: An Assessment of the Electricity Industry and What Needs to Be Done

Zimbabwe highlights the weaknesses in power pooling that typically occur in third world countries, particularly when foreign currency is in short supply. The electricity industry's monopoly should be abolished, independent Charles Mbohwa has a bachelors power producers should be attracted into the industry, in Mechanical Engineering from the and an independent regulator should be created for the University of Zimbabwe and a masters in Operations Management power sector. and Manufacturing Systems from University of Nottingham, England. Charles Mbohwa He has taught at the University of Zimbabwe and has been a consultant/researcher for UNDP, DANIDA, DNV Zimbabwe, and for I. Introduction incurred due to the disruptions the African Energy Policy Research can be regarded as an invisible Network (AFREPREN). He is Zimbabwe currently has an tariff that the customers of the currently a Ph.D. student in Shuichi electricity generation capacity of utility have to pay. Large-scale Fukuda's Laboratory at the Tokyo just about 2,000 MW, valued at investment in electricity genera- Metropolitan Institute of Technology about $2.5 billion (U.S.). The sys- tion requires a lot of capital. An in Japan, where he can be contacted tem maximum demand is via email at extra capacity of 300 MW would [email protected]. 2,034 MVA (megavoltampere). require around $450 million in The author acknowledges the support Energy imports have at times investment capital (assume an of the Swedish International risen to 50 percent of total energy average of $1,500 per kW capacity Development Co-operation Agency needs. The scarcity of foreign developed). This investment level (SIDA/SAREC) and the African currency has made it imperative is beyond the capacity of the Energy Policy Research Network that load shedding be introduced currently heavily indebted Zim- (AFREPREN). at times. The scale of energy dis- babwe Electricity Supply ruptions,whether planned or Authority (ZESA) and the Gov- unplanned,has resulted in huge ernment of Zimbabwe,given the losses to industries. The losses current economic problems.

82 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$ ± see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 The Electricity Journal hile micro-scale and non-standard voltages are also later installation brought the Kar- W localized energy produc- found in rare instances. iba Dam's hydroelectric power tion systems can be considered,it capacity to 1,350 MW.2 The Kariba is clear that economic growth Power Station has at times been through industrialization would II. Hydroelectric Power affected by drought and the ¯ows be limited if such initiatives are Stations Are Affected by into the lake had been progres- pursued. One way would be to Droughts sively low since the early 1980s, encourage independent power resulting in a critical fall in levels producers (IPPs) to come to the The major source of hydropower which almost rendered the station rescue. This article assesses the for Zimbabwe is the inoperable in 1992±1993. In current state of the electricity River,which has a total capacity August 1993,the lake level was industry in Zimbabwe,examines (developed and estimated poten- about 1 meter above the power potential sources of electricity in tial capacity) of 7,200 MW. About station intake level,yielding pro- the future,and suggests ways of jections that the water would last attending to the problems faced only until November 1993. Early by the industry at the moment. rains in that year avoided the The Ministry of Mines and The scale of shutdown of the power station. Energy is the responsible author- energy disruptions, The drought cycles have resulted ity for energy policy and for whether planned in a change of preference towards public administration of the or unplanned, thermal plants. energy sector in Zimbabwe, here is a power purchase through the Department of has resulted in T agreement between ZESA Energy (DOE) in this Ministry. huge losses to and an independent producer at The DOE does not have exclusive industries. Rusitu in the Chimanimani area, control over all matters in the which runs an 800 kW mini-hydro energy sector. A number of other plant,producing entirely for the institutions including other gov- grid. This agreement has served to ernment ministries,international 4,200 MW of this capacity can be indicate the willingness of the oil companies,private mining owned jointly by Zimbabwe and utility to purchase private power, companies,and the National Zambia. The two countries share an option which has been missing Railways of Zimbabwe in¯uence water for hydroelectric power in the energy sector in Zimbabwe. activities in this sector,particu- generation from the Kariba Dam, The tariff agreement provides for larly with respect to pricing of which was built on the Zambezi in a guaranteed price set as a per- energy products. Zimbabwe relies 1955±1960. The present total centage of the ZESA tariff. This mainly on for thermal power capacity is 1,266 MW, comprised assists in project planning for new generation,producing about 70 of four 150 MW generator sets producers. Mini-hydroelectric percent of total national electrical installed on the northern bank (the plants have been installed at energy production. Electricity is Zambian side) of the river in 1962 Kwenda (80 kW),Sithole-Chikate also produced from hydro and known as Kariba North Bank (30 kW),Svinurai (20 kW),Mutsi- resources of the Zambezi River. Power Station,and six 111 MW kira (10 kW),Rusitu (700 kW), Transmission voltage is 330,400, generator sets installed on the Nyafaru (40 kW),Aberfoyle and 420 kV. Sub-transmission Zimbabwean side and commis- (30 kW),and Claremont (250 kW) voltage is 132,88,and 66 kV. The sioned in 1965. The latter sets, in Zimbabwe. There have been distribution voltages are 33 or known as the Kariba South Bank plans to install a 140 kW micro- 11 kV. Supply voltages are 220 Power Station,have been hydroelectric power plant at and 380 V.1 Some intermediate upgraded to 125 MW each. This Manyuchi dam,about 350 km

August/September 2002 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$±see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 83 south of Harare. This project could Table 1: Power Generation by Source, 1996±1999 provide 700,000 kWh of renew- Fuel/Source Power Generation (GWh by Year) able energy a year,avoiding car- 1996 1997 1998 1999 bon dioxide emissions of 900,000 kg per year. Additional Coal 5,160 5,175 7,129 4,141 benefits would be in technology Hydro 2,163 2,122 2,927 2,949 transfer and the local social and Imports 3,172 4,013 7,461 5,275 economic benefits associated with Totals 10,49511,310 17,510 12,365 electrification. However,it is clear that small-scale hydroelectric plants,besides bringing about 1996 to 1999.3 The import level in (SADC)'s energy management positive social and economic 1999 represents over 40 percent of program is the Southern African benefits,have a more limited national needs. This ®gure has Power Pool (SAPP),under which capability to address the future tended to be around 50 percent member states are linked to one energy requirements in Zim- recently. The growing trend in electricity grid. This enables the babwe or reduce the current electricity demand and the rising regional reserve to provide energy import bill effectively. level of imports can be easily options for power supply to the While large-scale hydroelectricity noticed. member countries. The cost of this schemes are very economic,mini- lectricity consumption imported energy has to be hydro schemes do not offer the E peaked in 1998,when the weighed against the factors that same levels of scale economies. In economy was doing well. The support domestic production of Zimbabwe,these schemes would decline in electricity consumption electricity. The SAPP enables also be adversely affected by in 1999 marks the beginning of a easier export and import of elec- drought. This underlines the need slowdown of the national econ- tricity throughout the region. The to look at complementary electric omy,which has continued to date. pool is made up 12 national uti- energy sources in future. The poor business and political lities: Empresa National de Elec- climate have therefore recently tricidade (ENE) of Angola, distorted demand forecasts for Botswana Power Corporation III. Thermal Power Has electricity. The technical data of (BPC) of Botswana,Lesotho Taken over as the Main the existing thermal power sta- Electricity Corporation (LEC) of Electricity Source tions is shown in Table 2.4 It can Lesotho,Electricity Supply Com- be observed that the oldest power mission (ESCOM) of Malawi, Coal-based thermal power gen- plants at Harare,Munyati,and Electricidade de eration assumed an important role Bulawayo range from 44 to (EDM) of Mozambique,Namibia in the energy supply scenario of 55 years old and contribute about Power (NamPower) of Namibia, Zimbabwe in 1984,when the 345 MW of thermal capacity. ESKOM of ,Swazi- Hwange Power Station was built land Electricity Board (SEB) of at the Wankie coal mine. At pre- Swaziland,Tanzania Electricity sent,Zimbabwe has an installed IV. Zimbabwe Is One of Supply Corporation (TANESCO) coal-based thermal capacity of the Most Interconnected of Tanzania,Societe National 1,295 MW, with a total annual coal and Electricity-Import- d'Electricite (SNEL) of Demo- intake of about 3 million tonnes Dependent Countries in cratic Republic of Congo,Zambia per year. The role of coal in power Africa Electricity Supply Corporation generation is highlighted in (ZESCO) of Zambia,and Zim- Table 1,which shows power Central to the Southern African babwe Electricity Supply generation by source for the years Development Community Authority (ZESA) of Zimbabwe.

84 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$ ± see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 The Electricity Journal Table 2: Specifications of ZESA Thermal Power Stations Name of Station Construction Year No. of Units Size of Unit (MW) Installed Capacity Generating Voltage (kV)

Hwange 1 1983 4 120 480 10.5 Hwange 2 19852 220 440 17.0

Munyati 1947 2 10 20 11.0 520 100 11.0

Harare 2 1946 2 7.515 11.0 2 10 20 11.0 2 20 40 11.0 Harare 3 1957 2 30 60 11.0 Bulawayo 1948 2 1530 11.0 3 30 60 11.0

Total installed capacity 1,295

Source: ZESA Annual Report, 1993.

imbabwe's greatest electri- permanently dependent on  The economy has a large Z city imports derive from imports,worsening further the number of (mainly domestic) South Africa (450 MW),Mozam- foreign currency shortages. More consumers whose demand is not bique (500 MW),Democratic than 200 companies closed down being met due to limited Republic of Congo (250 MW), in the year ending July 2001,and investment on the part of the and Zambia (100 MW). Imports oneofthemajorcausesofclosure utility. There has been a very large from Zambia were expected to was foreign currency shortage countrywide housing stop in the year 2000,but this was and the related artificially low development initiative by both not the case,as planned invest- currency exchange rate coupled the private sector and ment in the power sector was not with a very high exchange rate in government,and urban implemented. The electricity the parallel,or black,market. 6 accommodation is now virtually system is interconnected with built for the connection of Zambia through two 330 kV electricity. An additional capacity transmission lines,South Africa V. The Demand for demand of about 2,000 MW is through a 132 kV transmission Electricity Far Outstrips expected,if all the 2.2 million line from Beitbridge and a 400 kV Supply households in Zimbabwe are to be transmission line from Insuka- electrified. Currently,about mini in Bulawayo,Mozambique The electrical energy demand 30 percent of the households are through a 420 kV transmission forecast for Zimbabwe is based on electrified,with a heavy bias line,and Botswana through a knowledge of historical demand towards the urban areas.7 The 220 kV line from Bulawayo to regressed to project future households have on the average Francistown. System intercon- demand. Demand is limited by accounted for about 20 percent nection serves to improve relia- access or lack of it to the existing (2,500 GWh) of all electrical bility.5 This network has made infrastructure. There are a num- consumption. Providing all Zimbabwe's transmission grid ber of developments in the Zimbabwean households with the most strongly interconnected country that are set to affect the electricity would require about within the whole of Africa. domestic load signi®cantly. These 12,500 GWh, or roughly double However,Zimbabwe is now include the following: the current output.

August/September 2002 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$±see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 85  There are a few industrial that internal generation should be either as stand-alone systems in projects that are in the pipeline equal to or excess to demand and remote communities or as backup involving the construction of the system should be planned for systems by large urban compa- several industrial entities in the a minimum reserve of 25 percent, nies and in some schools and major cities and growth points. with imports exceeding or meet- hospitals. The lack of investment t is forecast that demand will ing the reserve margin. The capital and the effects of the I increase steadily in the fore- development plans over the last implementation of the Zimbabwe seeable future. However,these few years have included refurb- Electricity Act have inhibited demand growth factors have been ishment of existing plants,aug- power sector development. perturbed by the current eco- mentation of cooling capacity and Approval is needed from the nomic and political situation. This control equipment,upgrading of minister in order to charge cost- has temporarily affected the the Hwange Power Station,con- reflective tariffs. This has not been demand pattern as politically struction of interconnectors,and forthcoming at times. Implemen- induced economic difficulties construction of new plants at tation of the investment plans has have set in. Load shedding and Batoka,Gokwe North,and been very poor,partly due to blackouts by ZESA also helped to Hwange. They re¯ect the most these bureaucratic delays. Table 5 temporarily reduce demand. In realistic route to adding electricity outlines the delays encountered. the year 2000,ZESA experienced a generation. The ZESA system The current system develop- 1.9 percent drop in energy use. It development plan,which was a ment plan is shown in Table 6. was anticipated that there would part of the 1993 annual report,is It clearly shows that many be a 3 percent drop in the year shown in Table 3. Table 4 re¯ects further changes have been made. 2001 as the disorder related to the the additional capacity that The main highlights are sum- presidential elections in 2002 would become available when the marized in Table 7. reached a peak. It is expected that plan is implemented.8 One of the main reasons for demand will start increasing from he electricity sector is the ZESA's failure to stick to these the year 2003 onwards,when the T sole supply domain of excellent plans,besides political country starts to recover from the ZESA,which generates,imports, and government noise factors current political problems. The and distributes all electrical (complete disruptions),is the shortage of foreign currency will energy in the country except for a failure to raise the necessary continue to force the utility to shed few small private generators run capital,particularly in foreign load,resulting in lower electricity consumption levels. However, Table 3: Zimbabwe Electrical Energy Supply System Development Plan, for 1994 despite this setback,about and Onwards 50 percent of electricity demand Project Capacity Addition (MW) Planned Date Actual Date is met by imports,showing that domestic supply has been lagging Kariba refurbishment 84 1994±1997 Completed behind demand for a long time. Small thermal refurbishment 120 1994±1996 1996 Interconnector to South Africa 400 1994±19951996 Cahora Bassa Interconnector 500 1994±1996 1997 VI. The ZESA System Hwange upgrading Improved reliability 1994±1996 1996 Development Plans Have Hwange 7 220 1996±2000 Not yet started Been Very Poorly Hwange 8 220 1996±2000 Not yet started Implemented Batoka 800 1997±2004 Not yet started Sengwa 1 220 1998±2004 Not yet started The system development plans Sengwa 2 220 1999±2004 Not yet started for ZESA are based on the criteria Sengwa 3 220 2001±2006 Not yet started

86 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$ ± see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 The Electricity Journal Table 4: Electrical Energy Development Plan, Reflecting Additional Capacity to be Zambezi River provides most of Available the potential power sources. The Project Year Capacity (MW) micro- and mini-hydroelectric Hydro Thermal Total schemes also provide interesting opportunities. These need to be RSA inter-country 1995400 400 more comprehensively quanti- Cahora Bassa 1996 500 900 ®ed. Some studies have been Hwange upgrading 1996 900 conducted to determine the Old thermal refurbishment 1996 220 1,120 potential of some of the large Kariba refurbishment 1997 84 1,204 dams. The use of biomass in Hwange 8 2000 220 1,424 electricity generation has been Hwange 7 2000 220 1,644 limited so far,but its potential is Sengwa 2 2004 220 1,864 very high and it needs to be fully Sengwa 1 2004 220 2,084 exploited. The sugar industry Batoka 2004 800 2,884 produces electricity for its own Sengwa 3 2006 220 3,104 consumption. There is room to

Source: ZESA, 1993. modernize technology in this area to enable the industry to export power to the grid. The currency. Infrastructure develop- for investment in small-scale wood industry can also generate ment is very expensive and there plants to bridge the current gap in electricity. Wind energy has is a need to open parts of it to the the supply of electricity. limited applications due to low private sector. This is where the wind speeds in most parts of IPPs can come in. The above Zimbabwe. The use of photo- projects,including generation, VII. There Is Great voltaic (PV) technology offers transmission,distribution,and Electricity Generation practical energy solutions for supply networks required an Potential in Zimbabwe remote regions. The Zambezi estimated $4 billion at 1998 prices. offers potential hydroelectric This is too much capital for ZESA There is a potential to exploit resources at Batoka Gorge, and for the Government of Zim- hydroelectric resources that exist Devil's Gorge,and Mupata babwe. This also opens up a role in the country in the future. The Gorge,and at Cahora Bassa in

Table 5: Project Delays in the 1993 Plan Compared to the 1991 Plan 1. The Sango-Bindura 330 kV (500 MW) interconnector, which was supposed to be installed between 1994 and 1996, was rescheduled and completed in 1997, after a delay of one year. 2. The Kariba South upgrading and refurbishment (84 MW), which had been planned for the period 1994±1997 was rescheduled to begin in 1998, four years later. This was completed in 2001. 3. The Hwange 7 and 8 (220 MW) each were both planned to be carried out in the period 1994±2000. They were re-planned to start in the years 2000 (six years later) and 2003 (nine years later), respectively, and are now deeply entangled in a deal with a Malaysian company. They have not been started up to now. 4. The Batoka Gorge Hydropower Plant (800 MW) was planned to start in 1997 and to be completed in 2004. It was pushed forward to start in the 2004, a seven-year delay. There were no indications that it was on the cards, since it was not a priority for Zambia and there are other higher priority projects still outstanding. 5. The Sengwa Coal-fired Power Stations Units 1, 2 and 3 of 220 MW capacity each were supposed to be constructed in the periods 1998±2004, 1999±2004, and 2001±2006, respectively. The updated plans of 1997 showed that the first unit was planned to start in 2009 (11 years later), the second unit in 2011 (12 years later) and the third unit had been left out of the plan.

August/September 2002 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$±see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 87 Table 6: Zimbabwe Electrical Energy Supply System Development Plan 1999 Table 8: Potential Hydroelectric Re- Onwards9 sources on the Zambezi River Project Capacity Commissioning Date Site Capacity (MW)

Hwange Units 7 and 8 2 Â 300 MW 2005 Batoka Gorge 1,600 Gas Turbine 2 Â 150 MW 2008 Devil's Gorge 1,240 Batoka Unit 1 1 Â 200 MW 2010 Mupata Gorge 1,000 Batoka Unit 2 1 Â 200 MW 2011 Cahora Bassa North Bank 1,200 Batoka Unit 3 1 Â 200 MW 2012 Total 5,040 Batoka Unit 4 1 Â 200 MW 2013 Source: ZESA Annual Report, 1993. Kariba South Extension Unit 1 1 Â 150 MW 2014 Kariba South Extension Unit 2 1 Â 150 MW 2015 nance procedures,so that the Gokwe North Unit 1 1 Â 320 MW 2016 systems were run until they failed. Gokwe North Unit 2 1 Â 320 MW 2018 Research institutions were not Gokwe North Unit 3 1 Â 320 MW 2019 involved at all in the two projects. Source: ZESA, 1999. A technical,®nancial,and eco- nomic feasibility of a biomass- Mozambique. The potential Zimbabwe through two projects fueled plant has been done in hydroelectric resources are promoted biomass gasifiers. An Chimanimani,a remote area in the shown in Table 8. Indian Ankur engine with a dual Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe. ites for mini- and micro- fuel gasifier and with 40 kW Such a combined heat and power S hydro power plants in Zim- capacity was installed at Nijo in (CHP) plant can provide com- babwe have been assessed but the 1989 as an experimental project. mercial gains to the private saw- total potential has not yet been An Italian Soft Energy System mill operators and provide fully stated. Table 9 shows some with a similar capacity was also socioeconomic gains to the local of the potential sites and their installed at Rushinga as an community,while providing a capacity based on historical per- experimental project in the same new source of power and heat. It is formance of their hydrology.10 year. Both systems ceased to noted that the de®cit in energy iomass and biogas can be operate by the end of 1991. The supply in Zimbabwe is taken care B used for electricity genera- technology transfer method used of by also importing energy from tion. However,there has been no was inappropriate,with the gasi- South Africa and other SAPP contribution to the national grid fiers dumped into the commu- countries' coal-®red power sta- from this sector recently. The nities with no instruction on the tions. Since most of the electrical Department of Energy in technology and needed mainte- energy in Zimbabwe is from

Table 7: Main Changes in the 1999 Plan 1. Hwange 7 and 8 have been moved by another five years and two years respectively. The planned capacity has been increased for both plants to 300 MW. 2. A new feature is the gas turbine plant taking a cue from the experiences in England, where liberalization of the electricity sector has shown that they can at times offer the most viable and economic method of electricity production. 3. The Batoka project has been split into four units installed at different times. Commissioning of the first unit has been pushed forward to the year 2010, another six-year delay. 4. Another additional feature is the extension in Kariba South of two units that are to be commissioned in the years 2014 and 2015. 5. The Sengwa project is now called the Gokwe North Project. The three units will now have a capacity of 320 MW each and the first one is planned for commissioning in 2016, another seven-year delay from the last planned date. All three units are part of the current plan.

88 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$ ± see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 The Electricity Journal Table 9: Potential of Some of the Mini- Some of the energy would be in the since the stalks are being burnt and Micro-Hydro Sites in Zimbabwe form of steam that can be used for currently. Other types of crop Site Capacity (kW) process heating. The five sawmills waste,like maize stock,are used in Chimanimani have the potential as stock feed and as compost Bangala 800 to produce a total of 20 MW. manure. Competing uses like this Kyle 1,500 Similar plants exist in Scandinavia would need to be taken into Siya 450 and other countries,and the tech- account. However,the most pro- Odzani 60 nology could be adapted to Zim- mising biomass source of electri- Small bridge 70 babwe. The steam from the plants cal power in Zimbabwe occurs in Manyuchi II 170 can be used to generate all the the sugar industry from the use of Ruti 200 steam requirements of the saw- bagasse,the moist ®bre that Palawan 170 mill,help to start drying kilns,and remains after juice extraction Mwenge II 100 can stimulate the starting of other from sugarcane. Jumbo 30 steam-using industrial projects in The two sugar companies in Gairezi 20,000 the area. The efforts to substitute Zimbabwe,Triangle Ltd. and Tsanga 3,300 coal with biomass in electricity Hippo Valley Estates,have the Duru 2,300 generation would have a beneficial potential to provide about 8 per- Total 29,150 impact on the environment. It is cent of the country's electrical Source: DOE study on hydroelectric potential of noted that strong reforestation energy requirements. The two irrigation dams, and ZESA. initiatives would need to be put in plants have a combined capacity place in order to protect the envi- of 81.5 MW. Each of the sugar thermal power stations,the con- saged environmental gains. There plants has a high sugar cane tribution to greenhouse gas emis- is also room to replant indigenous crushing capacity,which can be sions is increased further. On the trees in order to recreate natural able to support a power plant other hand,residues from forestry forests. Forests close to the rivers with a large capacity,if coal is industries and sawmills in the and streams would not be used in used to supplement the bagasse Chimanimani area have little or no order to avoid siltation. produced. Future investment in productive use. Recovery from Another possible source of the ®rms' power plants would logs under bark is 40 percent to 50 biomass is crop waste. It is esti- improve electricity production percent. The rest is residue in the mated that Zimbabwe produces from about 32.2 kWh to more than form of sawdust,chips,and slabs. about 2.5 million tonnes of crop 120 kWh per tonne of sugar cane The bark is about 7 percent of the waste a year; this could poten- crushed. This would enable the log input. All this waste can be tially produce about 295 MW of two sugar companies to export used to produce electrical power. electricity.11 The cotton stalks, more than 500 GWh of bagasse- esidue from 200,000 cubic which are burnt in huge amounts generated electricity to the grid, R meters of solid logs from the in the cotton-growing areas of from two plants of 105 MW largest sawmill in the Chimani- Zimbabwe every year,to kill pests each.12 The use of gasi®cation mani region has an energetic value and the eggs,can be used for technology,if it is fully developed of 185 GWh,which can run a energy production. Logistical in future,could raise the total 6 MW plant,generating about problems might provide some output from the two sugar plants. 50 GWh of electricity. This is based limitations to possible large-scale It is estimated that at least on a feasibility study conducted by usage. Also,the use of chemicals 2,000 GWh of bagasse-generated the Swedish International Devel- in fumigation in cotton produc- electricity would be available to opment Agency (SIDA). There is tion would have negative envir- the grid if bagasse gasi®cation room to improve efficiency and the onmental impacts. However, technology is fully developed in amount of electricity generated. these would not be additional, the sugar industry.13

August/September 2002 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$±see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 89 Solar photovoltaic systems can season and by area and vary 345 MW,are more than 44 years provide electrical energy in areas widely diurnally. This wind old and there are limited bene®ts very far away from the grid. regime rules out utilization of of upgrading them since they are Zimbabwe experiences an inso- wind energy only for power located very far away from the lation of 2,000 kW/m2 per year. generation. This resource is, coal mines. Micro-scale and stan- Insolation is uniform across the however,sufficient to enable uti- dalone systems like PV units are a country and across the seasons. lization of windmills for water viable option for providing elec- There are more than 20,000, pumping. At present there are a tricity to remote locations in the 45 W-equivalent PV systems in few companies supplying wind- country. The following recom- the country. A majority of them mills for power generation. The mendations are therefore made: (12,000 systems) were provided initiatives are in most cases in the  The laws and regulations through the Global Environmen- governing the electricity industry tal Facility (GEF),a United should be changed so that IPPs can Nations Development Pro- be allowed to invest in the power gramme (UNDP) project. These sector. The failure to expand improve life in the rural areas by capacity over the past 16 years supplying lighting,powering further justifies the need to radios,televisions,sewing speedily implement this policy machines,refrigerators,telecom- option in order to meet growing munication radios,electric fen- electricity demand. Investment in cing,and water puri®cation. thermal power plant can be There are more than 50 companies opened up to large-scale investors, employing more than 500 people while ZESA concentrates on in the solar industry in Zim- investment in hydroelectric power babwe. The Japan International plants and PV installation and Cooperation Agency (JICA) in area of hybrid wind and battery maintenance. There is room for 1999 proposed a master plan for combinations. This has applica- small- to medium-scale investors the electri®cation of 150,000 tions in the rural areas that are in generating power in the sugar households at a total investment very far away from the grid. industry,wood industry,wind cost of $108 million and managed systems,and photovoltaic by the national utility.14 This is a electrification areas. viable and economic investment VIII. The Way Forward  It is clear that creating a power option given that it will be dec- for the Electricity pool and being connected to the ades before rural communities are Industry in Zimbabwe pool like Zimbabwe is does not connected to the grid. ensure reliability of power supply he use of wind energy in A number of issues have been on its own. An argument has been T electricity generation has raised in this article. There has presented that when faced with been limited. Wind speeds in been inability to expand electricity foreign currency shortages,it is a Zimbabwe are relatively low at generation capacity since 1985. better strategy for a country to only 3.2 m/s. Information Load shedding has been intro- have adequate internal capacity recorded by the meteorological duced as the utility failed to and to use the pool for short-term office shows that the highest wind import electricity due to foreign peaking. The government of speeds are experienced at Bula- currency shortages. This is against Zimbabwe should stabilize the wayo (4.25 m/s),Chipinge a growing long-term trend energy economy and promote local gen- (3.8 m/s),and Gweru (3.8 m/s). demand pattern. The oldest ther- eration of electricity in order to These speeds are irregular both by mal plants,which contribute avoid crowding out the private

90 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$ ± see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 The Electricity Journal sector from access to foreign cur- 4. Thermal electricity generation ca- ruption in 1999,the company has been pacity has remained almost stagnant depending on crisis management. Ca- rency as its utility struggles to pay since installation. Subsequent refurb- pital investment has been put on hold for electricity imports. ishment has been mostly maintenance- and the plan remains on paper without  There should be a clear divi- related,without expanding capacity. any implementation. Most attention is sion of authority among policy- The refurbishment,which increased focused on sourcing for foreign cur- capacity by 120 MW,was completed in rency to pay South Africa and other makers,policy implementers,and 1996,hence increasing thermal capa- power pool countries for electricity. tariff setters when pricing elec- city to 1,415 MW. However, the sta- 10. The Department of Energy in the tricity. An independent regula- bling of the old inefficient plants and Ministry of Mines and Energy has the increased transport costs of coal to tory authority is necessary. ZESA carried out a study of some of the these faraway installations has re- dams in the country,to assess their plans have been affected by fail- duced total thermal plant output. generation potential. ZESA has also ure to set tariffs at levels above the 5. The information on the power pool carried out feasibility studies at sites in long-range marginal cost. Political connections and levels was supplied by the Eastern Highlands of the country the Zimbabwean utility ZESA follow- together with potential independent decisions have dominated the ing an official request from the author. power producers. management of the utility in a 6. FINANCIAL GAZETTE,July 15,1999, 11. UNEP Collaborating Centre on negative way. reported this situation. Since then,more Energy and Environment,Denmark, full picture of the electri- companies have closed down as foreign and Southern Centre for Energy and A city industry in Zimbabwe, currency shortages have reached Environment,Zimbabwe,Implemen- chronic levels. The Confederation In- tation Strategy to Reduce Environ- its potential,and the way forward dustries of Zimbabwe and the Zim- mental Impact of Energy and Related in order to revive it has been babwe National Chamber of Commerce Activities in Zimbabwe,Jan. 1997. offered. The current political and have recently reported that 400 com- 12. K. Deepchand, Overview of Com- panies closed in the year 2001,with one mercial Scale Cogeneration of Bagasse economic environment poses of the main reasons being the excessive more challenges,albeit transient Energy in Mauritius,paper presented to cost of foreign currency on the parallel AFREPREN Energy Workshop on ones. The issues and views raised markets. More than 20,000 people have Power Sector Reforms: Implications for have put forward topical aspects lost their jobs in the process. the Cogeneration Industry,Quatre about the stagnant electricity 7. Japan International Cooperation Bornes,Mauritius,Aug. 24±25,2001. In Agency, Study on the Promotion of this paper,the author shows that similar industry. The policy options Photovoltaic Rural Electrification in the plants in Reunion and Mauritius have suggested can offer a way out for Republic of Zimbabwe,Draft Final Re- been able to export 110 kWh per tonne port,Dec. 1998. Since then the electri- of sugarcane to the grid,after meeting the struggling sector.& fication of rural areas has been slow. sugar plant energy requirements. This The Rural Electrification Programme is based on the latest French technology reported that about 10,000 more rural using high-pressure (82 bar) boilers co- Endnotes: households had been electrified in the fired by bagasse and coal. Each boiler years 1999,2000,and 2001. Electrifica- can drive a 35 MW alternator. 1. AFREPREN,Data Sets for Mauritius tion rates remain around 25 to 30 13. C.T. Mbohwa, Adaptation, Deploy- Workshop,Presented to AFREPREN percent of all households. Energy Workshop on Power Sector ment and Use of the Modern Bio Fuel/Bio Reforms: Implications for the Cogen- 8. This plan was in the ZESA 1993 Power Technologies: A Case Study of eration Industry,Quatre Bornes, annual report. The ``Actual Date'' Zimbabwe,Oct. 2001. A power yield of Mauritius,Aug. 24±25,2001. column,which has been added to the 500 kWh per tonne of sugarcane table,helps to assess the historical crushed is expected if bagasse/bio- 2. Zimbabwe Electricity Supply implementation of the plan based on mass integrated gasifier steam turbines Authority,Annual Report,1993. current information. It is very clear are fully developed. that the utility failed to implement the 3. Source: ZESA Annual Reports, 14. Japan International Cooperation plan completely. 1999. The utility's annual reports are Agency: Study on the Promotion of always published late. However,re- 9. This is based on the Zimbabwe Photovoltaic Rural Electrification in cent information has shown that elec- Electricity Supply Authority Annual the Republic of Zimbabwe,Final Re- tricity imports are still high,around 50 Report,1999. The fact that the ex- port,March 1999. The report,con- percent,and coal thermal power sta- change rate has been fixed by the ducted by the Institute of Energy tions still have a dominant role in government since then,resulting in a Economics unit of Japan Fuji Techno- electricity generation in Zimbabwe. parallel market rate which is about 500 survey Co.,Ltd.,provides an economic Hydroelectric power generated is percent of this rate,has disrupted and financial appraisal of photovoltaic shared equally with Zambia. everything. Since the economic dis- systems in Zimbabwe.

August/September 2002 # 2002,Elsevier Science Inc.,1040-6190/02/$±see front matter PII S1040-6190(02)00346-9 91