Interlayer Antihalation Layer

Film Base

FujiColor Superia is an example of a C41 process film. This diagram illustrates the layers FujiFilm has chosen for this film.

C-41 film consists of an acetate or polyester film base, onto which multiple emulsions are coated. Each layer is only sensitive to a certain color of visible light. In the classic illustrative example, there are three emulsions: one is red sensitive, another is green sensitive, and the top is blue-sensitive. Beneath the blue layer is a yellow filter, composed of dyes or colloidal silver. All silver-based photographic emulsions have some sensitivity to blue light, regardless of what other colors they may be sensitized for. This filter layer serves to remove the blue light, which would expose the layers beneath it. Beneath the blue-sensitive layer and the yellow filter are the green and red sensitive layers. The illustrative example outlined above differs from the design of actual film, in respect to the number of layers. Almost all C-41 films contain multiple layers sensitive to each color. Each of these layers have different speed and contrast characteristics, allowing the film to be correctly exposed over a wider range of lighting conditions. 8.2. C-41 PROCESS 115

In addition to multiple emulsion layers, real films have other layers that are not sensitive to light. Some films are top-coated with UV blocking layers or anti-scratch coatings. There also may be layers to space different emulsions, or additional filter layers. Each emulsion layer, in addition to the light-sensitive components, contain chemicals called dye couplers. These couplers, located in the blue, green and red-sensitive layers, produce yellow, magenta and cyan dyes, respectively, when developed.

8.2.2 Process

The C-41 process is the same for all C-41 films, although different manufacturers’ processing chemistries vary slightly. After exposure, the film is developed in a “color developer”. The developing ingredient is a paraphenylene diamine- based chemical known as CD-4. The developer develops the silver in the emulsion layers. As the silver is developing, oxidized developer reacts with the dye couplers, resulting in formation of dyes. The control of temperature and agitation of the film in the developer is critical in obtaining consistent, accurate results. Incorrect temperature can result in severe color shifts or significant under- or overdevelopment of the film. After the developer, a bleach converts the metallic silver generated by development to silver halide, which is soluble in fixer. After the bleach, a fixer removes the silver halide. This is followed by a wash, and a final stabilizer and rinse to complete the process. There are simplified versions of the process that use a combined bleach-fix that dissolves the silver generated by development and removes undeveloped silver halide. These are not used by commercial C-41 processors, and are marketed for home or field use.

8.2.3 Push processing

Like the black-and-white film process, the C-41 process can be used to push process films. Due to the complexity of the film and exacting nature of the process, the results vary widely; as with black-and-white negatives, the process generally results in a negative that is higher in contrast and sometimes higher in grain.

8.2.4 The negative

The resulting film is a negative, meaning that the darkest spots on the film are those areas that were brightest in the source. Nearly all C-41 films also include an additional orange mask to offset the optical inadequacies of the dyes in the film. These C-41 negatives appear orange when viewed directly, though the orange base is compensated for in the formulation of color print materials. Some C-41 films, intended for scanning, do not have this orange base. The finished negative is printed using color photographic paper to yield a positive image.

8.2.5 Black-and-white usage

C-41 “chromogenic” black-and-white films

While C-41 is usually considered a color process, Ilford manufacture two "chromogenic" C-41 compatible black-and- white films, their own XP2 Super and Fuji's 400CN.[1] Kodak used to manufacture a similar film, BW400CN, but this was discontinued in August 2014[2] (These should not be confused with regular black-and-white films, which are not compatible with C41 chemistry, except for one nonstandard use). These films work like any other C-41 film; development causes dyes to form in the emulsion. Their structure, however, is different. Although they may have multiple layers, all are sensitive to all colors of light, and are designed to produce a black dye. The result is a black-and white image. The Kodak film has the same orange base as color C-41 films; the base on XP2 is and Fuji films are clear. The orange base on the Kodak film allows them to be printed with correct blacks on standard color printing machines, but this film can be difficult to print on multigrade black-and-white paper, whose contrast is determined by the use of a colored filter during the printing process. Conversely, the clear-based Ilford and Fuji films sometimes results in off- color prints on color paper, but can be optically printed on black-and-white paper, just like any other black-and-white 116 CHAPTER 8. DAY 8

film. It is often said that prints from these films do not have grain. While they may not appear to have grain, this statement is technically incorrect. On an image from regular black-and-white film, the individual silver particles forming the image are seen as grain. The image on the C-41 films, however, does not contain silver. Instead, C-41 negatives and prints have clouds of dye, causing the resulting image to appear different from that of silver grain.

Traditional black-and-white films

While regular black-and-white films are not intended for use with C-41 chemistry, some photographers have used C- 41 developer to develop high-contrast black-and-white films (such as traffic surveillance film and Kodak’s Technical Pan). This is done in order to lower the contrast. In this application, only a silver image is formed; the bleach step of the C-41 process is not used, as it would destroy the image.

8.2.6 Cross processing

It is also possible to cross-process slide film for the E-6 process in C-41, which yields negatives with a color shift and stronger saturation. (C-41 also may be processed in E-6 yielding positive images with a strong green cast, caused by the orange mask.) Varying brands and film speeds yield different color shifts producing bright, saturated colors and high contrast. C-41 film can be processed in standard black-and-white chemicals, to produce a monochrome negative image. The negatives will typically be of very low contrast, and cloudy, partly caused by the orange mask.

8.2.7 See also

• Chromogenic • Replenishment (photography)

8.2.8 References

[1] https://www.flickr.com/photos/38463255@N00/3014333194/

[2] KODAK PROFESSIONAL BW400CN Film - Truth Made Flexible, Kodak, retrieved 2013-06-10, World’s finest-grained chromogenic film

8.2.9 External links

• Kodak process C-41 (color negative) processing manual Z-131

8.3 Cross processing

Cross processing (sometimes abbreviated to Xpro) is the deliberate processing of photographic film in a chemical solution intended for a different type of film. The effect was discovered independently by many different photog- raphers often by mistake in the days of C-22 and E-4. Color cross processed photographs are often characterized by unnatural colors and high contrast. The results of cross processing differ from case to case, as the results are determined by many factors such as the make and type of the film used, the amount of light exposed onto the film and the chemical used to develop the film. Similar effects can also be achieved with digital filter effects.

8.3.1 Processes

Cross processing usually involves one of the two following methods.

• Processing positive color reversal film in C-41 chemicals, resulting in a negative image on a colorless base. 8.3. CROSS PROCESSING 117

• Processing negative color print film in E-6 chemicals, resulting in a positive image but with the orange base of a normally processed color negative.

However, cross processing can take other forms, such as negative color print film or positive color reversal film in black and white developer. Other interesting effects can be obtained by bleaching color films processed in black and white chemistry using a hydrochloric acid dichromate mixture or using potassium triiodide (KI3) solution. If these bleached films are then re-exposed to light and re-processed in their intended color chemistry, subtle, relatively low contrast, pastel effects are obtained.[1] Cross processing effects can be simulated in digital photography by a number of techniques involving the manipulation of contrast/brightness, hue/saturation and curves in image editors such as Adobe Photoshop or GIMP. However, these digital tools lack the unpredictable nature of regular cross processed images.

Gallery

• Agfa CT Precisa 100 film, shot at EI 80 then cross processed with C-41 chemistry

• 200 ISO Lomography Slide/Xpro film, processed with C-41 chemistry

• 200 ISO Lomography Slide/Xpro film, processed with C-41 chemistry

• Kodak Color Plus negative film shot with a , processed with E-6 chemistry

8.3.2 See also

• Redscale

• Photographic processes

8.3.3 References

[1] Nitsa. “More Than Photography”. Retrieved 1 August 2012. Chapter 9

Day 9

9.1 Digital versus film photography

The merits of digital versus film photography have been debated in the photography world, and in the film industry since the late 20th century, when digital cameras became widely available. Digital photography and digital cinematog- raphy have both advantages and disadvantages relative to still film and motion picture film photography.[1][2] In the 21st century photography came to be predominantly digital, but traditional photochemical methods continue to serve many users and applications.

9.1.1 Image quality

Spatial resolution

The quality of digital photographs can be measured in several ways. Pixel count is presumed to correlate with spatial resolution.[3] The quantity of picture elements (pixels) in the image sensor is usually counted in millions and called "megapixels" and often used as a figure of merit. Digital cameras have a variable relationship between final output image resolution and sensor megapixel count.[4] Other factors are important in digital camera resolution, such as the number of pixels used to resolve the image, the effect of the Bayer pattern or other sensor filters on the digital sensor and the image processing algorithm used to interpolate sensor pixels to image pixels. Digital sensors are generally arranged in a rectangular grid pattern, making images susceptible to moire pattern artifacts. Film is not affected by moire because of the random orientation of the silver salts in its emulsion, the appearance of its silver salts often called “grain.”[5] The resolution of film images depends upon the area of film used to record the image (35 mm, medium format or large format) and the film speed. Estimates of a photograph’s resolution taken with a 35 mm film camera vary. More information may be recorded if a fine-grain film, combined with a specially formulated developer, are used. Conversely, use of poor-quality optics or coarse-grained film yield lower image resolution. A 36 mm × 24 mm frame of ISO 100-speed film was initially estimated to contain the equivalent of 20 million pixels,[6] although this estimate was later revised to between 4 and 16 million pixels depending on the type of film used.[7] However, this has been challenged, and some estimate the amount of pixels on a single frame of 35mm film is over 40 megapixels.[8][9] Many professional-quality film cameras use medium-format or large-format films. Because of the size of the imaging area, these can record higher resolution images than current top-of-the-range digital cameras. A medium-format film image can record an equivalent potential of approximately 400 megapixels,[10] while large-format films can record considerably larger (4 × 5 inch) which equates to around 800 megapixels on the largest common film format, 8 × 10 inches, without accounting for lens sharpness.[11] Thus film and digital work each provide a wide range of performance in this regard, overlapping but with film tending to higher resolution. Resolution of both film and digital are subject to the quality of lens fitted to the camera. The medium which will be used for display, and the viewing distance, should be taken into account. For instance, if a photograph will only be viewed on an old analogue television that can resolve approximately 0.3 megapixel or modern HDTV set of 1080p with 2 megapixels, the resolution provided by high-end camera phones may suffice, and inexpensive compact cameras usually will. Similar or more expensive hardware may also fill the screens of computer

118 9.1. DIGITAL VERSUS FILM PHOTOGRAPHY 119

displays, though those few that show tens of megapixels is currently out of reach of low-end film photography and all but specialized scientific or industrial digital cameras.

Noise and grain

Shot noise, produced by spontaneous fluctuations in detected photocurrents, degrades darker areas of electronic im- ages with random variations of pixel color and brightness. Film grain becomes obvious in areas of even and delicate tone. Grain and film sensitivity are linked, with more sensitive films having more obvious grain. Likewise, with digital cameras, images taken at higher sensitivity settings show more image noise than those taken at lower sensitivities.[6] However, even if both techniques have inherent noise, it is widely appreciated that for color, digital photography has much less noise/grain than film at equivalent sensitivity, leading to an edge in image quality.[12] For black-and-white photography, grain takes a more positive role in image quality, and such comparisons are less valid. Noise in digital cameras can produce color distortion or confetti-like patterns, in indoor lighting typically occurring most severely on the blue component and least severely on the red component. Nearly all digital cameras apply noise reduction to long-exposure photographs to counteract noise due to pixel leakage. For very long exposures, the image sensor must be operated at low temperatures to prevent noise affecting the final image. Film grain is not affected by exposure time, although the apparent speed of the film changes with lengthy exposures, a phenomenon known as reciprocity failure.

Autofocus and auto exposure systems

Traditional exposure metering and autofocus systems employ secondary sensors, whose readings are typically low- fidelity (e.g. a very small number of averaged readings from various image areas vs. fully resolved image information) and may not correspond to the actually recorded image, for example due to parallax issues, differing sensitivity towards polarization, differing spectral response, differing amplitude response, optical aberrations of optical elements in the sensing system, differing sensitivity towards stray light, or misalignment of the focal plane of the sensor. Most digital cameras allow to capture and analyze image information from the same sensor as used for image recording in real-time. Using this information for exposure and focus determination inherently eliminates most alignment and calibration issues, while simultaneously eliminating the cost of secondary metering sensors.

Dynamic range

Dynamic range is a complex issue.[13] Comparisons between film and digital media should consider:

• Film type: For example, low-contrast print film has greater dynamic range than slide film’s low dynamic range and higher contrast.

• Data format: Raw image format or lossy compression.

• Pixel density of the sensor: The large sensors in DSLRs and medium-format digital cameras generally have larger photosites, which collect more light and therefore are generally more sensitive than their diminutive counterparts in compact digital cameras. The larger sensors tend to have better signal-to-noise characteristics. However, signal processing and amplification improve with generation, and small sensors of today approach the dynamic range of large sensors in the past.

• Scanner: Variations in optics, sensor resolution, scanner dynamic range and precision of the analogue to digital conversion circuit cause variations in image quality.

• Optical versus digital prints: Prints differ between media and between images shown on Visual display units.

• Signal/noise ratio: This defines the limits of dynamic range within a single photograph, and may vary with subject matter. A single comparison cannot demonstrate that digital or film has a smaller or greater dynamic range.

Dynamic range is of considerable importance to image quality in both the digital and emulsion domain. Both film and digital sensors exhibit non-linear responses to the amount of light, and at the edges of the dynamic range, close to underexposure and overexposure the media will exhibit particularly non-linear responses. The non-linear dynamic 120 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

response or saturation qualities of emulsion film are often considered a desirable effect by photographers, and the distortion of colour, contrast and brightness varies considerably between film stocks. There is no limit to the number of possible levels of colour on emulsion film, whereas a digital sensor stores integer numbers, producing a limited and specific possible number of colours. Banding may be visible in the unusual case that it is not obscured by noise, and detail may be lost, particularly in shadow and highlight areas. According to Eastman Kodak in 2007, digital sensors of the time lacked the extended dynamic range of film. In particular, they tend to 'blow out' highlights, losing detail in very bright parts of the image.[14] If highlight detail is lost, it is nearly impossible to recapture in post-production.[15] Therefore, film can be underexposed and overexposed, retaining detail and information in the camera negative.[14] Some amateur authors have performed tests with inconclusive results. R. N. Clark, comparing a professional digital camera with scans of 35 mm film made using a consumer level scanner, concluded that “Digital cameras, like the Canon 1D Mark II, show a huge dynamic range compared to [scans of] either print or slide film, at least for the films compared.”[16] Carson Wilson informally compared Kodak Gold 200 film with a Nikon D60 digital camera and concluded that “In this test a high-end consumer digicam fell short of normal consumer color print film in the area of dynamic range.”[17] The digital camera industry is attempting to address the problem of dynamic range. Some cameras have an au- tomatic exposure bracketing mode, to be used in conjunction with high-dynamic-range imaging software. Some CCDs including Fujifilm's Super CCD combine photosites of different sizes to give increased dynamic range. Other manufacturers use in-camera software to prevent highlight overexposure. Nikon calls this feature D-Lighting. Presentation technology is also relevant, as different color printing methods, cathode-ray tubes, LCDs and other displays all have different dynamic range limits and degrees of linearity.

Effects of sensor size

Almost all compact digital cameras, and most digital SLRs or ILCs, have sensors smaller than the 36 mm × 24 mm exposure-frame of “35 mm” film. The smaller sensors found in DSLR cameras affect:[18]

1. depth of field; 2. light sensitivity and pixel noise; 3. relative cropping of the field of view when using lenses designed for 35 mm camera; 4. optimizing lens design for smaller sensor area; 5. increased relative enlargement of the captured image.

If a sensor that is one-fourth the width and height of a 24 × 36 mm frame of film is exposed to an image through a lens that is correspondingly one-fourth the focal length (so that it sees the same field of view) and one-fourth the aperture diameter (so it has the same f number), then the depth of field increases 4x. This increase in depth of field may have advantages for taking snapshots; more of the image will be in focus than with a larger sensor, and autofocus system accuracy is less critical for producing an acceptable image. Contrarily, photographers wishing to decrease depth of field to create certain effects, such as isolating subjects from their background, need to increase the aperture diameter, which is easier with a larger format where the resulting f-number will be higher.[19] Light sensitivity and pixel noise are both related to pixel size, which is in turn related to sensor size and resolution. As the resolution of sensors of a specific format increases, the size of the individual pixels naturally has to decrease. This smaller pixel size means that each pixel collects less light and the resulting signal must be amplified more to produce the final value. Noise is also amplified and the signal-to-noise ratio decreases, and the higher noise floor means that less useful information is extracted from the darker parts of the image.[18] Countering these effects of digital-signal noise are advances being made in sensor technology itself. As of 2012, the top-end of digital sensor sensitivity is at ISO 204,800 (in both Canon and Nikon DSLRs), whereas less expensive prosumer DSLR and ILC cameras offer sensitivities up to ISO 6400 or even higher, often with good noise performance at one-quarter maximum sensitivity. In recent years larger sensor digital compacts have become available. However, they still are bigger and heavier than the smallest 35mm cameras and are not full frame. Some digital SLRs use lens mounts originally designed for film cameras. If the camera has a smaller imaging area than the lens’ intended film frame, its field of view is cropped. This crop factor is often called a “focal length multiplier” 9.1. DIGITAL VERSUS FILM PHOTOGRAPHY 121

because the effect can be calculated by multiplying the focal length of the lens. For lenses that are not designed for a smaller imaging area whilst using the 35 mm-compatible lens mount, this has the beneficial side effect of only using the centre part of the lens, where the image quality is in some aspects higher. Only expensive digital SLRs and very rarely expensive 'compacts’ have 36mm × 24 mm sensors, eliminating depth of field and crop factor problems when compared to 35 mm film cameras. In compact digital cameras, the size of the sensor is often several times smaller than the standard 36 mm × 24 mm film, with the area being typically 20 to 40 times less than that of a frame of film.[20] This difference gives film compacts a substantial advantage when it comes to image quality and the ability to take pleasing portraits. In the standard consumer market film’s advantage over digital in the compact format is often negated by operator error, the generally poor quality of the cameras or because of poor quality processing of films. The smaller sensor size of digital compact cameras means that prints are extreme enlargements of the focused image, and that the lens must perform well in order to provide enough resolution to match the tiny pixels on the sensor. To manufacturers, large lenses are very costly to produce; smaller sensors in digital cameras enable the use of smaller and more compact arrangement of lenses. Affordable superzoom cameras that can magnify images 50–60 times are now available. These kinds of magnification are virtually impossible to achieve in 35mm film cameras. Compact cameras such as the LX-7 with a maximum aperture of f/1.4 is achievable with smaller sensors.

Convenience and flexibility

Flexibility and convenience are among the reasons for the widespread adoption of digital cameras. With film cam- eras, a roll is usually completely exposed before being processed. When the film is returned, it is possible to see the photograph, but most digital cameras incorporate a liquid crystal display that allows the image to be viewed imme- diately after capture. The photographer may delete undesired or unnecessary photographs, or reshoot the image if required. A user who wants prints can quickly and easily print just the required photographs. Photographic film is made with specific characteristics of colour temperature and sensitivity (ISO). Lighting con- ditions often require characteristics different from those of the film specifications, requiring the use of filters or corrections in processing. Digital photography allows colour temperature and sensitivity to be adjusted at each shot, either manually or automatically. Digital images may be conveniently stored on a personal computer or in off-line storage such as small memory cards. Professional-grade digital cameras can store pictures in a raw image format, which stores the output from the sensor, rather than processing it immediately to form an image. When edited in suitable software, such as Adobe Photoshop or the GNU program GIMP (which uses dcraw to read raw files), the user may manipulate certain parameters, such as contrast, sharpness, or colour balance before producing an image. JPEG images can be similarly manipulated, though usually less precisely; software for this purpose may be provided with consumer-grade cameras. Digital photography allows the quick collection of a large quantity of archival documents, bringing convenience, lower cost, and increased flexibility in using the documents.[21] There are some areas where film may have some advantages. Modern film cameras are not as power-thirsty as modern digital cameras, and can last longer on smaller batteries. Some film cameras, especially older ones, can operate without batteries: some will function completely without batteries, while others may lose some functionality such as metering and some shutter speeds. Batteries that only have to power light meters are often very small and can last a long time. This can be a boon for those who may be spending a long time with little or no access to electricity or a source of batteries. Film cameras are sometimes used as backups for this reason. While film cameras can suffer from reciprocity failure on long exposures, they can use little to no power when making them, while long exposures on digital cameras can be particularly power thirsty, so the lack of need for batteries when making extremely long exposures can give some advantage to film.

Film speed

Compared to film, digital cameras are capable of much higher speed (sensitivity to light) and can perform better in low light or very short exposures. The effective speed of a digital camera can be adjusted at any time, while the film must be changed in a film to change the speed. 122 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

Cleanliness

Dust on the image plane is a constant issue for photographers, and especially so in digital photography. DSLR cameras are especially prone to dust problems because the sensor remains in place, whereas a film advances through the camera for each exposure. Debris in the camera, such as dust or sand, may scratch the film; a single grain of sand can damage a whole roll of film. As film cameras age, they can develop burs in their rollers. With a digital SLR, dust is difficult to avoid but is easy to rectify using a computer with image-editing software. Some digital SLRs have systems that remove dust from the sensor by vibrating or knocking it, sometimes in conjunction with software that remembers where dust is located and removes dust-affected pixels from images.[22] Compact digital cameras are fitted with fixed lenses, which makes it harder for dust to get into the image area. Similar film cameras are often only light-tight and not environmentally sealed. Some modern DSLRs, like the Olympus E-3, incorporate extensive dust and weather seals to avoid this problem.

9.1.2 Integrity

Film produces a first generation image, which contains only the information admitted through the aperture of the camera. Trick photography is more difficult with film; in law enforcement and where the authenticity of an image is important, like passport or visa photographs, film provides greater security over most digital cameras, as digital files may have been modified using a computer. However, some digital cameras can produce authenticated images. If someone modifies an authenticated image, it can be determined with special software.[23] SanDisk claims to have developed a write-once memory stick for cameras, and that the images once written cannot be altered.[24]

Nikon film scanner, right, which images 35 mm film for digital input

From an artistically conservative standpoint, some practitioners believe that the use of film offers a more authentic mode of expression than with easily enhanced digital images. As with the earlier transition from oil painting to photography, or from photographic plates to film photography, older methods are more expensive, thus encourage more selectivity and additional consideration.[25] 9.1. DIGITAL VERSUS FILM PHOTOGRAPHY 123

9.1.3 Cost

Film and digital imaging systems have different cost emphases. Digital cameras are significantly more expensive to purchase than film equivalents. Prices are however dropping rapidly due to intense competition. Film cameras, on the other hand, are quite inexpensive to purchase, especially used equipment, but require ongoing film and development costs.[26] However, in the digital realm, it could be argued that the constant state of technological change will cause a digital user to keep upgrading and buying other equipment once their digital camera becomes quickly obsolete.[27] Other costs of digital photography include specialized batteries, memory cards and long-term data storage. The cost of digital editing software can be considerable, especially if newer features are required. The emergence of very high quality phone cameras since the early 2010s are making lower end, small sensor digital cameras redundant, almost as quickly as they grew in the last decade. Consequently, manufacturers are focusing attention to premium models such as compact system cameras and large sensor compacts. Mobile phones such as the iPhone 7, Samsung Galaxy S5 and the Nokia Lumia 1020 are capable of images that can rival or beat cheaper dedicated cameras. Inkjet printers can make low-quality prints cheaply and easily from digital files, but high-quality printing has high costs regardless of image source.

9.1.4 Film industry

There are film industry specific arguments in the film vs. digital debate. Most digital cinema is displayed in 2K resolution, which is only a small amount more resolution than the consumer- oriented 1080p HD format.[28] The decline of the use of 35mm prints directly contributed to the 2012 bankruptcy of motion picture film manufac- turer Eastman Kodak Company. The company has since emerged from bankruptcy.[29] publicly criticized the use of DCPs after a cancelled film festival screening of Brian DePalma's film Passion (2012 film) at New York Film Festival caused by a lockup due to the coding system.[30] High profile film directors such as Christopher Nolan,[31] Paul Thomas Anderson[32] and Quentin Tarantino have all publicly criticized digital cinema and digital cinematography, and advocated the use of film and film prints. Most famously, Tarantino has suggested he may retire because (although he can still shoot on film) he cannot project on 35mm prints in most American cinemas, because of the rapid conversion to digital.[33] Paul Thomas Anderson recently was able to create the most 70mm film prints in years for his film The Master (2012 film). There also are many film directors such as , Guillermo del Toro, , and James Cameron who are adamant supporters of digital cinema and the potential for higher frame rates that it brings.

9.1.5 See also

•

9.1.6 References

[1] Mark Galer; Les Horvat (2005). Digital Imaging. Elsevier. ISBN 0-240-51971-X.

[2] Glenn Rand; David Litschel; Robert Davis (2005). Digital Photographic Capture. Elsevier. ISBN 0-240-80632-8.

[3] Marvin J. Rosen; David L. Devries (2002). Photography & Digital Imaging. Kendall Hunt. ISBN 0-7575-1159-7.

[4] Jurij F. Tasič; Mohamed Najim; Michael Ansorge (2003). Intelligent Integrated Media Communication Techniques. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-7552-9.

[5] Issac Amadror (2009). “3”. The Theory of the Moiré Phenomenon. Springer London. ISBN 978-1-84882-180-4.

[6] Langford, Michael (2000). Basic Photography (7th Ed.). Oxford: Focal Press. ISBN 0-240-51592-7.

[7] Digital vs. film, executive summary R. N. Clark, may 2002 - march 2008. Retrieved May 2010.

[8] “Film Resolution: The Pixel Count of Film”.

[9] @stylehatch, Style Hatch - http://stylehatch.co. “The Real Resolution of Film vs. Digital”.

[10] “Comparing the Image Quality of Film and Digital”. 18 December 2014. 124 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

[11] Resolution Test Area 2: trees and Mountains R. N. Clark, 8 April 2001. Retrieved 2 September 2006.

[12] Shannon information theory, noise and perceived image quality Norman Koren, 2000/2010, retrieved May 2010.

[13] Dante Stella. “More is Less is More: The Devil is in the Dynamic Range”. DanteStella.com online article, retrieved Jan 2013.

[14] http://www.motion.kodak.com/motion/uploadedFiles/US_plugins_acrobat_en_motion_education_film_info.pdf

[15] “RoguePaddler - Coping with Highlights and Shadows in Digital Photography”.

[16] R. N. Clark. “Dynamic Range and Transfer Functions of Digital Images and Comparison to Film”. ClarkVision.com online article, July 3, 2005.

[17] Carson Wilson. “Real World Test: Kodak Gold 200 vs Nikon D60 Dynamic Range”. apples.carsonwilson.com online article, September 13, 2008.

[18] Bob Atkins. “Size Matters”. Photo.Net Equipment Article, 2003.

[19] Bob Atkins. “Digital ”. BobAtikins.com. []

[20] Vincent Bockaert. “Sensor Size”.

[21] http://www.physorg.com/news139751840.html,Accelerated research using a digital camera

[22] “How does 'Image Dust Off' work?". Nikon. 1 Sep 2003. Retrieved 2010-09-04.

[23] “Nikon - Imaging Products - Image Authentication Software”.

[24] “SanDisk introduces write-once WORM SD cards”.

[25] Carbone, Kia M. 2009. “Making Contact: The Photographer’s Interface with the World.” Student Pulse. http://studentpulse. com/articles/57/making-contact-the-photographers-interface-with-the-world

[26] “Is Digital Cheaper Than Film?".

[27] “5 Reasons to Ditch Your Digital SLR”.

[28] “2K vs 1080p resolution question [Archive] - REDUSER.net”.

[29] “As Kodak File For Bankruptcy, The Future Of Cinema Is Unveiled”. 19 January 2012.

[30] Rowan, Jensen (11 June 2014). “A Comparison for the Best Camera for photography”. Camera Able. Retrieved 2 July 2016.

[31] “Christopher Nolan talks film vs. digital, his take on CGI, his disinterest in 3D, and much more in insightful DGA inter- view”.

[32] cigsandvines (10 August 2006). “pta on digital vs. film” – via YouTube.

[33] “Tarantino can't stand digital filmmaking”. 30 November 2012.

9.1.7 External links

• Published Comparisons: Film versus Digital Photography • Digital vs. Film (The Real Deal) - Nikon D300 vs. Fuji GS645s

• DIGITAL SLR vs. FILM SCANS Chapter 10

Day 10

10.1 Polaroid type 55

Polaroid Type 55 film is a black-and-white peel-apart Polaroid film that yields both a positive print and a negative image that can be used to create enlargements. The film speed is given by the manufacturers as 50 ISO, however that applies only to the positive component. The negative is rated by Polaroid as 25 ISO though it is possible to rate the negative at 32 ISO). After processing the film is peeled apart to reveal positive and negative images. To prevent fading and physical damage the positive image requires a protective coating (included in the box) while the negative requires a clearing solution: Polaroid recommends an 18% Sodium-Sulfite solution but some users favour Kodak’s Hypo-Clear works). Polaroid also recommends a hardening fixative to protect the negative from scratches as Type 55 negatives are thin compared to other 4x5” negatives, and the emulsion is extremely delicate. These negatives are fine-grained, have a broad tonal range and are of extremely high resolution, on the order of 150 LP/mm, can create large prints and are suitable for contact printing, particularly involving Cyanotype and Van dyke brown to create 'blueprint' and 'sepia' prints respectively. Polaroid Type 55 (like all Type 50 series film) requires a Polaroid Model 545 Film Packet Back. This is mounted onto the back of a camera, usually a large format 4x5 inch type, in place of a conventional film carrier. A self- contained waterproof transparent sleeve containing positive and negative film sheets and a small reservoir of reagent gel is inserted into the Packet Back, an exposure made and the Packet Back is removed. By flipping a lever and withdrawing the sleeve the gel is squeezed between the negative and positive emulsion layers. After the set time the layers can be peeled apart. some gel is retained at the edges, creating positive and negative images. A consequence of the process is an impression of a frame on the unprotected negative. The result (a perfect negative surrounded by imperfect frame-like image on three sides, the forth showing an impression of connective mesh) creates a distinctive “Polaroid frame look” that became popular, so much so photographers who did not use large format cameras (or any kind of chemical process) graphically combine a conventional photographic image, however created, with a superimposed image of an original 'Polaroid frame' as a graphic effect. In 2001 Polaroid filed for bankruptcy protection, and in February 2008 announced it would cease production of all instant film, filing for bankruptcy protection a second time. In 2009 the business was sold, the new owners announcing instant film production would be licensed out to a smaller company. The chemicals needed to process Polaroid instant film had been stockpiled in case of this eventuality but the licensees announced their intention to redesign and manufacture film on a limited basis under the Polaroid brand that would be compatible with most Polaroid film cameras, using machinery left over from a liquidated factory in the Netherlands. In response, in November 2009, Polaroid announced its intention to relaunch the manufacture of Polaroid film cameras in 2010 on a limited basis, marketed to enthusiasts and contingent on the availability of the newly licensed film stock. Initial plans are to produce a black-and-white film to replace existing film stocks, followed by a color film. Stocks of existing Polaroid Type 55 film are scheduled to expire in 2010.

125 126 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

10.1.1 New55project

A group called New55project, announced in November 2010:[1]

With the news that there are no plans to produce any more Polaroid Type 55 P/N film a small group of Massachusetts tinkerers are starting to make their own instant negative films and processes. The goal of the project is to produce a new, very high quality instant 4X5 and 8X10 negative material to replace the no-longer-in-production Polaroid Type 55 instant P/N film.

This group is in the product development phase, and has demonstrated its own positive/negative film system. The final product if offered for sale to the public will be able to produce an instant negative using certain conventional 4x5 (and possibly 8x10) black-and-white sheet films. As of May 2014, New55 film has been successfully crowd-funded on Kickstarter, with production due to begin in January 2015.[2]

10.1.2 References

[1] “New55 FILM”. New55project.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[2] “New55 FILM by Bob Crowley — Kickstarter”. Kickstarter.com. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

• . “Polaroid T-55 Film Data Sheet” (PDF). Polaroid Corporation. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 23, 2012. Retrieved 22 April 2011.

• “The Impossible Project”. (Licensee of Polaroid film products). Retrieved 4 December 2009.

10.2 Instant film

Photographs made using instant film. 10.2. 127

Upper left: Completely unexposed developed photo. Upper right: Completely exposed developed photo. Lower left: A photo as the opacifiers clear - the photo is already fully developed beneath. Lower right: An undeveloped photo, with chemicals still in the pouch at the bottom.

Instant film is a type of photographic film introduced by Polaroid to be used in an (and, with accessory hardware, many other professional film cameras). The film contains the chemicals needed for developing and fixing the photograph, and the instant camera exposes and initiates the developing process after a photo has been taken. In earlier Polaroid instant cameras the film is pulled through rollers which breaks open a pod containing a reagent that is spread between the exposed negative and receiving positive sheet. This film sandwich develops for some time after which the positive sheet is peeled away from the negative to reveal the developed photo. In 1972, Polaroid introduced integral film, which incorporated timing and receiving layers to automatically develop and fix the photo without any intervention from the photographer. Instant film is available in sizes from 24 mm × 36 mm (0.94 in × 1.42 in) (similar to 135 film) up to 50.8 cm × 61 cm (20 in × 24 in) size, with the most popular film sizes for consumer snapshots being approximately 83 mm × 108 mm (3.3 in × 4.3 in) (the image itself is smaller as it is surrounded by a border). Early instant film was distributed on 128 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10 rolls, but later and current films are supplied in packs of 8 or 10 sheets, and single sheet films for use in large format cameras with a compatible back. Though the quality of integral instant film is not as good as conventional film, peel apart black and white film, and to a lesser extent color film approached the quality of traditional film types. Instant film was used where it was undesirable to have to wait for a roll of conventional film to be finished and processed, e.g., documenting evidence in law enforcement, in health care and scientific applications, and producing photographs for passports and other identity documents, or simply for snapshots to be seen immediately. Some photographers use instant film for test shots, to see how a subject or setup looks before using conventional film for the final exposure. Instant film is also used by artists to achieve effects that are impossible to accomplish with traditional photography, by manipulating the emulsion during the developing process, or separating the image emulsion from the film base. Instant film has been supplanted for most purposes by digital photography, which allows the result to be viewed immediately on a display screen or printed with dye sublimation, inkjet, or laser home or professional printers. Instant film is notable for having had a wider range of film speeds available than other negative films of the same era, having been produced in ISO 4 to ISO 20,000. Current instant film formats typically have an ISO between 100 and 1000. Two companies manufacture instant film: Fujifilm ( integral film) and The Impossible Project for older Polaroid cameras (600, SX-70, Spectra and 8x10).

10.2.1 How it works

Instant positive film (which produced a print) uses diffusion transfer to move the dyes from the negative to the positive via a reagent. The process varies according to the film type.

Roll/pack film

In 1947 Edward H. Land introduced the Polaroid-Land process.[1] The first instant films produced sepia tone photos.[2] A negative sheet is exposed inside the camera, then lined up with a positive sheet and squeezed through a set of rollers which spread a reagent between the two layers, creating a developing film “sandwich”. The negative develops quickly, after which some of the unexposed silver halide grains (and the latent image it contains) are solubilized by the reagent and transferred by diffusion from the negative to the positive. After a minute, depending on film type and ambient temperature, the negative is peeled away to reveal the photo which was transferred to the positive receiving sheet.[3] True black and white films were released in 1950 after problems with chemistry stabilization were overcome.[2]

Subtractive color films

Color film is much more complex due to multiple layers of emulsion and dye. The negative consists of three emulsion layers sensitive to the primary colors (red, green, and blue) each with a layer of developing dye beneath it of the complementary color (cyan, magenta, and yellow). Once light exposed the negative, the reagent is spread between the negative and positive and the developing dye layer migrates to the positive surface where it forms the photo. Emulsion layers exposed to their respective color block the complementary dye below it, reproducing the original color. For example, a photo of a blue sky would expose the blue emulsion, blocking all the yellow dye beneath it and allowing the magenta and cyan dye layers to migrate to the positive to form blue.[3]

Integral film

This process is similar to subtractive color instant film with added timing and receiving layers. Land’s solution was incorporate and opacifier, which would darken when ejected from the camera, and then become clear to reveal the photograph.[2] The film itself integrates all the layers to expose, develop, and fix the photo into a plastic envelope and frame commonly associated with a Polaroid photo.

Additive color film

Additive film (such as and Polachrome slide film) uses a color mask of microscopically thin transparent red, green, and blue lines (3000 lines per inch) and a black and white emulsion layer to reproduce color images in 10.2. INSTANT FILM 129 transparency film. The resulting dye developers (unexposed emulsion) block the colors not needed and project the color or combination of colors which form in the resulting image. Since the lines are so close to each other, the human eye easily blended the primary colors together to form the correct color, much like an LCD display or television. For instance, a photo of a yellow flower would expose the emulsion beneath the red and green masks and not the blue mask. The developing process removed the exposed emulsion (under the red and green masks) and diffused the unexposed dye developer (under the blue mask) to its receiving layer, blocking light from coming through. This resulted in the projected light shining through the red and green masks but not the blue mask, creating the color yellow. Because of the film density, film speeds were necessarily slow. High precision was required for the production of this film .

10.2.2 Film brands

Polaroid

Polaroid Corporation invented and produced the widest range of instant film. Roll film was distributed in two separate negative and positive rolls and developed inside the camera. It was introduced in 1948 and was manufactured until 1992. Sheet film was introduced in 1958 for 4x5” film holder #500. Each sheet contains a reagent pod, negative and receiving positive, and was loaded separately and developed outside the film holder. In 1973 Polaroid introduced 8x10” Instant film. Pack film was distributed in a film pack which contained both negative and positive sheets and was developed outside the camera. It was introduced in 1963. Integral film is also distributed in a film pack, but each film envelope contains all the chemical layers to expose, develop, and fix the photo. It was introduced in 1972. Polavision was an instant motion picture film. Polavision was introduced by Polaroid in 1978, with an image format similar to Super 8 mm film, and based on an additive color process. Polavision required a specific camera and tabletop viewer, and was not a commercial success, but did lead to the development of an instant 35 mm color slide film. Polavision film has been taken off the market. Polachrome was an easy to develop 35 mm film, available in color, monochrome and 'blue' formats (the latter intended for making title cards). Each roll of film came with a cartridge containing developing chemicals which were pressed between the film and a developing strip by a hand- cranked machine called the AutoProcessor. The AutoProcessor was very cheap and did not require a darkroom; the results were somewhat variable, the resolution was not as good as conventional film due to the matrix of tiny red, green and blue filters required to make the monochrome emulsion work in color, and the sensitivity was low, even for slide film; in tungsten light, Polachrome CS is rated at ISO 40. It was introduced in 1983. Polaroid integral film packs usually contain a flat “Polapulse” electrical battery, which powers systems in the camera, including exposure and focusing mechanisms, electronic flash, and a film ejection motor. The inclusion of the battery within the film pack ensures that a fresh battery is available with each new pack of film. Polaroid no longer produces instant film. It has become an organization which licenses its brand name to other manufacturers. An example of this is the Polaroid 300 camera, which is a Polaroid branded Fuji Instax. Polaroid PIF-300 film is essentially rebranded Fuji Instax mini film.

Preservation Polaroids have the same storage standards under ISO 18920:2000 as any other photograph.[4] Regular storage conditions should be less than 70 degrees Fahrenheit and between 50% and 30% relative humidity (RH). Cold storage (0 degrees Fahrenheit optimum) is not helpful unless RH can be controlled and cold storage RH is generally drier than required. RH below 30% will create an environment that is too dry and may cause the photograph to curl. A Polaroid transfer removes the emulsion from the plastic backing and residual chemicals, offering an alternate form of preservation.

End of production In February 2008, Polaroid (by then under the control of Thomas J. Petters of Petters Group Worldwide) announced it would cease production of all instant film; the company shut down three factories and laid off 450 workers.[5] Sales of chemical film by all makers have dropped by at least 25% per year since 2000, but a new birth of interest around Fujifilm and, in particular, The Impossible Project films fulfilled demand in the market.

Integral film

• SX-70 cameras (integral film, develops automatically, 3.1 × 3.1 inch)

• 600 cameras (integral film, develops automatically, 3.1 × 3.1 inch) 130 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

A sample shot of Polaroid Type 600, ISO 640, color film

• Spectra / Image / 1200 cameras (integral film, develops automatically, 3.6 × 2.9 inch)

• Captiva/Vision (integral film, for Captiva and Joycam, 4.4 × 2.5 inch, 11.1 × 6.4 cm)

• i-Zone (integral film, for i-Zone, Tomy Xiao, 1.5 × 1 inch, 3.6 cm × 2.4 cm)

• i-Zone200 (integral film, for i-Zone200 only, 1.5 × 1 inch, 3.6 cm × 2.4 cm)

• Type 330 series AutoFilm (integral film for use Polaroid CB-33 backs, 3¼ × 4¼ inch).

Packfilm 10.2. INSTANT FILM 131

Polaroid Type 667 ISO 3000

• Type 100 series packfilm for Land cameras (timed peel-apart development, sometimes called type 660, 10.8 × 8.3 cm; 4.25 × 3.25 inch)

• Type 550 series packfilm, 4 × 5 inch, for Polaroid 550 film backs. Introduced in 1981.

• Type 80 series packfilm, 8.3 × 8.6 cm, (3¼ × 3⅜ inch). Introduced in 1971; re-introduced in 2003.

Rollfilm

• Type 20 series roll film, for “The Swinger” (2½" × 3¼"). Introduced 1965, discontinued 1979.

• Type 30 series roll film, for “Highlander” (80, 80A, 80B) and J33 Electric Eye (2½" × 3¼"). Introduced 1954, discontinued 1979. 132 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

A photograph on Type 100 film taken with a Polaroid Miniportrait

• Type 40 series roll film (3¼" × 4¼") 8 exposures per roll (for monochrome types, 6 exposures for type 48 Polacolor), for most Polaroid cameras made before 1963. Introduced 1948, discontinued 1976 (Polacolor) and 1992 (monochrome).

Sheet film

• Type 50 series sheetfilm for 4 × 5 inch large format (time peel-apart development, all professional grade)

• Type 800 series sheetfilm for 8 × 10 inch cameras, processors, Daylabs and other purposes.

PolaChrome PolaBlue, PolaChrome CS, PolaChrome HCP, PolaGraph HC, and PolaPan CT were 35 mm instant slide films.

20x24 20x24 P3 PolaColor, 20x24 P7 PolaColor, and 20x24 PolaPan.

40x80

• 40x80 PolaColor ER, ISO 80, color

Misc film

• Polaroid IJT-100 transparency film, Type 1001 radiography film, and Type 3000X radiography film. 10.2. INSTANT FILM 133

Polaroid Type 47 Land ISO 3000, expired June 1962

Kodak

Kodak manufactured the negative component of Polaroid’s instant film from 1963 to 1969, when Polaroid decided to manufacture its own. Kodak’s original plan was to create packfilm type instant products. There were many prototypes and test runs of the film with many private demonstrations to their board. Plans changed when Polaroid in 1972 released the integral type film with the introduction of the SX-70 system. Kodak decided to scrap the plans for packfilm release and focus on an integral type process. A few years later Kodak introduced its own instant film products in 1976, which was different from Polaroid’s in several ways:[6] Kodak instant film was exposed from the back without a mirror, the opposite of Polaroid’s film which was exposed from the front with a mirror to reverse the image. Kodak used a matte finish on the front, made possible by exposing the film through the back. The negative and empty pod could be removed by peeling it off of the back of the print. Unlike Polaroid’s integral film packs, Kodak’s did not contain a battery, and used conventional batteries. Kodak’s PR 10 film was found to have light fading stability issues.[7] Polaroid filed suit against Eastman Kodak in April 1976 for the infringement of ten patents held by Edwin Land and others on his development team relating to instant photography. In September 1985, the United States District Court of Massachusetts ruled that seven patents were valid and infringed, two were invalid but infringed, and one was valid but not infringed by Kodak. Kodak appealed but was denied and an injunction prohibiting production of their instant film and cameras was put into effect. Kodak’s appeal to the Supreme Court was denied a few months later, and in 134 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Polachrome instant slide film

January 1986, Kodak announced it would no longer be producing their instant line of products. In 1991, Polaroid was awarded $925 million in damages from Kodak.[8]

Alternative Kodak instant film While Kodak instant films have been discontinued, Fuji’s instant film available in Japan since the 1980s is very similar to Kodak’s. The pictures are the same size, the cartridge is almost the same, with some easy plastic modifications; the Fuji Fotorama series film can be made to fit. It was closest to the Kodak with the ISO at 160, many of the camera’s brightness controls can be adjusted to work with the different ISO; However, the FI-10 series was discontinued in the 1990s. The faster ISO 800 instant films will work as well but would require the use of a filter either on the film cartridge or lens.

Fujifilm

See also: Instax In Japan, Fujifilm introduced their own line of instant photographic products in 1981 starting with the Fotorama line of cameras. The name Fotorama came from photograph and , as the film was a wide format compared to the square Polaroid SX-70/600 films. These Integral films developed similar to Kodak’s with the back layer first. This presented a major problem for Fujifilm because of the ongoing litigation between Kodak and Polaroid. Polaroid also has a separate suit with Fujifilm and their instant film patents in Japan. When Kodak lost, Fujifilm was able to work with Polaroid to allow their cameras and films to remain in the market,[9] provided that they have a technology sharing agreement. Polaroid was interested in branching out to magnetic media in the boom of the videotape era and had acquired a company called MagMedia Ltd. Fujifilm has a long history in magnetic media dating to the mid-1950s. This led to Polaroid having access to Fujifilm’s extensive electronic, video tape and floppy disc magnetic products. This allowed Fujifilm access to Polaroid’s film technology. By the mid-1980s Fujifilm introduced the higher ISO System 800 series, followed by the ACE series in the mid-1990s. Instant ACE is nearly identical to System 800, the only difference is the design of the plastic cartridge in the ACE do not contain the spring mechanism (the spring is in the camera). Most of these products were available only in 10.2. INSTANT FILM 135

A pack of Kodak PR-10 Satinluxe instant film. the Japanese market, until the release of Instax series of cameras was released in 1998. Fujifilm originally wanted to release the Instax series worldwide including North America and Europe simultaneously,[10] but decided to work with Polaroid on the mio camera based on the Instax mini 10 for the US market; while Canada did get the Instax Wide 100. Another product was Fujifilm’s Digital Instax Pivi film for their battery powered portable printer which was made available for those who wanted to print from their mobile phone via infrared, USB and Bluetooth. Fujifilm makes pack film for their passport camera systems, and had been available outside Japan since the mid- 1980s. No legal issues arose with Fuji’s peel apart instant films as Polaroid’s patents had expired. While very popular in Australia as a cheaper alternative to Polaroid, it was generally not too well known elsewhere due to Polaroid’s dominance in most countries. In 2000, Fuji decided to change the way they manufacture pack film, making the entire pack out of plastic instead of a metal and plastic combination. Fujifilm announced at PMA 2003 that pack film would be made available to the North American market. With the discontinuation of Polaroid instant film in 2008, Fuji started to export more of their instant film products to overseas markets, starting with making an increased variety of pack films available. In November 2008 the Instax Wide format was available in the US with the Instax 200 camera.[11] Instax mini series of cameras and films became available in the US during the second half of 2009, with the mini 7s,[12] also an updated Instax 210 replaced the 136 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Fujifilm equivalents of Polaroid films

Instax 200. Fujifilm’s FP-100b45 was announced in Sept of 2009 for the US market.[13] The FP-3000b45 arrived in the North American market in Jan 2011, after Fujifilm Japan stopped manufacturing FP-100b, but was discontinued in 2012.[14] In late 2012 Fujifilm discontinued FP-3000B,[15] followed by the discontinuation of FP-100C in spring 2016.[16][17] Fujifilm instant films include:

Integral film

• Instax Wide series ISO 800 films • Instax Mini series ISO 800 films • ACE series ISO 800 films. Compatible with Fujifilm’s Fotorama ACE series of instant cameras. Discontinued June 2010. • 800 series ISO 800 films. Compatible with Fujifilm’s Fotorama 800 series instant cameras. Discontinued June 2010. • F Series ISO 160. Compatible with Fotorama F series instant cameras. Discontinued in the mid-1990s. • Miscellaneous discontinued films; FI-160 ISO 160 (89x114 mm) for use with MS-45 4x5 instant back.

Packfilm

1 1 • 3 ⁄4 in × 4 ⁄4 in (83 mm × 108 mm). Compatible with Polaroid Type 100 packfilm (also known as “Type 660”). Discontinued February 2016.[16] • 4 in × 5 in (100 mm × 130 mm). For use in the Fujifilm PA-45 holder. Compatible with Polaroid Type 550 series 4x5 packfilm versions of Type 50 sheetfilm. Discontinued 2016.[18]) 10.2. INSTANT FILM 137

A Fuji FP-14, designed for use as a passport camera

The Impossible Project

Main article: Impossible Project A group called the Impossible Project acquired Polaroid’s old equipment and factory in Enschede, in the Netherlands.[19] On their website[20] they state:

We aim to re-start production of analog instant film for vintage Polaroid cameras in 2010. and 138 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Polaroid / Impossible Type 600 3 1/8" × 3 1/8"

Fujifilm instax mini 62 mm × 46 mm

Image areas of Fujifilm instax mini against Polaroid/Impossible Type 600

“The Impossible mission is not to re-build Polaroid Integral film but (with the help of strategic partners) to develop a new product with new characteristics, consisting of new optimised components, produced with a streamlined modern setup. An innovative and fresh analog material, sold under a new brand name that perfectly will match the global re-positioning of Integral Films.”

On March 22, 2010, it was announced they were successful in manufacturing instant film compatible with Polaroid SX-70/600 instant cameras. Two new products were announced — PX100 and PX600. Their PX100 Silver Shade instant film is a manipulable, monochromatic replacement of old Polaroid brand instant film compatible with SX-70 cameras while the PX600 Silver Shade instant film is compatible with 600 cameras. That formulation has since been supplanted by improved films. As of December, 2015, The Impossible Project produces SX-70, 600, and Spectra color and monochrome film packs with a variety of colored borders. They also produce and sell other products which support their film production, such as a smartphone film lab – a device which takes a photo of the picture on a smartphone and produces an instant print. In 2016, the project released their first instant camera, the I-1, along with accompanying film packs that differ from traditional 600 packs in their omission of the battery (thus lowering costs). 10.2. INSTANT FILM 139

Shot on Impossible Project PX600 Silver Shade UV+ film

PLR IP Holdings, LLC

Summit Global Group, using the Polaroid brand, produced an instant photography camera and film starting with the Polaroid PIC 300, based on Fujifilm’s Instax Mini 7.

• 300, ISO 800, color (a rebranded Fujifilm Instax Mini 7)

New55project

A group called New55project[21] announced in January 2010: 140 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

With the news that there are no plans to produce any more Polaroid Type 55 P/N film a small group of Massachusetts tinkerers are starting to make their own instant negative films and processes. The goal of the project is to produce a new, very high quality instant 4 × 5 and 8 × 10 negative material to fill a gap caused by the discontinuation of Polaroid Type 55 instant P/N film.

This group is in the product development phase and has demonstrated a practical 4x5 P/N material that is exposed and processed in a Polaroid 545 holder. The final product, if offered for sale to the public, will provide users with a positive print and a high quality 4x5 negative that can be scanned, contact printed, or enlarged.

10.2.3 Toxicity

The liquid chemicals for the developing process contained in the more common instant photo sheets are caustic and can cause chemical burns. For such liquid the manufacture recommendation can be to avoid contact with skin and when contact with skin is made wash immediately with much water.[22][23] Some instant films have used less common reagents and have had differing suggested responses.

10.2.4 See also

• Film format

• Photographic film

• Polaroid type 55

• Instant camera

10.2.5 References

[1] Ritzenthaler, Mary Lynn, Gerald J. Munoff and Margery S. Long. Archives and Manuscripts: Administration of Photo- graphic Collections. SAA Basic Manual Series. Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1984.

[2] “Edwin Land and Polaroid Photography”. ACS.org. American Chemical Society. Retrieved 18 January 2017.

[3] Jim Skelton. “Jim’s Polaroid Collection: How film works”. Polaroids.theskeltons.org. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[4] Albright, G. & Fischer, M. Care of Photographs. Retrieved February 18, 2008, from Northeast Document Conservation Center Web site: Archived April 15, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.

[5] Associated Press February 8, 2008

[6] “The Land List - Non-Polaroid Instant Cameras”. Rwhirled.com. 2004-03-06. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[7] Wilhelm, Henry and Carol Brower. The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs: Traditional and Digital Color Prints, Color Negatives, Slides, and Motion Pictures. Grinnell: Preservation Publishing, 1993.

[8] “The Lost Instant Camera: Kodak’s CHAMP Kodamatic”. Lomogrohpy. 6 January 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2017.

[9] Los Angeles Times July 25th 1986

[10] “Fuji may enter us instant film market”. EUROPE: Nytimes.com. 1998-10-31. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[11] “Fujifilm brings Instax 200 instant film camera and film to U.S. market”. Fujifilmusa.com. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[12] “Fujifilm brings stylish INSTAX mini 7S instant camera to US”. Fujifilmusa.com. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[13] “Fujifilm brings FP-100B 4X5 black and white instant film to US market”. Fujifilmusa.com. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[14] " B&W FP-3000B 45 SUPER SPEEDY ". Fujifilm. 29 September 2011. Retrieved 18 January 2017.

[15] https://www.fujifilm.eu/uk/news/article/news/-announces-fp-3000b-discontinuation

[16] "FP-100C". Fujifilm. 29 February 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2017. 10.3. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 141

[17] http://www.fastcompany.com/3057289/the-last-film-for-millions-of-classic-polaroid-cameras-is-about-to-go-away

[18] Williams, Sarah (14 November 2014). “The Discontinuation of Fuji 3000b Instant Film by Fujifilm”. Fstoppers. Retrieved 18 January 2017.

[19] http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/polaroid-fans-new-film-old-cameras/?hp

[20] http://www.the-impossible-project.com/ The Impossible Project Website – Company claiming to have bought Polaroid factory

[21] “New55 FILM”. New55project.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[22] “Product information bulletin - Fuji Instant Color FIlm New FP-100C / FP-100C SILK” (PDF). Retrieved 2016-01-01.

[23] “Data sheet - Fujifilm Instant Color Film instax mini” (PDF). Retrieved 2016-01-01.

10.2.6 External links

• US patent 2543181, Edwin H. Land, “Photographic product comprising a rupturable container carrying a photographic process”, issued 1951-02-27 • Information about Polaroid Pack film • Non-Polaroid Instant Film, a summary of other instant film camera makers • Music Video Shot Entirely on Polaroid Spectra Film • A web gallery of instant photographers • Polaroid-Art SX-70 Polaroid Art Gallery. • Available Polaroid Film Integral, 4 × 5, 8 × 10, packfilm, cameras and accessories.

10.3 List of photographic films

10.3.1 ADOX

The ADOX name traces back to the oldest photographic film manufacturer in the world, started in 1860 in Germany.[1] ADOX CHS films are still made according to the recipes from the 1950s and are coated slowly on a historic dip and dunk machine, which limits production to only 10,000 films at a time. “ADOX CMS 20 is the highest resolving film in the world and can capture up to 800 l/mm in technical photography. Together with ADOTECH developer it achieves a full tonal separation and up to 300 l/mm, which still exceeds the resolution of all available lenses (except for scientific and NASA-space lenses).”[2]

Black and White Films

• ADOX CMS 20 II (In Production) The world’s highest resolving film with a resolving power of up to 800 l/mm. • ADOX CHS 100 II (In Production) A classically sensitised medium speed emulsion that can be processed as a positive. • ADOX SilverMax (In Production) A traditional high-silver-content 100 ISO emulsion. • ADOX SCALA (In Production) A black and white negative film, designed to be processed as a positive. An alternative to the now-discontinued AGFA SCALA, from which it gets its name.

Colour Films

• ADOX Color Implosion (Unsure if Actively In Production) An “experimental” film, designed to intentionally give you unpredictable results with skewed colours. 142 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Various films in their boxes

10.3.2 AGFA / AGFAPHOTO

Headquarters in Mortsel, Belgium. A spin-off company, AgfaPhoto, went bankrupt in 2005. The mother company, however, continues to produce films for aerial photography and these films are nowadays repackaged for consumer use by Rollei and Lomography. AgfaPhoto films were made by Ferrania.

Black and White Film

• Agfapan AP 100 (Discontinued)

• Agfapan AP 400 (Discontinued)

• Agfapan APX 25 (Discontinued)

• AGFA APX 100 Original emulsion was discontinued with the collapse of AGFA, but AGFAPhoto continued to sell this film from cold-stored master rolls. These master rolls are now exhausted and a new emulsion made by ILFORD/HARMAN is now sold under this name. ADOX claims that their ADOX SCALA film is a modified version of the original APX 100 with slightly higher silver content.[3]

• AGFA APX 400 Original emulsion was discontinued with the collapse of AGFA, but AGFAPhoto continued to sell this film from cold-stored master rolls. These master rolls are now exhausted and a new emulsion made by ILFORD/HARMAN is now sold under this name.

• ISOPAN ISS (Super Special) (Discontinued)

• ISOPAN F (Discontinued) Portrait film.

• ISOPAN Ultra (discontinued) 10.3. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 143

• ISOPAN Super Special (Discontinued)

• ISOPAN Fine Grain (Discontinued)

• ISOPAN Record (Discontinued)

• AGFA Vario-XL (Discontinued) Chromogenic Black & White Film that can be developed in C-41 Colour Chemistry.

• Dia-Direct (Discontinued) Reversal film with speeds of ISO 12 & ISO 32.

• AGFA SCALA (Discontinued) Reversal film, and Dia-Direct replacement with ISO 200 speed. Some residual stock available, or new alternatives manufactured by ADOX (ADOX SCALA) or FOMA (FOMAPAN R100). Processing as a slide available through DR5 (USA)

Colour Reversal (Slide) films

• AGFAColor Neue (Discontinued)

• AGFA CT18 (Discontinued)

• AGFAChrome 50 S / 50 L (Discontinued)

• AGFA RSX 50 (Discontinued)

• AGFA RSX 100 (Discontinued)

• AGFA RSX 200 (In Production) Although discontinued under its own name, Agfa Gevaert continue to man- ufacture this film, branded as Rollei CR 200, or Lomography X-Pro 200.

• AGFA Precisa CT 100 (In Production) Original emulsion discontinued, but now manufactured by Fuji in Japan as re-branded 100F.

Colour negative films

• AGFAColor Negative (Discontinued)

• AGFAColor CN17 (Discontinued)

• AGFA CNS (Discontinued)

• AGFAColor Pocket Special (Discontinued)

• AGFA Optima (Discontinued)

• AGFA Portrait (Discontinued)

• AGFA Ultra (Discontinued)

• AGFA Vista 100 (Discontinued)

• AGFA Vista 200 (In Production) Original emulsion discontinued, but a new emulsion made by FujiFilm in Japan (assumed to be Superia 200) now sold under this name.

• AGFA Vista 400 (In Production) Original emulsion discontinued, but a new emulsion made by FujiFilm in Japan (assumed to be Superia 400) now sold under this name.

10.3.3 Film Washi

Factory in Saint-Nazaire, France. Launched in 2013, producing a handcrafted film, handcoated on traditional Washi paper. Also converting other films industrially coated in larger factories and originally made for technical,motion pictures, industrial or aerial applications. Film sales through http://filmwashi.com 144 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Black and white negative films

• “W” - 25 iso (120, 4x5”, 5x7”, 8x10”, 18x24 cm) -> handcoated on Japanese paper

• “Z” - 400 iso (35mm) -> near infrared sensitivity, originally produced for aerial photography

• “D” - 500 iso (35mm)-> originally produced for aerial photography

• “S” - 50 iso (35mm) -> originally produced for motion picture sound recording

• “A” - 12 iso (35mm) -> originally produced as motion picture leader film

Color negative films

• “X” - 400 iso (35mm), C-41 without mask, can be processed in E-6

10.3.4 FOMA

FOMA BOHEMIA spol. s.r.o., with factory located in Hradec Králové, Czech Republic, remains one of the last traditional producers of panchromatic B&W (black and white) photo materials since 1921. Films branded as Arista EDU also come from this source.

Black and White Films

• FOMAPAN 100 “Classic” (In Production)[4]

• FOMAPAN 200 “Creative” (In Production)[4]

• RETROPAN 320 “Soft” (In Production)[4]

• FOMAPAN 400 “Action” (In Production)[4]

Black and white reversal

• FOMAPAN R 100 (In Production) B&W reversal film, intended for B&W motion picture movie making (Cine film), unsuitable for negative development.[4] Processing available through DR5 (USA) or Photo Studio 13 (DE) or using Foma Direct Reversal Kit.

10.3.5 Fujifilm

Fujifilm photographic films [5] [6]

Black and white films

• FUJIFILM Neopan ACROS 100 (In Production)

• FUJIFILM Neopan 100 SS (Discontinued)

• FUJIFILM Neopan 400 Presto (Discontinued)

• FUJIFILM Neopan 1600 Super Presto (Discontinued) 10.3. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 145

Color reversal (slide) films

• FujiChrome (Discontinued) • FujiChrome Velvia 50 (In Production) Replacement for the original Velvia. • FujiChrome Velvia 100 (In Production) Offered as a replacement to the original Velvia before Velvia 50 was introduced. • FujiChrome Velvia 100F (Discontinued) • FujiChrome Provia 100F (In Production) • FujiChrome Provia 400X (Discontinued) • FujiChrome Astia 100F (Discontinued) A portrait/fashion oriented slide film with soft tones and lower con- trast. • FujiChrome 64T (Discontinued) Tungsten-balanced slide film. • FujiChrome Fortia 50 (Discontinued) A Japan-only film released for the cherry blossom season, possibly a variant of Velvia 50. • FujiChrome Sensia 100 (Discontinued) Consumer-grade 100 ISO slide film. • FujiChrome Sensia 200 (Discontinued) • FujiChrome Sensia 400 (Discontinued) • FujiChrome MS 100/1000 (Discontinued) Variable ISO Slide Film.

Color negative films

Pro 160S

• Type: Color negative • Speed: ISO 160/23° • Available formats: 35 mm, 120, 220, 4x5”, 8x10”, 9x12cm, 13x18cm • Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 3 • Latitude: • Color saturation: • Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 63 line/mm • History: Replaced NPS160 • Primary usage: Portraits • General characteristics:

Pro 160C

• Type: Color negative • Speed: ISO 160/23° • Available formats: 35 mm, 120, 220, 4x5” • Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 3 • Latitude: 146 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

• Color saturation: Enhanced

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 63 line/mm

• History: Replaced NPC160

• Primary usage: Portraits, fashion, architecture, interior.

• General characteristics:

NPL 160

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 160/23°

• Available formats: 120, 4x5”, 8x10”

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 4

• Latitude:

• Color saturation:

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 63 line/mm

• History:

• Primary usage: Studio portraits, copying.

• General characteristics: For tungsten lighting.

Pro 400H

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 400/27°

• Available formats: 35mm, 120, 220

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 4

• Latitude: Wide.

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 50 line/mm

• History: Used to be called NPH400

• Primary usage: Weddings, portraits, fashion.

• General characteristics: 4th Color layer.

Pro 800Z

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 800/30°

• Available formats: 35mm, 120, 220

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 5

• Latitude: Wide. 10.3. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 147

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 115 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 50 line/mm

• History: Used to be called NPZ800

• Primary usage: Weddings, portraits, fashion.

• General characteristics:

Superia Reala

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 100/21°

• Available formats: 35mm, 120

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 4

• Latitude: Wide.

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 63 line/mm

• History:

• Primary usage: Weddings, portraits, fashion.

• General characteristics: 4th Color layer, fine grain.

Superia 100

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 100/21°

• Available formats: 35mm, 120

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 4

• Latitude: Wide.

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 63 line/mm

• History:

• Primary usage: General.

• General characteristics: 4th Color layer.

Superia 200

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 200/24°

• Available formats: 35mm, 110

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 4

• Latitude: Wide. 148 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 50 line/mm

• History:

• Primary usage: General.

• General characteristics: 4th Color layer.

Superia X-tra 400

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 400/27°

• Available formats: 35mm

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 4

• Latitude: Wide.

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 50 line/mm

• History:

• Primary usage: General.

• General characteristics: 4th Color layer.

True definition 400

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 400/27°

• Available formats: 35mm

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 5

• Latitude: Wide.

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 50 line/mm

• History:

• Primary usage: General.

• General characteristics: 4th Color layer, fine grain.

Superia X-tra 800

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 800/30°

• Available formats: 35mm

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 5

• Latitude: Wide. 10.3. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 149

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 50 line/mm

• History:

• Primary usage: General.

• General characteristics: 4th Color layer.

Superia 1600

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 1600/33°

• Available formats: 35mm

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 7

• Latitude: Wide.

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 50 line/mm

• History:

• Primary usage: General.

• General characteristics: 4th Color layer.

Press 400

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 400/27°

• Available formats: 35mm

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 4

• Latitude: Wide.

• Color saturation: Natural.

• Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 50 line/mm

• History:

• Primary usage: General.

• General characteristics: 4th Color layer.

Press 800

• Type: Color negative

• Speed: ISO 800/30°

• Available formats: 35mm, 110

• Granularity: (x 1000): RMS 5

• Latitude: Wide. 150 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

• Color saturation: Natural. • Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 125 line/mm, contrast 1.6:1 50 line/mm • History: • Primary usage: General. • General characteristics: 4th Color layer.

10.3.6 Ilford

[7]

Delta 100

• Type: Black and White • Speed: ISO 100, DIN 21 • Available formats: 35 mm, 120, • Granularity: Extremely Fine • Resolving power: High • History: 100 speed version of Delta released in 1992 • Primary usage: General black-and-white photography • General characteristics: Extreme contrast, fine-grain, fairly wide latitude

Delta 400

• Type: Black and White • Speed: ISO 400, DIN 27 • Available formats: 35 mm, 120 • Granularity: Fine • Latitude: EI 200/24 to EI 3200/36 • Resolving power: • History: The Delta films are Ilford’s answer to Kodak’s T-grained films (T-Max). Unveiled in 1990, it uses Ilford’s core-shell crystal technology. The current version was released in 2001. • Primary usage: All-purpose black-and-white film • General characteristics: Relatively fine grain and high contrast, good speed

Delta 3200

• Type: Black and White • Speed: ISO 1000/DIN 31 • Available formats: 35 mm, 120 • Granularity: • Latitude: EI 1600/33 to EI 6400/39, up to EI 25000/45 with push processing 10.3. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 151

• Resolving power:

• History: Available since 1998 as a competitor to Kodak’s T-Max 3200. Unlike Kodak’s emulsion, it is available in 120 format.

• Primary usage: Low light and extreme low light depending on what speed it is exposed and developed at.

XP2 Super

• Type: Black and White (Chromogenic Dye)

• Speed: ISO 400/DIN 27

• Available formats: 35 mm, 120

• Latitude: EI 50/18 to EI 800/30

• History: Replaced XP2 Plus, Ilford decided not to call it XP3

• Primary usage: A medium speed, C41 (One hour photo) process film.

Ortho Plus

• Type: Black and White Orthochromatic Copy Film

• Speed: ISO 80/DIN 20 in Daylight, ISO 40/DIN 17 in Tungsten

• Available formats: sheet only

• Primary usage: Copy work, B&W duplicating, alternative processes, creative portraiture.

• General characteristics: Orthochromatic, thus subjects that reflect red light show little density on the negative. Very fine grain and high resolving power. Highest contrast and Dmax of all Ilford films.

Pan F Plus

• Type: Black and White (Silver, Panchromatic)

• Speed: ISO 50/DIN 18

• Available formats: 35 mm, 120

• Granularity: Very Fine

• Latitude: EI 25/15 to EI 50/18

• Resolving power:

• History: Available since 1992

• Primary usage: Portraiture, Landscape, Still life.

• General characteristics: Very fine grain and high resolving power. High contrast and Dmax. 152 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

FP4 Plus

• Type: Black and White

• Speed: ISO 125, DIN 22

• Available formats: 35 mm, 120, Sheet Film

• Granularity: Very Fine

• Latitude: EI 50/18 to EI 200/24

• Resolving power:

• History:

• Primary usage: General Black and White Photography,

• General characteristics: Very fine grain, Medium-high Contrast

HP5 Plus

• Type: Black and White

• Speed: ISO 400, DIN 27

• Available formats: 35 mm, 120, Sheet Film

• Granularity:

• Latitude: EI 400/27 to EI 3200/36

• Resolving power:

• History:

• Primary usage: Photojournalism, amateur, students.

• General characteristics: medium to fine grain, depending on developer and format used; medium contrast

SFX 200

• Type: Black and White with Extended Red Sensitivity

• Speed: ISO 200, DIN 24

• Available formats: 35 mm, 120

• Granularity: Medium-Coarse

• Latitude:

• Resolving power:

• History:

• Primary usage:

• General characteristics: medium grain, sensitive to IR up to about 750 nm 10.3. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 153

Pan 100

• Type: Black and White • Speed: ISO 100, DIN 21 • Available formats: 35 mm, 120 • Granularity: • Latitude: EI 50/18 to EI 200/24 • Resolving power: • History: • Primary usage: • General characteristics:

Pan 400

• Type: Black and White • Speed: ISO 400, DIN 27 • Available formats: 35 mm, 120 • Granularity: • Latitude: EI 200/24 to EI 3200/36 • Resolving power: • History: • Primary usage: • General characteristics:

10.3.7 Kodak

[8][9]

Black-and-white films

• Plus-X (discontinued) • Panatomic-X • T-MAX • Ektagraphic High Contrast Slide (HCS) orthochromatic negative film for making reverse-text title slides etc. • Fine Grain Release Positive, blue-sensitive negative film specially for motion film duplication • Rapid Process Copy (RPC) ultra-slow duplicating film with a blue-tinted base (similar product: see Rollei RSD) • BW400CN (chromogenic film for the C-41 process, discontinued 2014-08-14) • Tri-X • Speed: ISO 400 (TX) / 320 (TXP) • Available formats: 35 mm (TX) and 120 (TX); Sheet Film (TXP, different emulsion with ISO 320 speed !) • History: introduced in 1954 • Primary usage: Photojournalism 154 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Color negatives

• Kodak Gold • Kodak Ultramax 400 • Kodak 100 • Portra 160/400/800

Color slides

• Ektachrome E100G • Ektachrome E100VS

10.3.8 Maco

Headquarters in Stapelfeld, Germany. Film sales through www.macodirect.de

ORT

• Type: Black and White (orthochromatic) • Speed: ISO 25, DIN 15° • Available formats: 35 mm, 120, Sheet Film • Granularity: Extremely Fine • Resolving power: Extremely High (>330lp/mm) • History: evolution of Agfa Ort25c, same emulsion as MACO EM miocrography film, evolved later in ORTO25 • Primary usage: Reprography, Micrography, specialty black-and-white photography • General characteristics: • Discontinued

[10]

10.3.9 Rollei

B&W films

R3

• Speed: ISO 200, DIN 24° (can be used from ISO25 to ISO6400) • Available formats: 35 mm, 120, Sheet Film • Granularity: Fine • Resolving power: High • History: launched in 2004 • Primary usage: General black-and-white photography • General characteristics: Fairly wide latitude, PET base for better film flatness, extended spectral sensitivity from IR to near-UV, to be stored in special black cartridges • Discontinued

[11] 10.3. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 155

IR

• Nominal speed EI 400 • Pseudo-IR, i.e. red sensitive having only moderate IR effect • Same emulsion as Retro 400S

RPX 100/400

• same emulsion as Kentmere 100/400

ATO (Advanced Technical Ortho)

• same emulsion as Maco Genius Film • clear base • suitable for reversal process

ATP1.1 (Advanced Technical Pan)

• may be used as Kodak Technical Pan replacement • extended red sensitivity • clear base • suitable for reversal process

Resolving power: contrast 1000:1 900 Lp/mm (1600 lines/mm), 300 Lp/mm at a contrast of 1,6:1. [12] [13] [14]

Retro Tonal

• same emulsion as Maco PO100C • an orthopanchromatic (“RectePan”) film • clear base • suitable for reversal process

Retro 80S

• extended red sensitivity • clear base • suitable for reversal process

SuperPan

• same emulsion as Agfa Aviphot Pan • ISO 200 • extended red sensitivity • clear base • suitable for reversal process 156 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Rollei Pan

• ISO 25

• clear base, well suited for B&W slides

Rollei Ortho

• orthochromatic film with a clear base

• spectral sensitivity 380 - 610 nm

• resolving power of 330 lines/mm (with a fine-grain developer)

• especially suited for digital scanning

RSD

• same emulsion as Agfa Copex Slide Direct

• a pre-fogged orthochromatic film specially for negative or slide duplication

• exposure index (EI) in daylight around 0.2 (thus it has a DIN value of −6 !) = about EI 6 + 5 f stops (not many cameras will handle this correctly)

• after a massive exposure will produce a positive in traditional B&W process, i.e. is NOT run through a reversal process; see also solarisation

• contrast adjustment using different developers, i.e. lower contrast: for ex. Rodinal/Adonal (1:25 about 10 mins., 1:50 about 20 mins.) or higher contrast: any paper developer 1+4 about 5 mins.

Color negatives

DigiBase CN200

• without a mask, very well suited for scanning

• subdued colors and unusual effects in reversal process (E-6)

ScanFilm

• same emulsion as Agfa Aviphot Color X400

• without a mask, very well suited for scanning

Color slides

DigiBase CR200

• same emulsion as Agfa RSX200

CrossBird

• normal results in E-6 reversal process

• specially designed for cross-processing in C-41 10.3. LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS 157

10.3.10 Gigabit

Gigabit Film

• Type: Black and White • Speed: ISO 40, DIN 17° • Available formats: 35 mm • Granularity: Extremely Fine • Resolving power: Extremely High • History: said to be Agfa Copex micrography film, sold with special low-contrast developer to increase dynamic range • Primary usage: General black-and-white photography, with scanning in mind • General characteristics: PET base for better film flatness, strong contrast and low exposure tolerance, fine grain not much subject to grain aliasing in usual resolution scans

[15]

10.3.11 Efke (Fotokemia)

Factory in Samobor (near Zagreb), Croatia. Closed since 2012. Products sold by Fotoimpex (Berlin, Germany) under the name ADOX. Manufactured B&W papers and for example, the following B&W films:

• KB/R/PL 25/50/100 in 135, 120 and sheet formats • IR820, a true infrared film

10.3.12 See also

• List of discontinued photographic films

10.3.13 References

[1] http://www.adox.de/english/ADOX_History/About_ADOX.html [2] http://www.adox.de/english/ADOX_Films/ADOX_Films.html [3] http://www.adox.de/Photo/adox-scala/ [4] “FOMA panchromatic Black & White film”. Retrieved 2017-01-24. [5] “Fujifilm consumer film line-up”. Archived from the original on 2007-03-25. Retrieved 2007-04-14. [6] “Fujifilm professional film line-up”. Archived from the original on 2007-01-17. Retrieved 2007-04-14. [7] “Ilford consumer and professional films”. Retrieved 2007-04-14. [8] “Kodak consumer film”. Retrieved 2007-04-14. [9] “Kodak professional products”. Retrieved 2007-04-14. [10] "Product sheet of EM film" [11] "Product sheet" [12] "Technical Data Sheet" [13] "ATP DC Developer MSDS" [14] "" [15] "Product sheet" 158 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

10.3.14 External links

• Some facts and opinions about modern slow-speed high-resolution B&W films Chapter 11

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text

• Color photography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_photography?oldid=758111975 Contributors: The Anome, Stib, Rob Hooft, Stone, Dfeuer, Doradus, Furrykef, Ed g2s, Warofdreams, Spinster, Wereon, Mdrejhon, Pengo, Alerante, Captain Rotundo, Avsa, Solipsist, Utcursch, MisfitToys, DragonflySixtyseven, O'Dea, Discospinster, Smyth, Paul August, Art LaPella, La goutte de pluie, Polylerus, Krellis, Pharos, Hooperbloob, A2Kafir, Linuxlad, Hoary, Benson85, Benhutchings, Ghirlandajo, Axeman89, Yurivict, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Scriberius, Jacobolus, Pol098, MONGO, Drbogdan, Nightscream, Cambridgeincolour, Darguz Parsilvan, Avalyn, MacRus- gail, RexNL, Nimur, Pinkville, Valermos, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RobotE, RussBot, GLaDOS, Groogle, Gaius Cornelius, Nawlin- Wiki, Leutha, Janke, StephenWeber, Jpbowen, ColinFine, Kkmurray, Salmanazar, SMcCandlish, Lynbarn, Petri Krohn, Ajuk, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Blue520, Srnec, Jim Casper, Gilliam, Betacommand, Andy M. Wang, Durova, Chris the speller, Wuffyz, VMS Mosaic, HeteroZellous, Bowlhover, Rbean, Derek R Bullamore, John, J 1982, LACameraman, Dicklyon, Twas Now, RekishiEJ, Chris55, Falzōn, Syrenab, DeLarge, Myasuda, Gogo Dodo, Srajan01, Papuass, Thijs!bot, Qwyrxian, Sean William, Natalie Erin, Stybn, AntiVandalBot, Tjmayerinsf, Scepia, JAnDbot, Macnas, The Transhumanist, Coachfortner, Mclay1, AMK1211, Mnemonides, Energman, Jonadark, Gphoto, Stephenchou0722, Ariel., Ravichandar84, CFCF, Dispenser, Vega Nexos, MKoltnow, Matt K, TheMindsEye, Ann Stouter, Dp128, Lil shortiy, Bemba, Ricardo Cancho Niemietz, Meecoy, Pjoef, SieBot, LIS632 JTLe, Hertz1888, Nuttycoconut, Samatarou, Diego Grez-Cañete, Denisarona, Russell.harrison, Martarius, ClueBot, Arunsingh16, Hollymorganelli, 1ForTheMoney, Elidod44, Kruusamägi, Camboxer, Kassorlae, Addbot, David elliott lewis, Da5nsy, Proxima Centauri, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, CityFeedback, Capricorn42, Ita140188, HighFlyingFish, John Elson, TobeBot, DixonDBot, Reaper Eternal, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, Lopifalko, Bublemonkey3, John of Reading, Thejazzodysseys, Tommy2010, 1Matt20, Clements80, AVarchae- ologist, Donner60, Moseyman, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Smokeyfire, Rezabot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Roberticus, Elcrixan, Newsoas, MusikAnimal, Snow Blizzard, Jonahman10, Fox2k11, Rglaspy, Lane2626, CensoredScribe, Mheineke77, John Dowsett, Horse- less Headman, Melvyn the psychopathic aardvark, GeorginaMat, Tolstoyan at Heart, Cari Lliwen, Basilisca, Maria Kappatou, Bender the Bot, GaryGill and Anonymous: 177 • Photographic film Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film?oldid=760158535 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Robert Merkel, Eclecticology, Heron, Topory, Ericd, Patrick, Infrogmation, Bbtommy, Tregoweth, Egil, Ronz, Spinster, Kinohead, Robbot, Drewnicki, Davodd, Neckro, ShutterBugTrekker, DocWatson42, Bobblewik, Ehusman, Lightst, Antandrus, Dan aka jack, Girolamo Savonarola, Yossarian, Sam Hocevar, Sleepygreen~enwiki, Ukexpat, Unimaxium, Mormegil, Zowie, Imroy, ArnoldReinhold, Roybb95~enwiki, STHayden, CanisRufus, Mr. Billion, Kodama, Cmdrjameson, Hooperbloob, Linuxlad, Ranveig, Shirimasen, Rd232, Melaen, Sciurinæ, Pol098, Grika, GregorB, Isnow, Graham87, David Levy, FreplySpang, CFynn, Freedomlives, Rjwilmsi, Swirsky, SeanMack, Bubba73, The wub, FlaBot, GünniX, Srleffler, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Gaius Cornelius, EngineerScotty, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Camerafiend, Rwalker, Nlu, CharlesHBennett, Fourohfour, David Biddulph, Sbyrnes321, Samwilson, DocendoDiscimus, Cafe Nervosa, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Fantasizer, Unyoyega, Gilliam, Iamthebob, Chris the speller, Dlohcierekim’s sock, MaxSem, VMS Mosaic, Mosca, Miken2005, Smokefoot, SteveHopson, Kleuske, Knuckles sonic8, Zeamays, John, Boomshadow, SQGibbon, Mr Stephen, Dicklyon, Tombright, Levineps, JStewart, N0TABENE, Internedko, CmdrObot, ShelfSkewed, Mblumber, UncleBubba, Kozuch, Thijs!bot, Lu- minifer, Bknabel, Deepblue79, CharlotteWebb, SNx, Niduzzi, Ben pcc, JAnDbot, Husond, BillGordon, NapoliRoma, Doc in bc, Quen- tar~enwiki, 100110100, PhilKnight, FJM, VoABot II, Twisted86, Ed woodroffe, Theroadislong, David Eppstein, Oicumayberight, Schm- loof, Auiow, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Plankton5005, Rod57, Tarotcards, KylieTastic, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, TheMindsEye, Kim Pirat, Andy Dingley, Doc James, Martyvis, Atif.t2, ClueBot, Binksternet, Heckledpie, Mikomaid, XLinkBot, 13 of Diamonds, SilvonenBot, Ngaij03, Addbot, MrOllie, CUSENZA Mario, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Naudefjbot~enwiki, Pillhall, AnomieBOT, Bob Burkhardt, Xqbot, Ammubhave, Mononomic, NobelBot, Eugene-elgato, FrescoBot, Nightsturm, MichaelXX2, Pinethicket, Red- Bot, Bentbikr, Pristino, Ticklewickleukulele, Gcampton, Andrewpfrost, Mean as custard, Lopifalko, Angrytoast, Altschwede, PBS- AWB, AVarchaeologist, Stroumphette, The Fourth Dimension, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Cntras, Xenophonix, KLBot2, BG19bot, B&WAuthority, BattyBot, Nicrorus, Fraulein451, Dexbot, Menesin, Ferdinando Castaldo, My name is not dave, Sam Sailor, Jeffmissinne, Alienmeatsack, Herpaderp23, Avian appreciator, Monkbot, CiroFlexo, Tue45009, GeorginaMat, Anon2234, Kruissselbrinkisapimp, Prideofwarrior, KasparBot, CabbagePotato, Dilone61, Leo 6869, Barry Eagel, Srednuas Lenoroc, Xo-whiplock, Davedumbell, DatGuy, DaLegoMaster355 and Anonymous: 183 • Film speed Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_speed?oldid=763529124 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Leandrod, Edward, Doug Pardee, Julesd, Victor Engel, Maximus Rex, Omegatron, Ed g2s, Morven, Robbot, Hankwang, Warling, RedWolf, Guy Peters, Cut- ler, David Gerard, ShutterBugTrekker, Alexwcovington, Reub2000, Ciantic, Danio, Ehusman, Plutor, Lightst, Beland, MarkSweep,

159 160 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Girolamo Savonarola, Askewchan, Abdull, Moxfyre, Imroy, Rich Farmbrough, Smyth, AlanBarrett, Bender235, Protohiro, Makomk, Hooperbloob, Jumbuck, Andrewpmk, Hoary, Isaac, BRW, Skatebiker, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Mindmatrix, Bellhalla, Jyavner, Pol098, Gisling, David Levy, Coneslayer, Rjwilmsi, Rogerd, SMC, Bubba73, The wub, Mahlum~enwiki, Lmatt, Fsguitarist, Tysto, Sr- leffler, Kri, Aspro, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Borgx, Peter G Werner, Groogle, Chensiyuan, Pseudomonas, Mesolimbo, Panscient, Shotgunlee, Gadget850, Kgyt, Petri Krohn, Fourohfour, SmackBot, FishSpeaker, InverseHypercube, JulianL, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Projectbluebird, Bowlhover, Jowston, John, ML5, KengRu, LACameraman, Dicklyon, Storm2005, MIckStephenson, Jerry-va, Vanisaac, Hertzsprung, Cydebot, Asknine, Boardhead, JohnClarknew, Epbr123, Ab aditya, Adam2288, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, JAnDbot, Jef- fConrad, JNW, Magica48, UnaLaguna, HuttyMcphoo, PEBill, DukeTwicep, Railhk0512, Digitalslrguide, AirCombat, Gah4, MrBell, KylieTastic, VolkovBot, 4300streetcar, TheMindsEye, Fences and windows, Jepabst, Jonmaclaren, Wikidemon, Sintaku, Lamro, Oscil- lon, Pjoef, AlleborgoBot, Flyer22 Reborn, Lightmouse, Rooh23, Goldmund100, Curtdbz, Twinsday, Martarius, ClueBot, HaarFager, CounterVandalismBot, Trivialist, Richardigrub, DragonBot, Alexbot, The Founders Intent, KenDenier, Lionelpcn, Bjdehut, Downtown- gal, XLinkBot, Rror, Mitch Ames, Addbot, Fgnievinski, Baffle gab1978, 84user, Zorrobot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Nallimbot, AnomieBOT, Redbobblehat, Henriqueqc, Mahmudmasri, Xqbot, DrRevXyzzy, AbigailAbernathy, Ubcule, Nasa- verve, SCΛRECROW, Catpowerzzz, FrescoBot, Mykolanovik, Bobbybob010, Suffusion of Yellow, RjwilmsiBot, Lopifalko, EmausBot, John of Reading, ISOGuru, NotAnonymous0, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Robbee2010, Gsarwa, Edgar.bonet, Kensenjiha, ClueBot NG, Matthias- paul, Smokeyfire, Snotbot, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Runner1616, Reimannk, GRPH3B18, Marshal247, Graphium, Gsleaf, Monkbot, Hosam95551, BlueFenixReborn, BD2412bot, OrganicEarth, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 161 • Film stock Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_stock?oldid=736737974 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Koyaanis Qatsi, Dragon Dave, Aldie, Enchanter, Modemac, Edward, Cyde, BigFatBuddha, CarlKenner, Lee M, Dpbsmith, Jerzy, Friedo, RickDikeman, Walloon, Bobblewik, Salasks, Mako098765, Girolamo Savonarola, Imroy, Noisy, Rich Farmbrough, Qutezuce, Phlake, Giraffedata, Kylehamilton, Philip Cross, Wahiba, Melaen, Danhash, Bsadowski1, Axeman89, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, RHaworth, Pol098, Misternuvistor, Yurik- Bot, Pip2andahalf, Gaius Cornelius, Aaron Schulz, Gadget850, Thephotoplayer, SmackBot, Gilliam, Iriavp, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris, VMS Mosaic, Addshore, Mosca, Chris 42, Peter Horn, Peyre, Kvng, OnBeyondZebrax, Tawkerbot2, Polzer, Cydebot, Khatru2, Guy Macon, Dano312, Mack2, Rjbox, JBdV, Oicumayberight, Rod57, Shawn in Montreal, Squids and Chips, CardinalDan, Funandtrvl, Rdfr, Oshwah, Helpper, Chimpex, Shouriki, Telecineguy, Jhawkinson, Pjoef, Cinjun, MuzikJunky, DancingPhilosopher, Seaniedan, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, Binksternet, Deanlaw, Enthusiast01, Trivialist, Fgnievinski, Jorell123, CarsracBot, Favonian, Baffle gab1978, Tassedethe, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pkravchenko, MGA73, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, MichaelXX2, Beao, MrX, Eirik1231, PS., IGeMiNix, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Bped1985, JordoCo, Dream199, AvocatoBot, 23W, Brookch16, B&WAuthority, Khazar2, SPECIFICO, NickCochrane, No1inparticularhere, GeorginaMat, Goalbox, Benedict Muhammad Obama, CinemaFiend, Lars Prestegarde and Anonymous: 68 • Zone System Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_System?oldid=761038545 Contributors: William Avery, Michael Hardy, Do- radus, Grendelkhan, Sander123, Chris1122~enwiki, Vfp15, Jfpierce, Poccil, Imroy, YUL89YYZ, Duk, NathanHawking, Tms, Hooperbloob, Chrisjohnson, Mindmatrix, Pol098, Bhound89, GregorB, Fi9, Madness~enwiki, Rogerd, Vegaswikian, The wub, GünniX, Srleffler, Tene- brae, Boneheadmx, Fourohfour, Queenvictoria, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Nbarth, Jeremyjgray, Racklever, TedE, SteveHopson, Lambiam, Ssolomon, Eyesclosed, Dicklyon, Hkiahsebag, Onceuponastar, Lucassd, Thijs!bot, Robsinden, Mactographer, Chris8535, JeffConrad, Animum, Targa86~enwiki, Discpad, Yuzerid, STBotD, Bonadea, RJASE1, VolkovBot, Kyle the bot, Fences and windows, Someguy1221, BwDraco, Flash19901, Exposeitright, Sweetlew72, Dziadeck, Hertz1888, Soler97, Binksternet, Manamarak, Wolfmofo2754, Eeekster, Innov8or, DumZiBoT, Snowmonster, Addbot, Shirtwaist, Matěj Grabovský, Yobot, ArthurBot, GrouchoBot, Ventrilqstman, FrescoBot, Cullen328, Dstrehl, Kiwikiwiki, Lopifalko, Christoph Braun, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Springbk, Hirumon, Jcasey130, Lik-photo, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Chevreul, Jacopo188, Ueutyi, American In Brazil, DavidLeighEllis, Monkbot, Aertex, Atlas1972, Kingkangkonglong, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 70 • Negative (photography) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_(photography)?oldid=753472141 Contributors: Topory, El- lywa, Robbot, Hoot, Leonard G., Mako098765, Imroy, Nrbelex, Jeffmedkeff, Philip Cross, RJFJR, Recury, Japanese Searobin, Scriberius, Chochopk, Graham87, Bubba73, The wub, Mayosolo, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Srleffler, Bgwhite, CarlosHoyos~enwiki, YurikBot, Huangcjz, Josh3580, Katieh5584, GrinBot~enwiki, NickyMcLean, Mdd4696, Chris the speller, George Ho, Vincenzo.romano, Beefyt, Levineps, Kevin Murray, Egpetersen, JAnDbot, Mahitgar, LiamUK, R'n'B, Numbo3, Idioma-bot, Iamogilvie, Midlandstoday, AlleborgoBot, Gav- inTing, Finnrind, SieBot, PlanetStar, Hello71, SimonTrew, Badstoat, Twinsday, ClueBot, EastTN, Addbot, AkhtaBot, Baffle gab1978, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Freshmaniac, LucienBOT, Nightsturm, RedBot, MastiBot, SpaceFlight89, AATTW, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, ZéroBot, Gershake, Unreal7, AVarchaeologist, Geneclark45, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, WikiPup- pies, Leedsrule, AntanO, BattyBot, Binasco, Lemnaminor, JazzyJay2121, Jianhui67, KasparBot, GreenC bot, Adotchar and Anonymous: 61 • Latent image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_image?oldid=745488036 Contributors: Dtaylor1984, PDH, Girolamo Savonarola, Rellis1067, Imroy, Hooperbloob, Linuxlad, Cipherswarm, Vegaswikian, The wub, Pinkville, Srleffler, Karl Andrews, Chris the speller, Qmwne235, Neelix, Calvero JP, DmitTrix, JAnDbot, Plantsurfer, Katalaveno, Cadwaladr, VolkovBot, Jjordahl, Ssri1983, Lamro, Pho- totech21, Addbot, AkhtaBot, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, AVarchaeologist, ClueBot NG, Runner1616, Arne Saknussemm jr, Guilherme F. Franco and Anonymous: 20 • Fogging (photography) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fogging_(photography)?oldid=733072870 Contributors: BenFrantzDale, Velella, The wub, Srleffler, Snailwalker, SmackBot, Bluebot, Felix116, Lamro, Pjoef, Phototech21, Ryleth777, Addbot, Element16, ArthurBot, Mattg82, Erik9bot, Kiteman6, Pianoplonkers, J36miles, Markiewp, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 5 • Film base Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_base?oldid=758118037 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Mark Foskey, Globe199, AlainV, Eriji, Girolamo Savonarola, Longhair, Cmacd123, Philip Cross, Sumergocognito, Aldiboronti, SmackBot, Radagast83, Cydebot, A876, Barticus88, The Transhumanist, SperryTS, Alan J Masson, Thaurisil, Funandtrvl, Lamro, Jhawkinson, Pjoef, AngelOfSadness, Clschwie, Addbot, Wayne Roberson, Austin, Texas, Peterh5322, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Kendall-K1, BattyBot, JS-Tactics and Anonymous: 7 • Photographic emulsion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_emulsion?oldid=763443915 Contributors: Jfbolus, Ar- mando, Pol098, BD2412, Bgwhite, Dforest, SmackBot, Jwy, Alaibot, Nick Number, Altamel, Plantsurfer, Idioma-bot, Rdfr, TheMind- sEye, Lamro, PeterBFZ, Phototech21, Addbot, Baffle gab1978, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Wayne Roberson, Austin, Texas, FrescoBot, BenzolBot, Ysyoon, Pikiwyn, Dwross, BG19bot, Lorettacone, Legoman 86, ASCKphoto, Karmanatory, Jakinia and Anonymous: 10 • Gelatin silver process Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process?oldid=746023996 Contributors: Rmhermen, Fredrik, Apalsola, Hooperbloob, Hoary, Wtshymanski, RJFJR, Rjwilmsi, Pinkville, YurikBot, Samuel Wiki, Joel7687, SmackBot, Jab843, Ya- maguchi, Durova, Chris the speller, Snori, N0TABENE, GWeaver, Thijs!bot, N5iln, Gah4, Lamro, The Thing That Should Not Be, 11.1. TEXT 161

Bigpawed, XLinkBot, Addbot, Morning277, Glane23, Baffle gab1978, Lightbot, Materialscientist, RevelationDirect, Defender of torch, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Scruffington, Will Sandberg, Raphaeli184, Ryubyss and Anonymous: 26 • Darkroom Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darkroom?oldid=752345961 Contributors: Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Jebba, Un- invitedCompany, DavidA, Astronautics~enwiki, Naddy, Clngre, Exploding Boy, Scragz, OverlordQ, Girolamo Savonarola, Iantresman, DMG413, Imroy, Travisd666, Cdheald, Longhair, PhotoKid, Jwink3101, Krenzo, Celzrro, Bart133, Stephan Leeds, Kenyon, Gra- ham87, Dvyost, Nightscream, Chiklit, Rune.welsh, Pinkville, Tommyt, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Ajuk, MrBucket, SmackBot, Elonka, Skeezix1000, Canthusus, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Three- afterthree, Amphytrite, Bayg, BrownHairedGirl, Dicklyon, Politepunk, Wiltors, RomualdR, Tortillovsky, Thijs!bot, Aureliano, Ado- rama, JAnDbot, Ph.eyes, Acroterion, VoABot II, MartinBot, STBot, Orange112, Justindshort, Jer10 95, FamicomJL, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Adyum, TheMindsEye, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Expertsleepers, Midlandstoday, SieBot, Greylotus, Zacatecnik, Renan S2, Mar- tarius, ClueBot, Traveler100, Rumping, Iner22, Ost316, Addbot, Neufara, M.nelson, MrOllie, Baffle gab1978, Lightbot, Andrevruas, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, P1ayer, Materialscientist, Jeffrey Mall, RibotBOT, Some standardized rigour, Tinton5, RedBot, IlPasseg- gero, Andrewpfrost, WikiTome, Lopifalko, WikitanvirBot, Tommy2010, ZéroBot, Druzhnik, Gray eyes, ClueBot NG, Widr, Jean-Pol GRANDMONT, Jacopo188, Nathan678, 93, Donfbreed2, NottNott, KH-1, Amjadhussen, Jmahoney1, Yabeshchandrasekar, Vossen01 and Anonymous: 81 • List of photographic processes Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photographic_processes?oldid=753815421 Contributors: Rmhermen, Maury Markowitz, Ericd, Wapcaplet, Pratyeka, Lancevortex, Spinster, Smombartz, Michael Snow, Leonard G., VampWil- low, MarkSweep, Girolamo Savonarola, PRiis, Rxke, Jnestorius, Hooperbloob, A2Kafir, Ashley Pomeroy, Clubmarx, Postrach, The Rumour, Mayosolo, Pinkville, Fosnez, Srleffler, Ahunt, YurikBot, Tearlach, SmackBot, Bbarger, Sadads, Gregoryptm, Lenoxus, Cm- drObot, ShelfSkewed, PKT, Thijs!bot, Mactographer, DmitTrix, Deepblue79, Stybn, JAnDbot, Uriel8, R'n'B, Gus fro, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Funandtrvl, Mercy, Doug, Jhawkinson, Myself248, Addbot, SamatBot, Lightbot, Yobot, Jc3s5h, M2545, DrWhatIKnow, Cramyourspam, Lotje, Androstachys, ClueBot NG, Alafarge, Ctanguay, Rubricate, Daviesboy1978, Zcarstvnz and Anonymous: 30 • Photochrom Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochrom?oldid=756776713 Contributors: Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Julesd, Twang, Premeditated Chaos, Xyzzyva, Varlaam, J. 'mach' wust, Brianhe, Bender235, Shanes, A2Kafir, Matthewcieplak, Alan- sohn, Ahruman, Dhartung, BLueFiSH.as, Kaushik twin, Ghirlandajo, Dennis Bratland, LoopZilla, Allen3, Bgwhite, Cleared as filed, Salmanazar, Katieh5584, Appleseed, SmackBot, Skizzik, Chris the speller, TheFeds, Hgrosser, Tohma, Bigturtle, Ceoil, Serein (renamed because of SUL), George The Dragon, Grandpafootsoldier, MIckStephenson, Trialsanderrors, Gveret Tered, Ntsimp, Thijs!bot, Iulius, Gusme, Postcard Cathy, MER-C, Xb2u7Zjzc32, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Wakeupgetdown, Scewing, Ludwig X, Eubulides, Root Beers, Lightmouse, Triberocker, Adam Cuerden, Veldin963, Maralia, Hordaland, Nothing444, ClueBot, Richerman, Zalery, Alexbot, Dopren- dek, El bot de la dieta, Corker1, EEng, Addbot, Blechnic, ProfessorXY, Yobot, Jan Arkesteijn, Citation bot, Xqbot, Brutaldeluxe, Douglas W. Jones, Zentralbibliothek Zürich, LucienBOT, RedBot, Horst-schlaemma, C.Luethi, Lotje, Essandro, Wildtimesphotography, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Leedsrule, Lugia2453, Junkyardsparkle, Fotodozo, Sfitztrw, Equinox, OrganicEarth, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 34 • Redscale Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redscale?oldid=760954564 Contributors: Jengod, Dmmaus, Speedeep, Imroy, Gothick, Redvers, Astronaut, Ragesoss, Ajuk, Sardanaphalus, Coredesat, Quibik, Peter coxhead, SirJello37, Dedmonds, Tallain, PlanetStar, Gnome de plume, XLinkBot, Addbot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Lordgriffith, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 16 • Reversal film Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversal_film?oldid=744392030 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Daniel C. Boyer, Michael Hardy, Choster, David Thrale, Peregrine981, Maximus Rex, UninvitedCompany, Seano1, Walloon, BenFrantzDale, Leonard G., Gracefool, Hawkhkg11, Chowbok, LiDaobing, HorsePunchKid, Girolamo Savonarola, Naff89, Asbestos, Imroy, NetBot, Hooperbloob, Jhd, Linuxlad, RJFJR, Angr, Tabletop, Hbdragon88, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, SchuminWeb, Margosbot~enwiki, Ewlyahoocom, YurikBot, RobotE, RussBot, Hellbus, Gaius Cornelius, Bovineone, Janke, CLW, AlecMoody, D'Agosta, Petri Krohn, Fourohfour, GrinBot~enwiki, Cmglee, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Stevage, VMS Mosaic, Duckbill, SteveHopson, Mion, Dogears, J 1982, Bilby, Bkd, Mets501, Storm2005, Hgrobe, IvanLanin, Marysunshine, Internedko, Novous, ShelfSkewed, Optimist on the run, Thijs!bot, Saruwine, Hbquik- comjamesl, JAnDbot, Cleversnail, Denimadept, Gaganratti, FJM, Alvian, Jorgebarrios, KTo288, Gah4, Discpad, Aleksandr Grigoryev, Mstuomel, Group29, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Berthold Werner, Motorrad-67, SieBot, Guddajee, Buonaparte69, Tiberiustibz, Eeekster, SchreiberBike, Japanscot, Addbot, Fgnievinski, Jncraton, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, Baffle gab1978, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pillhall, Ru- binbot, Chasitirichards, RadioBroadcast, Janixpacle, Appeltree1, MJJR, Geotopia, Skyerise, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, Panoman~enwiki, ZéroBot, Rockclaw1030, H3llBot, Photojack50, AVarchaeologist, Donner60, Andyrays, Frietjes, MerlIwBot, BG19bot, Runner1616, Jacopo188, Kotivalo, Fluffystar, Cyberbot II, Khazar2, 313 TUxedo, Hillbillyholiday, Hansmuller, Gnargnarnia, Filedelinkerbot, Kaspar- Bot, Tpdwkouaa, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 62 • E-6 process Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-6_process?oldid=759303085 Contributors: Ericd, Kku, UninvitedCompany, Leonard G., VampWillow, MarkSweep, Mike Rosoft, Imroy, Bobo192, Brim, Trjumpet, Marcan, Gene Nygaard, Postrach, Pol098, Saringer, Collard, Pinkville, YurikBot, MacGyver2000~enwiki, SmackBot, Durova, Thumperward, Projectbluebird, Daxaius, Iliev, Storm2005, CmdrObot, Daniel J. Leivick, Loker~enwiki, Joshwedlake, Deepblue79, Stybn, Calaka, Gigi head, Discpad, Yifanzhang, AlleborgoBot, Hamiltondaniel, Alexbot, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Addbot, Baffle gab1978, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Industrieelektronik1515, Full-date unlinking bot, Skangerland, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Will Beback Auto, BG19bot, Jacopo188, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, CxHy and Anony- mous: 35 • C-41 process Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-41_process?oldid=697372147 Contributors: Jyril, Junkyardprince, MarkSweep, Girolamo Savonarola, Imroy, Mcl, Cdheald, Kodama, SaintNuclear~enwiki, Cmacd123, .:Ajvol:., Velella, KD5TMU, Ae7flux, David Levy, Misternuvistor, Jamie Kitson, Bubba73, Margosbot~enwiki, Gurch, Antiuser, YurikBot, Janke, Htmlguru4242, Ajuk, SmackBot, Zanarky, Durova, Chris the speller, DocKrin, Adun12, VMS Mosaic, Rasilonx, SteveHopson, Bostwickenator, Nobunaga24, TPIR- FanSteve, CmdrObot, Dualityone, Joshwedlake, Stybn, The Transhumanist, Time3000, .anacondabot, FJM, Discpad, Alf photoman, Athiril, Hippie Metalhead, Hamiltondaniel, Valueaddedwater, Alexbot, BoatSparky, JPphoto, Addbot, Yobot, ArthurBot, Ubcule, Lopi- falko, ZéroBot, Jacopo188, ChrisGualtieri, Mcarneyaus, AlanClogwyn and Anonymous: 39 • Cross processing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_processing?oldid=633851060 Contributors: RodC, Frazzydee, Jimpaz, MadmanNova, MingMecca, Girolamo Savonarola, OwenBlacker, Abdull, Imroy, Kodama, Triona, Kid-A, Hooperbloob, Oolong, ABCD, Ynhockey, Melaen, Velella, Hbdragon88, Toresbe, Wongm, Kri, Sherool, Rapido, Ragesoss, Ajuk, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, William Allen Simpson, VMS Mosaic, SteveHopson, Calrion, Mr Stephen, Cheesegirl, A876, I-boy, Talu42, Quibik, Loker~enwiki, Mactogra- pher, AntiVandalBot, Brienapplegate, Enquire, Dazp1970, KudzuVine, Rdfr, TheMindsEye, WalrusMan118, Kriskrug, SieBot, Slowbro, 162 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Rkarlsba, ImageRemovalBot, Herlordship, Addbot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Ptbotgourou, Legobot II, Fortdj33, Wongchingku, Tóraí, Lopi- falko, ZéroBot, Jackspub, Danlovatt, Amycaek and Anonymous: 60 • Digital versus film photography Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_versus_film_photography?oldid=763374049 Contrib- utors: Julesd, Chrisjj, Dale Arnett, Engerim~enwiki, Giftlite, Tom harrison, Dmmaus, ConradPino, Moxfyre, Esperant, Imroy, Xez- beth, Hooperbloob, Klafubra, Velella, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Ylem, ManosGR, KymFarnik, Sdgjake, Pfalstad, Mlewan, Joe Decker, Bubba73, Adoniscik, Phil Wardle, ONEder Boy, Ajuk, SmackBot, Pokipsy76, Srnec, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Sadads, Colin.nuke, Joe n bloe, Dicklyon, Smenjas, Locutus, JHP, Davidbspalding, Walter Dufresne, Shirulashem, Alaibot, ThunderGold, Shayno, Mwar- ren us, 100110100, Donallen, Jim.henderson, Anaxial, GoatGuy, Oakshade, RenniePet, HiLo48, LastChanceToBe, CWii, Kww, Bw- Draco, MCTales, Artbulb, Soler97, Flyer22 Reborn, Hamiltondaniel, Traveler100, Wispanow, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Addbot, Mic- ahmedia, KitchM, Fluffernutter, Dvanallen2, Baffle gab1978, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Tovisbratsburg, Yobot, CarsonWilson, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Jesse Fein, Arni.leibovits, StealthCopyEditor, Sethandabel, Sophus Bie, Khashishi, Cnwilliams, Angrytoast, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, Informer3X, Theofficeprankster, Rockclaw1030, AndrewOne, Gsarwa, SylvainPr, ClueBot NG, Vance&lance, Bblawsonnn, Helpful Pixie Bot, Andre.bittar, PeterFeicht, Wordsandhammers, BattyBot, Ewan1972, SPECIFICO, Zalunardo8, NickCochrane, JC1008, Comp.arch, Marigold100, CaffeinAddict, Crow, 7Sidz, TonyLicario, Mar11, Lars Prestegarde, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 138 • Polaroid type 55 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaroid_type_55?oldid=758737513 Contributors: Piers Cawley, Imroy, MBisanz, Dkaye, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Bluebot, LanternLight, Aldenhg, MarshBot, Patrikd, Minnaert, Connorhalsell, Engelgrafik, JL- Bot, Trivialist, Landcamera900, Addbot, Lost on Belmont, Debresser, MBq, Yobot, Jvanhoy, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Σ, GaileySam, S-1-5-7, EmausBot, BillyPreset, AvicBot, H3llBot, ChuispastonBot, Snotbot, Braincricket, Smites, MerlIwBot, BG19bot, Cyberbot II, Izkala, Ebookomane, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 12 • Instant film Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_film?oldid=762766899 Contributors: Egil, Robbot, Leonard G., Bobblewik, Chowbok, Kusunose, Oknazevad, Imroy, Alistair1978, Art LaPella, MarkWahl, Jeffmedkeff, Nkedel, Hoary, Woohookitty, Pol098, Tabletop, Dcgomez, Graham87, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Iseespots, SchuminWeb, GreyCat, Hellbus, Shaddack, Dogcow, Brandon, LarryMac, Caballero1967, Ajuk, Groyolo, Khaidottk, SmackBot, [email protected], Mauls, Chris the speller, EncMstr, Asweet, PhotoJim, Snezzy, Zepheus, CmdrObot, Rockysmile11, Tkmedia, Nick Number, Tjmayerinsf, Yellowdesk, MER-C, Freshacconci, Magioladitis, Catslash, Nyttend, Ulkomaalainen, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Smial, Gah4, Piercetheorganist, Paranoia2K, Jtowler, VolkovBot, TXiK- iBoT, Newtown11, Calbookaddict, Anawrahta, Steve3849, George5210, Oscillon, Engelgrafik, Lightmouse, Pedrocasilva, Sapata, Triv- ialist, Edknol, Jusdafax, Rhododendrites, Buck1470, SoHome, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Gggh, Nbfny, Addbot, Jim10701, Hdeakyne, Download, Samuraischoif, Baffle gab1978, Lightbot, Acmav289, Yobot, Polcam, PMLawrence, Ksy$ak, Retro00064, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Ubcule, Cyndilayseggs, Thistle33, FrescoBot, Essercizi, Retired user 0001, Intrr, Fluffybat, Mjdestroyerofworlds, Mean as cus- tard, Lopifalko, EmausBot, RobertJCrowley, , Aharyani, Ewa5050, AVarchaeologist, Donner60, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Her- mann.Klecker, Mrnerd1billion, Generalurko, Mira B, Glacialfox, Cyberbot II, Khazar2, 313 TUxedo, Sthomas676, Fatkarl27, Kharkiv07, Copperpennywanna, Ernokanst, DwgWG, Suckerpunch69, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot, Shiracoen6637 and Anonymous: 172 • List of photographic films Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photographic_films?oldid=761738441 Contributors: Kness, Neckro, Reub2000, Bobblewik, Imroy, Helohe, Rich Farmbrough, Brim, Hooperbloob, Clubmarx, RJFJR, Brettr, Postrach, David Levy, Srleffler, Ajuk, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris, X570, VMS Mosaic, Maprie~enwiki, Bostwickenator, ML5, Storm2005, Peter Horn, Johnnydc, CmdrObot, Aigisthos, Magioladitis, FJM, Rhinestone K, DarkFalls, The Transhumanist (AWB), S (usurped also), TheMindsEye, DonBarredora, Walkranrunning, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, Nightsturm, Lopifalko, WikitanvirBot, Wikithe- sam, Dewritech, Rockclaw1030, H3llBot, Uzma Gamal, Matthiaspaul, Technical 13, Jacopo188, ToBeFree, CaffeinAddict, Bwwp, GSS- 1987 and Anonymous: 36

11.2 Images

• File:00179u_unprocessed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/00179u_unprocessed.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Detroit Photograph Company • File:01001u_unprocessed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/01001u_unprocessed.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Detroit Photograph Company • File:0484_Fuji_FP-14_(7159464264).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/0484_Fuji_FP-14_%287159464264% 29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: 0484 Fuji FP-14 Original artist: Zebrio from Tokyo, Japan • File:05666u_unprocessed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/05666u_unprocessed.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: [Milksellers, Brussels, Belgium Library of Congress] Original artist: Detroit Photograph Company • File:07617u_unprocessed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/07617u_unprocessed.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Detroit Photograph Company • File:09091u_unprocessed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/09091u_unprocessed.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Detroit Photograph Company • File:09875u_unprocessed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/09875u_unprocessed.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Detroit Photograph Company • File:09892u_unprocessed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/09892u_unprocessed.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Detroit Photograph Company • File:16mmBWrevDP.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/16mmBWrevDP.png License: Public do- main Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Cmacd123 at English Wikipedia • File:35mm-undevel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/35mm-undevel.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jay Holben • File:35mm_Polaroid_Sofortfilm.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/35mm_Polaroid_Sofortfilm.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zeitblick • File:3g04637u_unprocessed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/3g04637u_unprocessed.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Detroit Photograph Company 11.2. IMAGES 163

• File:ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/ASA_DIN_conversion_table.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: mybook Original artist: Singapore 1952 • File:Agfa_Gucki_BW_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Agfa_Gucki_BW_1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berthold Werner • File:Ambox_current_red.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg License: CC0 Contributors: self-made, inspired by Gnome globe current event.svg, using Information icon3.svg and Earth clip art.svg Original artist: Vipersnake151, penubag, Tkgd2007 (clock) • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:Anamorphic-digital_sound.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Anamorphic-digital_sound.jpg Li- cense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Adakin Productions “Descent” Produced and Directed by Jay Holben LACameraman 06:05, 5 July 2006 (UTC) Original artist: Jay Holben 06:05, 5 July 2006 (UTC) • File:AnscoSpeedexFilm2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/AnscoSpeedexFilm2.png License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: The Photographic Journal of America: The Oldest Photography Magazine in America, Volume 59, Edward L. Wilson Company, Incorporated, 1922 Original artist: Ansco Company, Binghamton, NY • File:BergenHordalandNorwayVagen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/BergenHordalandNorwayVagen. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original image: Photochrom print (color photo lithograph)

Reproduction number: LC-DIG-ppmsc-06107 from Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Photochrom Prints Collection Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:CCD_Image_sensor.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/CCD_Image_sensor.jpg License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sphl • File:Colonel_William_Willoughby_Verner,_Sanger_Shepherd_process,_by_Sarah_Acland_1903.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Colonel_William_Willoughby_Verner%2C_Sanger_Shepherd_process%2C_by_Sarah_Acland_1903.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://mattersphotographical.wordpress.com/2012/11/14/sarah-angelina-acland-images/ Original artist: Sarah Angelina Acland • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig- inal artist: ? • File:Coolscan-V.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Coolscan-V.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contrib- utors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Jeff dean at English Wikipedia • File:Detroit_Photographic_Company_(0837).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Detroit_Photographic_ Company_%280837%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University ([1]). Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Detroit_Publishing_Company_-_Shakespeare’{}s_Memorial_Theatre,_Stratford-on-Avon,_England.jpg Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Detroit_Publishing_Company_-_Shakespeare%27s_Memorial_Theatre%2C_Stratford-on-Avon% 2C_England.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID ppmsc.08869. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Adam Cuerden - restoration • File:Diapositive.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Diapositive.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib- utors: Own work Original artist: Hutschi • File:Diarahmen_Agfacolor_6x6_cm.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Diarahmen_Agfacolor_6x6_ cm.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berthold Werner • File:Duhauron1877.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 – 1920) • File:Dx-film-edge-barcode.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Dx-film-edge-barcode.jpg License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Caltrop • File:Dx135can.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Dx135can.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu- tors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Pkravchenko using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Photo created by user Caltrop 01:47, 19 May 2007 (UTC) for Wikipedia • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Ferraniacolor_R01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Ferraniacolor_R01.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Marc Ryckaert (MJJR) 164 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Film_strip.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Film_strip.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Strip Original artist: Bart from New Orleans, Louisiana, USA • File:Filmstrip.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Filmstrip.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Nrbelex at English Wikipedia • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc- by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Foto-wiki-Balance-Film-Speed.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Foto-wiki-Balance-Film-Speed. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sergej Qkowlew • File:Fujicolor_superia_film_structure.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Fujicolor_superia_film_ structure.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bostwickenator • File:Fujifilm_Instant_FP.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Fujifilm_Instant_FP.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Runner1616 • File:Guetteur_au_poste_de_l'écluse_26.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Guetteur_au_poste_de_ l%27%C3%A9cluse_26.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Hillotypie.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Hillotypie.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.daylife.com/photo/0eb7cY8e8rfxR Original artist: Levi Hill • File:ISO.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/ISO.gif License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: GRPH3B18 • File:ISO6speedMethod.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/ISO6speedMethod.png License: CC-BY- SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JeffConrad (talk) • File:Ice_Cream_Dreams,_by_Chris_Marchant.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Ice_Cream_Dreams% 2C_by_Chris_Marchant.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/forayinto35mm/7381039510/ Original artist: Chris Marchant • File:Impossible_project_polaroid_type_film.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Impossible_project_ polaroid_type_film.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mrnerd1billion Ryan Notch of www.areographers. com • File:Instant_film_photos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Instant_film_photos.jpg License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: I created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: SoHome Jacaranda Lilau • File:Instax_mini_-_Type_600.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Instax_mini_-_Type_600.svg Li- cense: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mjdestroyerofworlds • File:Kodak_PR-10_Satinluxe_instant_film.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Kodak_PR-10_Satinluxe_ instant_film.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Retro00064 • File:Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Korn_HP4_ISO1600.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 de Contributors: Own work Original artist: User Smial on de.wikipedia • File:Latent_Image.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Latent_Image.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Guilherme F. Franco • File:Leitz_Prado_BW_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Leitz_Prado_BW_1.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berthold Werner • File:Micklethwaite_Portable_studio.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Micklethwaite_Portable_studio. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the reproduction reference number PA-145597 and under the MIKAN ID number 3207575 Original artist: William Micklethwaite • File:Photographic_Film_135.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Photographic_Film_135.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Voytek S • File:Polaroid_-_Pack_100_-_Miniportrait_-_P1330809.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Polaroid_ -_Pack_100_-_Miniportrait_-_P1330809.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Esby (talk) 23:41, 12 May 2010 (UTC) • File:Polaroid_3000_1962.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Polaroid_3000_1962.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Thistle33 • File:Polaroid_600_sunflower.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Polaroid_600_sunflower.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mrnerd1billion Ryan Notch of www.areographers.com • File:Polaroid_667_IMGP1864_WP.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Polaroid_667_IMGP1864_ WP.jpg License: FAL Contributors: Own work Original artist: smial • File:Polaroid_film_stages.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Polaroid_film_stages.png License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Piercetheorganist at English Wikipedia • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Pozytyw_i_negatyw.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Pozytyw_i_negatyw.jpg License: CC-BY- SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine- readable author provided. Rjt assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Prokudin-Gorskii-12.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Prokudin-Gorskii-12.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID ppmsc.03991. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky 11.2. IMAGES 165

• File:Provia_100F_RDPIII_Box_with_ISO_film_speed.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Provia_ 100F_RDPIII_Box_with_ISO_film_speed.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file was derived from: Provia100FRDPIIIBoxBack.JPG Original artist: Uploader of original version (File:Provia100FRDPIIIBoxBack.JPG) was ML5 at en.wikipedia. (Minor, non-creditable changes made by Ubcule • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Redscale_film_landscape_photograph_at_7_different_exposure_settings.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/1/1b/Redscale_film_landscape_photograph_at_7_different_exposure_settings.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sage Ross • File:Rgb-compose-Alim_Khan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Rgb-compose-Alim_Khan.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Taken from the Library of Congress’ website and converted from TIFF to PNG. TIFF file from LOC Original artist: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky • File:Ruins_of_the_Castle_of_Arques,_near_Dieppe,_France,_ca._1895.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 6/68/Ruins_of_the_Castle_of_Arques%2C_near_Dieppe%2C_France%2C_ca._1895.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Ruins of the Castle of Arques, near Dieppe, France, ca. 1895 Original artist: …trialsanderrors • File:Seats_and_tables_at_Wikimedia_Foundation_office,_cross_processed.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/7/7a/Seats_and_tables_at_Wikimedia_Foundation_office%2C_cross_processed.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sage Ross • File:Self_portrait_in_the_darkroom_JPG01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Self_portrait_in_the_ darkroom_JPG01.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Photographer/Painter: (my self-made Jean-Pol GRANDMONT, shot with a Canon EF camera, printed in b&W and scanned with Canoscan FB620T). • File:Slide.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Slide.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sam Fentress • File:Slide_archive_hg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Slide_archive_hg.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hannes Grobe 19:16, 12 September 2006 (UTC) • File:Slide_frame_60x60_hg.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Slide_frame_60x60_hg.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hannes Grobe 19:16, 12 September 2006 (UTC) • File:Slide_magnifier.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Slide_magnifier.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bilby • File:Supermodels.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Supermodels.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con- tributors: Own work (Original text: I created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: AJUK Talk!! • File:Taj_Mahal_1921.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Taj_Mahal_1921.JPG License: Public do- main Contributors: From London to Australia by Aeroplane by Sir Ross Smith, The National Geographic Magazine, March 1921 Original artist: Autochrome by Helen Messinger Murdoch • File:Tartan_Ribbon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from The Illustrated History of Colour Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN 0-86343-380-4. Original artist: James Clerk Maxwell (original photographic slides) ; scan by User:Janke. • File:Tessina_with_exposure_guide_plate.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Tessina_with_exposure_ guide_plate.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gisling • File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_ with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham) • File:UCHSPhotoDarkRoom9.10.09ByLuigiNovi1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/UCHSPhotoDarkRoom9. 10.09ByLuigiNovi1.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nightscream • File:Undeveloped_film.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Undeveloped_film.png License: CC-BY- SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shirimasen • File:Various-films.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Various-films.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con- tributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Kafuffle using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Ajuk at English Wikipedia • File:Video-x-generic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Video-x-generic.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This file was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: Wiki letter w.svg Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward • File:Young_man_in_bar,_cross_processed.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Young_man_in_bar% 2C_cross_processed.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sage Ross • File:Zett_Fafix_BW_1.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Zett_Fafix_BW_1.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Berthold Werner 166 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:ZoneSystem-Gradient-lines.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/ZoneSystem-Gradient-lines.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Imroy at en.wikipedia • File:ZoneSystem-Gradient.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/ZoneSystem-Gradient.png License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Imroy at en.wikipedia

11.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0