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Residential and Commercial Buildings 6 Residential and commercial1 buildings Coordinating Lead Authors: Mark Levine (USA), Diana Ürge-Vorsatz (Hungary) Lead Authors: Kornelis Blok (The Netherlands), Luis Geng (Peru), Danny Harvey (Canada), Siwei Lang (China), Geoffrey Levermore (UK), Anthony Mongameli Mehlwana (South Africa), Sevastian Mirasgedis (Greece), Aleksandra Novikova (Russia), Jacques Rilling (France), Hiroshi Yoshino (Japan) Contributing Authors: Paolo Bertoldi (Italy), Brenda Boardman (UK), Marilyn Brown (USA), Suzanne Joosen (The Netherlands), Phillipe Haves (USA), Jeff Harris (USA), Mithra Moezzi (USA) Review Editors: Eberhard Jochem (Germany), Huaqing Xu (PR China) This chapter should be cited as: Levine, M., D. Ürge-Vorsatz, K. Blok, L. Geng, D. Harvey, S. Lang, G. Levermore, A. Mongameli Mehlwana, S. Mirasgedis, A. Novikova, J. Rilling, H. Yoshino, 2007: Residential and commercial buildings. In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 1 The category of non-residential buildings is referred to by different names in the literature, including commercial, tertiary, public, office, and municipal. In this chapter we con- sider all non-domestic residential buildings under the “commercial” sector. Residential and commercial buildings Chapter 6 Table of Contents Executive Summary .................................................. 389 6.6 Co-benefits of GHG mitigation in the residential and commercial sectors ............. 416 6.1 Introduction ...................................................... 391 6.6.1 Reduction in local/regional air pollution ............ 416 6.2 Trends in buildings sector emissions .......... 391 6.6.2 Improved health, quality of life and comfort ...... 416 6.3 Scenarios of carbon emissions resulting from 6.6.3 Improved productivity ..................................... 417 energy use in buildings ................................. 392 6.6.4 Employment creation and new business opportunities ................................................... 417 6.4 GHG mitigation options in buildings and 6.6.5 Improved social welfare and poverty alleviation 418 ......................................................... 393 equipment 6.6.6 Energy security ................................................ 418 6.4.1 Overview of energy efficiency principles ........... 394 6.6.7 Summary of co-benefits .................................. 418 6.4.2 Thermal envelope ............................................ 395 6.7 Barriers to adopting building technologies 6.4.3 Heating systems .............................................. 396 and practices that reduce GHG emissions 418 6.4.4 Cooling and cooling loads ............................... 397 6.7.1 Limitations of the traditional building design 6.4.5 Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) process and fragmented market structure ........ 418 systems .......................................................... 399 6.7.2 Misplaced incentives ...................................... 419 6.4.6 Building energy management systems (BEMS) . 400 6.7.3 Energy subsidies, non-payment and theft ........ 419 6.4.7 Active collection and transformation of solar energy ............................................................. 401 6.7.4 Regulatory barriers .......................................... 420 6.4.8 Domestic hot water ......................................... 402 6.7.5 Small project size, transaction costs and perceived risk ................................................. 420 6.4.9 Lighting systems ............................................. 402 6.7.6 Imperfect information ...................................... 420 6.4.10 Daylighting ...................................................... 402 6.7.7 Culture, behaviour, lifestyle and the rebound 6.4.11 Household appliances, consumer electronics effect .............................................................. 420 and office equipment ....................................... 403 6.7.8 Other barriers .................................................. 421 6.4.12 Supermarket refrigeration systems ................... 404 6.4.13 Energy savings through retrofits ...................... 404 6.8 Policies to promote GHG mitigation ...........in buildings ............................................................ 421 6.4.14 Trade-offs between embodied energy and operating energy ............................................. 405 6.8.1 Policies and programmes aimed at building construction, retrofits, and installed equipment and 6.4.15 Trade-offs involving energy-related emissions and systems .......................................................... 421 halocarbon emissions ...................................... 405 6.8.2 Policies and programmes aimed at appliances, 6.4.16 Summary of mitigation options in buildings ..... 406 lighting and office/consumer plug loads .......... 423 6.5 Potential for and costs of greenhouse gas 6.8.3 Cross-cutting policies and programmes that mitigation in buildings ................................... 409 support energy efficiency and/or CO2 mitigation in buildings ..................................................... 425 6.5.1 Recent advances in potential estimations from around the world ............................................. 409 6.8.4 Policies affecting non-CO2 gases ..................... 430 6.5.2 Recent advances in estimating the costs of GHG 6.8.5 Policy options for GHG abatement in buildings: mitigation in buildings ...................................... 414 summary and conclusion ................................. 431 6.5.3 Supply curves of conserved carbon dioxide ..... 414 6.9 Interactions of mitigation options with 6.5.4 Most attractive measures in buildings .............. 415 vulnerability, adaptation and sustainable 6.5.5 Energy and cost savings through use of the development ...................................................... 435 Integrated Design Process (IDP) ....................... 416 6.9.1 Interactions of mitigation options with vulnerability and adaptation ............................. 435 6.9.2 Synergies with sustainability in developing countries ........................................................ 436 6.10 Critical gaps in knowledge .......................... 437 References ................................................................... 437 388 Chapter 6 Residential and commercial buildings EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Using the global baseline CO2 emission projections for buildings, these estimates represent a reduction of approximately In 2004, emissions from the buildings sector including 3.2, 3.6 and 4.0 GtCO2/yr in 2020, at zero, 20 US$/tCO2 and through electricity use were about 8.6 GtCO2, 0.1 GtCO2- 100 US$/tCO2 respectively. Our extrapolation of the potentials eq N2O, 0.4 GtCO2-eq CH4 and 1.5 GtCO2-eq halocarbons to the year 2030 suggests that, globally, about 4.5, 5.0 and (including CFCs and HCFCs). Using an accounting system 5.6 GtCO2 at negative cost, <20 US$ and <100 US$/tCO2-eq that attributes CO2 emissions to electricity supply rather than respectively, can be reduced (approximately 30, 35 and 40% of buildings end-uses, the direct energy-related carbon dioxide the projected baseline emissions) (medium agreement, limited emissions of the building sector are about 3 Gt/yr. evidence). These numbers are associated with significantly lower levels of certainty than the 2020 ones due to very limited For the buildings sector the literature uses a variety of research available for 2030. baselines. Therefore a baseline was derived for this sector based on the literature, resulting in emissions between the B2 and While occupant behaviour, culture and consumer choice and A1B SRES scenarios, with 11.1 Gt of emissions of CO2 in 2020 use of technologies are also major determinants of energy use and 14.3 GtCO2 in 2030 (including electricity emissions but in buildings and play a fundamental role in determining CO2 omitting halocarbons, which could conceivably be substantially emissions (high agreement, limited evidence), the potential phased out by 2030). reduction through non-technological options is rarely assessed and the potential leverage of policies over these is poorly Measures to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from understood. Due to the limited number of demand-side end- buildings fall into one of three categories: reducing energy use efficiency options considered by the studies, the omission consumption and embodied energy in buildings, switching to of non-technological options and the often significant co- low-carbon fuels including a higher share of renewable energy, benefits, as well as the exclusion of advanced integrated highly 2 or controlling the emissions of non-CO2 GHG gases. This efficiency buildings, the real potential is likely to be higher chapter devotes most attention to improving energy efficiency (high agreement, limited evidence). in new and existing buildings, which encompasses the most diverse, largest and most cost-effective mitigation opportunities There is a broad array of accessible and cost-effective in buildings. technologies and know-how that have not as yet been widely adopted, which can abate GHG emissions in buildings to a The key conclusion of the chapter is that substantial significant extent. These include passive solar design, high- 3 reductions in CO2 emissions from energy use in buildings can efficiency lighting
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