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Dynamic Analysis of the Similarity of Objects in Research on the Use of Renewable Energy Resources in European Union Countries

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Dynamic Analysis of the Similarity of Objects in Research on the Use of Renewable Energy Resources in European Union Countries energies Article Dynamic Analysis of the Similarity of Objects in Research on the Use of Renewable Energy Resources in European Union Countries Iwona B ˛ak 1 , Anna Spoz 2, Magdalena Zioło 3,* and Marek Dylewski 4,* 1 Faculty of Economics, West Pomeranian University of Technology, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland; [email protected] 2 Institute of Economics and Finance, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland; [email protected] 3 Faculty of Economics, Finance and Management, University of Szczecin, 71-101 Szczecin, Poland 4 Institute of Economics and Finance, WSB University in Poznan, 61-895 Poznan, Poland * Correspondence: [email protected] (M.Z.); [email protected] (M.D.) Abstract: The energy transformation towards renewable energy sources in the conditions of climate change and the accompanying climate risk is a priority for all countries in the world. However, the degree of advancement of activities in this area varies significantly between countries, which is the result of different activities for renewable energy sources in individual countries. The aim of this article is to determine the trends of changes in the area of the use of renewable energy sources in EU countries. The study uses TMD (taxonomic measure of development) methods and dynamic classification, which allowed to distinguish typological groups of objects with similar dynamics of the studied phenomenon. The EU 28 countries were analyzed. Statistics (Eurostat database) are provided for the period 2004–2019. As a result of the research, it was found that the Scandinavian Citation: B ˛ak,I.; Spoz, A.; Zioło, M.; countries and the countries of Western Europe were characterized by the highest stability in terms of Dylewski, M. Dynamic Analysis of the use of renewable energy sources over time. These countries also recorded the smallest increases the Similarity of Objects in Research in TMD. On the other hand, the unfavorable situation in terms of stability was observed mainly in on the Use of Renewable Energy the countries of Southern Europe. Resources in European Union Countries. Energies 2021, 14, 3952. Keywords: renewable energy sources; European Union; dynamic classification; trend models; envi- https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133952 ronmental policy Academic Editor: Anastasios Dounis Received: 21 May 2021 1. Introduction Accepted: 27 June 2021 Published: 1 July 2021 The operation and progress of the linear economy are based mainly on the use of fossil fuels, but these, in the face of the depletion of many deposits, are no longer effective, which Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral makes it necessary to look for them further and further, e.g., in the Arctic. All this makes with regard to jurisdictional claims in the production of energy from non-renewable sources increasingly expensive and thus less published maps and institutional affil- profitable, and more importantly, causes negative effects not only in environmental matters, iations. but also affects the entire economy and the social sphere. This problem is noticed and widely commented on at the international level. The growing threat of climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions poses new challenges for modern countries. Energy is essential to the economy as it contributes to production across industries and sectors and impacts sustainable development, including economic activity, society, and the environment. The Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. European Green New Deal focused inter alia on renewable energy is a “roadmap meant This article is an open access article to foster the transition of the European Union towards the climate-neutral economy” [1]. distributed under the terms and Therefore, there is a need for energy saving and energy efficiency [2]. Countries undertake conditions of the Creative Commons to limit the extraction and use of emission deposits, replacing them with renewable energy Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// sources (RES). Data from the International Renewable Energy Agency IRENA from the creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ end of 2019 indicate that there are installations with a total capacity of 2537 GW, which use 4.0/). renewable energy. Thus, the share of renewable energy in total energy increased to 34.7% Energies 2021, 14, 3952. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133952 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Energies 2021, 14, 3952 2 of 24 at the end of 2019. In order to reach the EU climate and energy goals, financing is needed and in this context the perspective of EU funds on renewable energies is crucial [3,4]. The literature on the subject emphasizes that alternative energy sources carry positive values globally and individual units [5–11]. These are sources that, unlike non-renewable energy sources, are non-exhaustive and environmentally friendly. Their dissemination will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reduce the generation of waste in the energy production process, and probably contribute to increasing energy security worldwide. In European Union countries, activities promoting renewable energy result largely from the need to achieve the goal set jointly by the Member States. EU countries committed to ensuring a particular share of renewable energy sources in gross final energy consump- tion in 2020. For the European Community as a whole, this target was 20%. For the next decade, the European Commission has set an increase in the share of renewable energy sources in the mix of produced power to the level of 32%. This goal is to be achieved by 2030. Therefore, the question arises: what is the situation in the EU Member States concerning the use of renewable energy sources, and what is the trend in this respect? The answer to this question is the main subject of research by the authors of this study. Therefore, the work aims to define the trends of changes in the area of RES use in EU countries and distinguish typological groups of objects (EU countries) with similar dynamics of the studied phenomenon. The research used data from 2004–2019 available in the Eurostat database. Considering time in the conducted research made it possible, thanks to using time series analysis methods, to identify countries where the improvement in RES use can be observed, countries with a constant level, and those for which the situa- tion deteriorates. For the dynamic classification, trend functions were used, determined based on the synthetic measures of development. They were established using the zero unitarization method, and their parameters and the theoretical values of the variables constitute the basis for the classification of countries. The calculated aggregate measure, i.e., the taxonomic measure of development (TMD), allows for an unambiguous assessment of the EU countries due to the application of renewable energy sources (RES) in a static manner, i.e., on its basis only the positions of objects (EU countries) in individual years can be determined. In a situation where we are interested in answering the question what is the trend of changes in individual EU countries in the area of RES use in the entire period under study, i.e., in the years 2004–2019, the designated aggregate measures are insufficient. Due to the above, it was decided to estimate the trend models in which the TMD values were adopted as the dependent variable. The coefficients of the trend models provide additional information on level of changes in the studied area. On their basis, it is possible to evaluate the EU countries in terms of the level of dynamics of the use of RES and distinguish typological groups of objects with similar dynamic of changes in the level of the studied phenomenon, as well as the level of random fluctuations. Thanks to this approach, it is possible to assess whether or not EU countries are making progress in the use of renewable energy sources, as was done in this article. The applied methods allow for detecting several structural and dynamic regularities that cannot be captured by methods using multidimensional statistical analyses in a static approach. Only a comparative analysis carried out in a sufficiently broad period allows for an objective capturing of relationships between various objects. The authors’ suggestions presented in this article concern the dynamic analysis of the similarity of objects (EU countries), i.e., the identification of change trends in the field of renewable energy sources in individual European Union countries and the separation of typological groups of objects (EU countries) with similar dynamics of the studied phenomenon. This type of approach was used for the first time in this study, and thus it fills the existing research gap in research related to the dynamic similarity analysis of socio-economic objects (EU countries). Energies 2021, 14, 3952 3 of 24 2. Literature Review Economic and social development boosts the demand for energy [12]. The increased interest in alternative, that is, renewable energy sources, first emerged in late 1990s and was driven by a crisis triggered by the rise in oil prices, which, in addition to severe financial consequences, also revealed the dependence of economies on fossil fuels [13]. To expand the share of renewable energy sources in the energy mix can be a solution to this problem, as these are inexhaustible. The focus on renewable energy sources is also due to the growing awareness of anthropogenic effects on the natural environment and the need to protect it [14]. Therefore, it fits well in the concept of sustainable development [15]. Renewable energy sources generate a minimum amount of process waste [6] and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and thus preventing climate change [16]. As Gielen et al. [17] show in their study, renewable energy combined with end-use electrification can deliver up to 94% emission reductions. Better energy security and reduced risks may be obtained by diversification of energy sources [18]. The environmental impact of individual countries depends on their degree of industri- alization.
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