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Chapter 25 MIDFACE FRACTURES

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Chapter 25 MIDFACE FRACTURES Midface Fractures Chapter 25 MIDFACE FRACTURES GEORGE COPPIT, MD, FACS* INTRODUCTION ANATOMY PATHOPHYSIOLOGY EVALUATION TREATMENT SUMMARY CASE PRESENTATIONS Case Study 25-1 Case Study 25-2 Case Study 25-3 *Colonel, Medical Corps, US Army; Chief, Otolaryngology/Head & Neck Surgery, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, 8901 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20889; Assistant Professor of Surgery, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences 315 Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Combat Casualty Care INTRODUCTION During Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation trauma, which accounts for approximately 70% of Enduring Freedom, more than 7,200 US service all maxillofacial injuries.4,5 However, because of members sustained head and neck injuries, including the high-energy nature of IED-related injuries, the 11,689 facial fractures.1–3 The most common mecha- majority of midface injuries include both bony and nism of injury has been the improvised explosive soft-tissue trauma, and are typically more extensive device (IED), resulting in devastating high-velocity than civilian midface trauma. It is imperative for the injuries.4 According to the Joint Theater Trauma deployed otolaryngologist to have an understanding Registry, the most common site of facial soft-tissue of the anatomy, pathophysiology, evaluation, and injury was the face/cheek (48% of cases), with the management of midface trauma to mitigate the ef- most common fracture site being the maxilla (25.5% fects of injury and maximize functional and cosmetic of cases).3 This is similar to rates of civilian midface outcomes. ANATOMY The middle third of the face, or the midface, can be teriorly, the nasomaxillary (NM) buttress runs from the conceptualized as a system of linked vertical and hori- premaxilla to the maxillary process of the frontal bone. zontal buttresses, designed to bear the physiological Laterally, the zygomaticomaxillary (ZM) buttress runs forces of mastication. These buttress systems surround from the maxilla to the zygomatic process of the frontal and protect the orbits, oral and nasal cavities, and pa- bone. Posteriorly, the pterygomaxillary buttress runs ranasal sinuses. Additionally, these buttresses maintain from the maxillary tuberosity to the sphenoid portion the height, width, and anteroposterior projection of the of the frontal bone via the pterygoid plates (Figure 25- middle third of the face.6–8 The vertical buttress system 1). The ZM buttress is largely comprised of the zygoma is formed by three paired vertical structures running that serves not only as the cornerstone of the buttress from the alveolar process to the base of the skull. An- Figure 25-2. Anatomy of the zygomaticomaxillary (ZM) complex. The zygoma has four critical articulations with the surround facial skeleton: (1) articulation with the frontal bone at the zygomaticofrontal (ZF) suture, (2) articulation with the maxillary bone at the zygomaticomaxillary suture, Figure 25-1. Vertical buttresses of the face. Nasomaxillary (3) articulation with the temporal bone at the zygomatico- buttress (1), zygomaticomaxillary buttress (2), and pterygo- temporal (ZT) suture, and (4) articulation with the sphenoid maxillary buttress (3). bone at the zygomaticosphenoid (ZS) suture. 316 Midface Fractures system, but also provides an important landmark for 2. articulation with the maxillary bone at the midface projection—the malar eminence.7,9 The verti- ZM suture; cal buttresses tend to be stronger than the horizontal 3. articulation with the temporal bone at the buttresses.4 zygomaticotemporal (ZT) suture; and The zygoma is central to normal malar/midface 4. articulation with the sphenoid bone at the zy- projection, with the malar eminence being the most gomaticosphenoid (ZS) suture (Figure 25-2).4,9 anterior projection of the lateral face.4,9 The thick bone of the zygoma makes this the cornerstone of the verti- The horizontal buttress system is comprised of cal buttress system and provides support to the other the superior orbital rims, infraorbital rims, maxillary facial bones.10 Precise restoration of this segment is alveolus and palate, zygomatic arch, and pterygoid essential to successful management of midface frac- plates. It should be noted that the pterygoid plates are tures.7 The zygoma has four critical articulations that important in both the vertical and horizontal buttress surround the facial skeleton: systems.7,9 Additionally, the 45-degree angle between the skull base and the maxilla acts as a supplemental 1. articulation with the frontal bone at the zy- horizontal buttress by resisting horizontal compres- gomaticofrontal (ZF) suture; sive forces.11 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY The degree of fractures, fracture patterns, amount patients with Le Fort fractures and represent a spe- of displacement, and amount of soft-tissue injury cial situation requiring the surgeon’s attention when are determined by the interaction of the following treating midface fractures.12,13 six factors: The prominence of the nasoseptal complex results in frequent nasoseptal complex fractures.4 These can 1. the inherent rigidity (or limited elasticity) of occur in isolation or frequently as part of more complex the facial bones; maxillofacial injuries. The most important consider- 2. the amount of force related to the velocity of ation in the setting of midface trauma (omitting NOE the head, traumatic agent, or combination of fractures from this discussion) is early identification of both; septal hematomas. Blood trapped between the septal 3. the ability of the neck to bend and help absorb mucoperichondrium and the underlying septal carti- momentum; lage can compromise the blood flow to the cartilage, 4. the direction and duration of the applied leading to chondronecrosis. This may result in infec- force; tion and/or a saddle nose deformity. For this reason, 5. the point of impact; and septal hematomas must be recognized and evacuated 6. the mass of the impacting agent.7 in a timely fashion. The prominent position of the zygoma and malar Forces applied to the midface skeleton result eminence makes the zygoma particularly susceptible to in fractures that can be classified as simple nasal trauma. Although the central portion of the zygoma is fractures, nasoorbitoethmoid (NOE) fractures, ZM thick and sturdy, the articulations of the zygoma with complex (ZMC) fractures, and Le Fort fractures. With the ZM, ZT, and ZS sutures are relatively weak and the exception of the simple nasal fracture, all of these susceptible to fracture, with the ZF suture being the fracture types disrupt the vertical buttress system. most stable. Fractures of the zygoma typically result in Regardless of the mechanism of injury or amount of fractures along these suture lines. Although tradition- comminution or displacement of fractures, the ZF ally referred to as a “tripod” fracture (ZF, ZM, and ZT suture is the strongest articulation of the zygoma fractures), this term should be avoided because it fails to the facial skeleton. Thus, there is often a clean to take into account the ZS suture and its associated separation at the ZF suture, allowing this point to fracture. In fact, a ZMC fracture demonstrates five serve as an important landmark for resuspension distinct fractures: of the midface.4,7 The underlying goal of surgical treatment is restoration of the normal relationship 1. lateral orbital wall, of the disrupted buttresses to the skull base.4 NOE 2. orbital floor, fractures are discussed in Chapter 24, Orbital Trauma 3. anterior maxillary wall, and Nasoethmoid Fractures. Additionally, associated 4. lateral maxillary wall, and fractures of the hard palate occur in 15% to 46% of 5. zygomatic arch. 317 Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Combat Casualty Care ZMC fractures can range from nondisplaced, Although the conditions used to originally de- isolated zygomatic arch fractures to severe fracture scribe Le Fort fractures (low-energy blunt trauma in dislocations of the zygoma and surrounding bones.4,9 cadavers) do not accurately represent the types of More than 100 years ago, René Le Fort observed that high-energy injuries seen in modern military or civil- blunt facial trauma tends to result in three predictable ian trauma, the classification system is still useful as patterns of fractures along inherent weaknesses in the a framework to describe patterns of midface injuries facial skeleton. These fractures, collectively termed Le and provide a common language of communication Fort I, II, and III fractures, have in common disruption between physicians. Pure Le Fort injuries are rare and of the pterygomaxillary buttress.4,9 are usually found along a spectrum of injury that may have combinations of different fracture patterns. • Le Fort I fractures involve a horizontal fracture Palatal fractures or fractures of the dentoalveolar through the maxilla and piriform aperture unit deserve special mention. As previously stated, above the maxillary dentition. Fractured these fractures occur in up to 46% of patients with bones may include the nasal septum, inferior Le Fort type injuries.12 These fractures are typically portion of the piriform aperture, canine fossae, longitudinal and parasagittally oriented, because this and both ZM buttresses. area represents an area of weaker bone in the hard • Le Fort II fractures are pyramidal-shaped palate. Typically, these fractures will exit between the and involve the nasofrontal junction, medial central incisors or more laterally between the lateral orbital wall, orbital floor, infraorbital rim, and incisor and canine
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