BRIEFING Gender equality in sport: Getting closer every day SUMMARY Traditionally, sport has been dominated by men, both in terms of participation and governance. Women were excluded from the first modern Olympic Games, held in Athens in 1896, and were only allowed to gradually start joining in four years later. Even though women's presence and involvement in the Olympic Movement have progressively evolved, girls and women across the world still get fewer opportunities and less investment, training and corporate attention when they play sport. Today, women's participation in sports governance structures has slightly improved. The International Olympic Committee currently counts 33 female members and honorary members out of a total of 144. Moreover, fewer than 20 % of the members of the governing structures of affiliated bodies are women. Similarly, in 2015 only 14 % of all top decision-making positions in individual EU sports federations were occupied by women. In spite of the fact that the number of women actively involved in sport has increased dramatically over the past 50 years, female coaches across the globe are a statistical minority in nearly all sports, at all performance levels. In Europe, between 20 % and 30 % of all sports coaches are women. Even though the gender pay gap in sport has been narrowing over the years, it still very much exists. A total of 83 % of sports now award men and women equal prize money, with cricket, golf and football displaying the greatest pay gaps. There are also still significant differences in the media coverage of women's and men's sports. Research shows that sports journalism in the print media is a man's world, with over 90 % of the articles being written by male journalists and more than 85 % of the coverage being dedicated to male athletes. In 2010, in a bid to establish greater equality in the most popular sport for girls and women – football – the European football governing body UEFA launched its women's football development programme and funded an extensive series of projects across Europe to drive growth and sustainability in women's football. The European Parliament has also been consistently advocating for gender equality in sport. As part of the institution's campaign for the 2019 European elections, high-profile players such as Nilla Fischer will be encouraging women to vote on issues that matter to them. In this Briefing Women's (long) road to the Olympics Women in sports-related decision-making Women as coaches Gender pay inequalities Gender-related stereotypes in media representation Popularity and coverage of women's sports events in the EU European Parliament views on gender equality in sport EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service Author: Ivana Katsarova; graphics: Samy Chahri Members' Research Service PE 635.560 – March 2019 EN EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service Women's (long) road to the Olympics Researchers argue that from a gender perspective, sport is one of the most hegemonic social institutions in modern society. Indeed, traditionally sport has been dominated by men, both in terms of participation and governance. Women were excluded from the first modern Olympic Games, held in Athens in 1896. At the time, it was still considered that 'physical effort, like running, jumping and climbing, might damage [women's] reproductive organs and make them unattractive to men'. Pierre de Coubertin – the founder of the modern Olympic Movement – argued that women's participation would be 'impractical, uninteresting, anaesthetic, and incorrect'. He further claimed that the games were created for 'the solemn and periodic exaltation of male athleticism' with 'female applause as reward'. Four years later, women were admitted in Paris, but they numbered a mere 22 – out of a total of 997 athletes – competing in tennis, sailing, croquet, horse-riding and golf. Frustrated by the lack of opportunities for women in the Olympics, Alice Milliat founded the Fédération Sportive Féminine Internationale and in 1921 organised the first Women's Olympic Games in Monaco. The event was a clear sign of women's intentions to rival the Olympic Games; the International Olympic Committee (IOC) responded by requesting that the name be changed. The request was granted and the Women's World Games were thus born. The event took place every four years from 1922 to 1934, and the momentum it created helped the inclusion of a growing number of women's disciplines in the Olympic Games. In 1934, Milliat offered to give up the Women's World Games, provided women's athletics became fully integrated in the Olympic Games and women became represented on the IOC. Whilst Milliat did ultimately disband the Women's World Games when the first part of this request was met, it was not until 1981 that the first two women were appointed to the IOC. From then on, the presence and involvement of women in the Olympic Movement have gradually evolved, reflecting the changes in attitudes and in society at large. The introduction of Title IX of the US Education Act in 1972 opened up opportunities for women athletes and the researchers who studied them, and had a global positive impact on girls in sport. Since 1991, all new sports wishing to be included in the Olympic programme must also feature a women's event. The London 2012 Olympics were the first in which women competed in every discipline. In 2016, some 4 700 women – 45 % of all athletes – represented their countries in 306 events in the Rio de Janeiro Olympics. The increasing number of women in sport helps widen perspectives, bring in new ideas, and reach new audiences. However, girls and women across the world still get fewer opportunities and less investment, training and corporate attention when they play sport. Women who perform 'too well' are sometimes viewed with suspicion and submitted to gender tests. Professional female athletes often face a glass ceiling and a substantial pay gap. Nevertheless, the IOC, which started out by excluding female athletes, now actively promotes women's achievements and supports the promotion of women in sport at all levels through its charter. Women in sports-related decision-making Women in the International Olympic Committee The under-representation of women in sports leadership positions is so common that it often goes unnoticed. When it is acknowledged, change is very slow in coming. There were no women members of the IOC from 1896 to 1981; the situation has only slightly improved in 2019, with 33 female IOC members and honorary members out of a total of 144. Moreover, fewer than 20 % of the members of the governing structures of affiliated bodies, such as the National Olympic Committees (NOCs) and the Association of National Olympic Committees, are women. Perhaps surprisingly, Europe has the lowest representation of women on the NOC general assembly, compared to the other continents represented: Asia, Africa, America and Oceania, (see Figure 1). 2 Gender equality in sport: Getting closer every day Figure 1 – Women in the International Olympic Committee, by continent, 2019 Source: The International Olympic Committee, 2019, own calculation. Numbers do matter. A 2008 study into women's participation on corporate boards confirmed that attaining a critical mass in a group wields more power and can tip the scales one way or the other, whereas 'token' presence can easily be marginalised. Being the only woman board member carries a real risk of tokenism, since a single woman is both highly visible and easily ignored. Research (2012) also shows that when a minority group increases to a certain level or 'critical mass', its presence can alter the existing power relations. Scholars found that to successfully influence the culture of an organisation, a minimum of 30 % women's representation is required for a critical mass, including a minimum of three women on the board. Currently, four women sit on the IOC executive board, representing 26.6 % of the board members. Women in the International Olympic Committee: Milestones In 1981, Flor Isava-Fonseca – a Venezuelan sportswoman and journalist – and Pirjo Haeggman – a Finnish sprinter – were the first women to join the IOC. Nine years later, Isava-Fonseca became the first woman to sit on the IOC executive board. Gender issues started featuring more prominently on the IOC's agenda in the 1990s. In 1995, the IOC established a Women and Sport Working Group to advise the executive board on policies to be implemented in the field of gender equality. The next year, the 1st IOC World Conference on Women and Sport took place in Lausanne, Switzerland. Several recommendations were made, including that the International Federations and the National Olympic Committees create special committees or working groups 'composed of at least 10 % women to design and implement a plan of action with a view to promoting women in sport'. It was also in 1996 that the Olympic Charter was amended to include, for the first time in history, an explicit reference to the promotion of gender equality between men and women in the executive bodies of national and international sports organisations. 3 EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service In 1997, Anita L. DeFrantz – a US Olympic rower – was elected IOC vice-president and became the first woman to occupy this position. A few years later, in 2000, the 2nd IOC World Conference on Women in Sport adopted a resolution requiring to reserve at least 20 % of decision-making positions for women within the IOC's structures by the end of 2005. The same year, the IOC Women and Sport Awards were introduced to promote the advancement of women in sport. In 2004, Gunilla Lindberg – a Swedish sports official – was elected IOC vice-president. The IOC Women and Sport Working Group became a fully-fledged commission.