CHAPTER II: THE REGION AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA
2.1.INTRODUCTION
The study region forms the northwestern part of the North
Arcot-Ambedkar district, Tamil Nadu and covers an area of 600 sq. km in the upper Palar basin. The region does not have any definite topographic setting. It is characterised by the presence of hills, rivers,valleys, plains, dense forests, dry and arid lands, agricultural area, pastoral zone, etc., and each one of these features contributes in its own way to the making of the physical landscape. The description of these topographical features would be helpful , in understanding the region as a whole and patterning of the archaeological sites found therein in particular.
2.2.THE UPPER PALAR BASIN- THE ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND
The region selected for the study occupies the northwestern part of Tamil Nadu. It is surrounded in the north by Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh, Tiruvanamalai-Sambuvarayar district in the west, Chingleput district in the east, and South Arcot district,
Tamil Nadu in the south. The area lies between North Latitude
1245’- 1300’ and East Longtitude 7845’- 7900’ (Map 2.1 and Plates
1 and 2).
The northwestern part of Tamil Nadu from prehistoric times onward, received and assimilated various cultural elements from the neighbouring regions which share similar physiographical features. The environmental factors such as the rivers, the hills, soils, flora and fauna in unison with each other or
21 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AT UPPER PALAR BASIN, TAHIL NADU
22 PLATE.i
A GEHERAL VIEW OF THE AREA OF STUDY
PLATE.2
A GENERAL VIEV OF THE REGION a-5 individually created a symbiotic relationship with human population living in the same background, who alter and adjust them according to their requirements. A brief survey of- these facotrs is given below.
2.2.1,Drainage System
The region is drained by the Palar and its tributaries. The Palar also known as Kshiranadhi (Milk river), is one of the major rivers in Tamil Nadu. It originates in Nandidurg hills of Kolar district, Karnataka and passes through Kuppam in Andhra Pradesh and North Arcot-Ambedkar and Chingleput districts of Tamil Nadu before joining the Bay of Bengal at Sadras, previously known as
Sadurangapattinam, about 60 km south of Madras.
The Palar river has its source on the plateau and drains only small areas of its surface. The river descends to the coastal lowland by passing through gorges on the plateau edge and does not have a deltaic mouth. Above the Eastern Ghats, the river bed is narrow and it widens on the plains. In the state of Tamil
Nadu, the Palar runs to a length of nearly 295 kilometeres with its two major tributaries, namely the Cheyyar and the Poini. The old course of the Palar is through the present-day Kortallaiyar river. It changed to its present course after 12th century A.D.
However, these changes have taken place in the lower reaches of the river at Chingleput district.
In the area of study, the river has two main tributaries, namely, the Kaundinya and the Agaram. There are other small tributaries like the Periyaar, and the Goddar. The Agaram has its source in the Javadis. The Kaundinya originated from the hills of
24 Eastern Ghats. These two tributaries join the Palar at
Pallikonda, a famous Vaishanvite temple site. Netither the Palar
nor its tributaries are perennial in nature. The beds of these
rivers are usually covered with sand during most part of the year. However, the underflow from these rivers is used for irrigation and drinking purposes.
Throughout the region, a large number of irrigation tanks are noticed, which provide water supply to the masses in all seasons.
The Palar and its tributaries feed a number of irrigation tanks.
The presence of tanks or eri in this region is memorized even today in the following phrase *Tondai nadu eri utaithu* (the land of the Pallavas is famous for its water tanks). Agriculture is carried out extensively with the help of these irrigation tanks.
Natural springs are also noticed in the foothill region as well as on the hilltops (Buchanan 1988, reprint of 1807; Cox 1881;
Tiurnaranan 1938; Ramachandran 1980). They serve as water sources for the animals during grazing.
2.2.2.Geology
Geologically, the region is characterised by the presence of discontinuous hillocks of the Eastern Ghats and the Javadis, a major hill formation in northern Tamil Nadu. The Eastern Ghats are less prominent hill formations than the Western ghats, and consist of discontinous hills. The Javadis, occupy a significant place in North Arcot-Ambedkar district. This mountainuous range is separated from the Eastern Ghats by the
Palar river valley. It rises to a maximum height of more than 900 m AMSL. The hills run parallel to both sides of the Palar river
25 and its tributaries (Ramachandran 1980). The hillocks generally
present a rugged appearance as they are covered with only sparse
vegetation. These hills rise to lofty peaks in this otherwise plain and undulating region. However, in certain places, they
diminish in size and merge with the plains.
Due to the pioneering work done by Foote (1879),and others
(Venkatram 1954; Pascoe 1965), we have a clear picture of the
geological formation of the district.
a.Gneissic series: The major portion of the region is covered
with gneissic or metamorphic formation. They comprise crystalline
rocks, which form the basement of the geological formation of
Tamil Nadu. The gneisses are granitoid in nature in the region
north of the river Palar and they give rise to conspicuous
rounded hills and characteristic granitic topography. In the southern part of the North Arcot district, they are micaceous and
hornblendic in character.
The charnokites, another major formations in the crystalline series, are found in the region south of the Palar river forming
the Javadis. The Charnokites are the prominent formations in
these hills (Spate and Farmer 1967). The region is studded with
hornblendic schist, quartzite with bands of limestone and chloritic schists which represent the typical Archaean exposures of Tamil Nadu. In this region, there exist both the intermediate charnokite and the hornblendic gneiss. In the charnokite series,
iron ore in the form of ilmenite, monazite, zircon and apatite are noticed. Closepet group of charnokite series is also noticed.
This is made up of medium to coarse grained gneisses consisting of felspar, and quartz.
26 b.Dykes: Due to volcanic activity, dykes of the Cuddapah system intruded into the Archaean gneisses and schists. In almost all the places, they run in east-west direction. These trap dykes are hard in nature (Cox 1881). c.Cuddapah Series: This formation consists of quartzite and conglomerate of the Cuddapah series. The northern part of the district is covered by this formation. d.Upper Gondwana series: Some of them are fossiliferous. They are noticed on the western side of the district. e.Alluvial deposits: These are deposited by the rivers. Near the
Palar river and its tributaries, alluvial deposits are noticed.
Geologically, the region does not have any complex formation. The major rock type is granitic-gneiss. The granitic rock due to its composition withstands the weathering activities. As this is the only available and durable raw material, the megalithic population used this rock extensively for the construction of burials.
2.2.5.Soil
The Palar alluvium consists of coarse gritty sand and rarely gravel. Both are derived from the coarse granitoid rocks of North
Arcot district (Foote 1873 and 1879; Cox 1881). The soils of the region are of the red ferruginous loamy and sandy varieties. The loamy soil is noticed in the valley. The sandy and loamy varieties are derived from the weathering of granitic rocks. The red soil supports the cultivation of millets and pulses. However
27 they are not suitable for paddy cultivation. The fertile land of the region occurs in the zone of loamy series of soil.
In a few pockets of the western part, clayey black soil is noticed. Usually, they are mainly confined to the riverine zones. In black soil, the loamy variety is more prevalent. The black loam and red loam occupy 50% of the classified area of the district. Clayey black soil is also noticed at some places. The black loamy soil is more fertile than the clayey soil.
However, the soils found in this area support both wet and dry cultivations. The growth of grass in the red soil zone provides pasture to the cattle population.
2.2.4.Flora
The hilly tract and riverine zones have their respective compositions of flora. In the hilly region, long grasses known locally as Man.ii grow among the rocks which provide pasture to the cattle and goat populations. During the dry season, the villagers set fire to it for a renewal of growth. Apart from this, babul (Acacia arabica"). sandra (Acacia catcchu). cactus
(Euphoria tirucalli'). hill aloe (Agave americanus") characterise the hilly region. The Javadis are abundant in sandal wood.
The major crops include (Cox 1881; Subbaiah Mudaliar 1960; Hand
Book of Agriculture 1969),
English Tamil Botanical name name name
Rice nel Oryza sativa.Linn
Sorghum cholam Sorghun vulgare.pers
28 Spiked millet cumbu Pennisetum tvohoides
Finger millet raai Eleusine coracona
Italian millet tinai Setaria italica
Kodo millet varaqu Dasoalum scrobiculatum.Linn
Little millet samai panicum miliare.Lam
Mai ze makka choalm Zea mays.Linn
Red gram tuvarai Ca.ianus ca.ian
Bengal gram kadalai Cicer arietinum.Linn
Horse gram kollu Dolichos biflorus
Black gram ulundu Phas.eoius mungo
Green gram fiayi..ru Phaseolus aureus
Groundnut nilakadalai Arcahis hVDoqaea
Coconut thennai Cocus nucifera
Gingelly vellu Sesamum indica
Castor amanaku Ricinus communis
Neem vembu Melia azadirachta
Plantain valai Musa oaradisiaca
Sugarcane karumbu Saccharum officianarum
Red pepper milaaai Caosicum annuum
Betel-vine vetrilai Chavica bettle
Cotton mr..ythi. gossypium sp.
Arecanut Dakku Areca catechu
The water and soil sources of the region have provided ample
scope for the cultivation of various crops. The abundance in the growth of grasses near the hilly regions supply pasture to the
cattle and goat populations. The region thus supports both agricultural and pastoral activities.
29 2.2.5,Fauna
The region is characterised by both wild and domestic species.
The domestic animals include,
Cattle (Bos indicus)
Bufffalo (Bubalus bubalis")
Goa t (Capra hi reus)
Pi9 CSus domesticus')
C)og CCanis familiaris)
Cat (Felis domesticus)
Elephant (Elephus maximus)
Ass (Equus asinus)
Horse CEquus cabal1 us)
Fowl (Gallus domesticus)
The presence of various animals, especially the cattle population, has always assisted the human population in the agricultural operations and pastoral activities.
In the hilly tract, foxes, monkeys, and many kinds of reptiles are noticed. Due to the felling of trees in the hilly region, wild animals like the cheetah, the bison, the hyena, the boar etc. which were plentiful a century ago have now become extinct
(Cox 1881).
Regarding the avifauna, the common birds are peacock, pigeons, doves, crane, hawks, owls, parrots, vultures and eagles.
30 2.2.6.Climate and Rainfall
The study area falls under the dry sub-tropical zone. The region’s weather cycle consist of four main seasons (Ramamurthy
1968), namely the a) Hot weather season- From mid-February to mid-June. b) Southwest monsoon- From mid-June to mid-October. c) Retreating monsoon- From mid-October to mid-December and d) Cold weather season- From mid-December to mid-February.
The region is relatively dry during hot and cold weather seasons.
The plains are hot while the hilly area is moderately cold. The differences in the climate are due to the existence of different kinds of topographical zones. The average maximum temperature is
39"C while the minimum is 18*C. ( Rainfal 1 and Croppjn 1989). The southwest and northeast monsoons provide rain to the region. The rainfall pattern of the district (Statistical fttlas of the North Arcot District 1965) is as follows: Months Rainfall (in mm) January 21 February 9 March 10 April 22 May 75 June 61 July 85 August 128 September 162 October 165 November 151 December 59 31 PLATE.3 PALAR IN FLOODS As known from this data, the region has more pronounced rains from the retreating monsoon (i.e northeast monsoon) from the months of mid-October to mid-December. Cyclonic rains are also common during this time. The non-perennial river Palar and its tributaries usually get their water regime during this season, and the floods caused by these rivers (Plate 3) are sometime destructive. The rains provided by this monsoon are utilized for the cultivation of paddy and millets. The rains in the dry months of April and May are used for dry cultivation of crops which contribute to the food supply of the majority of the human and animal populations. The average annual rainfall is between 801 m.m and 1000 m .m.(Ramamurthy 1968). 2.3.HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND It is very vital \o know the historical and cultural background of a region in order to understand the larger dynamics of the human cultures of the region. The region has a continuous occupation by human population over a long period of time. Cahkam Period: The region in the early days was an impenetrable forest area and the name Arcot is a derivation of aru-kadu (six forests). Politically, this region is called Aruvavatatalia natu. which was inhabited by the pastoral and agricultural tribes (Kurumbars and Aruvalars). This political unit was divided into twenty-four districts and seventy nine sub-districts (Kanakasabhai 1956). This region of Aruvavatatalainatu. is referred to as Arounarnori in Ptolemy’s work (Rangacharya 1928). The reference to 'Arcati regia sora’ by 33 Ptolemy possibly might indicate Arcot (Cox 1881). In the beginning years of the Christian era, the region contributed in its own way to the development of Tamil literature. In the Cankam period, there are references that many poets and kings hailed from this region. The Cirupannarrupatai. one of the ten long poems produced in the Cankam epoch, deals extensively with the region of Arcot and its environs. The reference to velur in ovmanadu in the Cankam work has been considered as present day Vellore (Champakalakshmi 1975-76). A few scholars attribute pastoral connotation to the region of Vellore (Sethupillai 1954). Another work , malaipatukatam while dealing with the kingdom of nannan mentions in detail a city called chengam. This has been identified with a town in the same name situated in North Arcot-Ambedkar district. A few poems in the eight anthologies mention the region of Arcot as agricultural area (narrinai 190). During the Cankam period, the region was not under the control of three great rulers of ancient Tamil Nadu- the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. It was ruled by small chieftains who owe their allegiance to one of the three rulers. In later period, the land came under the rule of the Tontaiman llantiraivan . the ruler of Kanchipuram. • • Post-Cahkam period: In the post-Cankam period, the region was known as *Tondai nadu*. i.e.the land of Tondaiyars or Pallavas. Tracing their genealogy with the Tontaiman ilantiravan. the later day Pallava kings established their capital at kanchipuram, located some 60km east of Arcot region. Though centre of activity is around the present-day Chingleput district, the region of Arcot was also given its due importance by the Pallava 34 rulers. The Pallavas are said to have constructed many irrigation tanks in this region. The Pallavas, being the builders of great monuments, constructed many resting places for the travellers known as Bharatha mandapa in this district. Chola period: In the early medieval time, the region came under the rule of the Cholas. As the main centre of politics was in the southern Tamil Nadu, this area did not play any vital rule during the reign of the Cholas. At Tirumukkudal in Chingleput district^ where the Palar is joined by its two main tributaries- the Cheyyar and the Poini, the Cholas constructed a temple which also housed a hospital for the masses. Vijayanagar period: During the rule of Vijayanagar kings, this region was annexed to the main empire. The feudatory chieftains of the Vijayanagar Kingdom known as the Nayaks established their power here. These Nayaks of Vellore were instrumental in building the famous Jalakandeswara temple inside the impressive fort of Vellore. British period: In the 17th century, with the advent of the British, there was a change in the political scenario. The region of Arcot became the capital of the Carnatic Nawabs. Most of the places still retains the Carnatic names, such as Walajabad. The region witnessed many conflicts between Nawabs, the British, and the French. Many Anglo-French encounters took place in the Carnatic region. Finally, it rested with the British. The town of Vellore became the ebb of action during the first war of independence in 1806. Thus the region has continued to play a 35 crucial role in the political network of the Indian subscontinent over a long period of time. Regarding the cultural seeting of the region, Vellore,the fort town of Tamil Nadu is situated 35 km east of the area of study. A few modern towns like Gudiyattam, Odugathur, Anaicut and Pallikonda are situated in this region. As to the density of population, it varies from one place to another. The variations occur due to the changes in the physiographical features. The density of population is not high, due to its aridity and hilly terrain. However,the town of Vellore, situated near the Palar has a high concentration of population (Singh 1971; Rainfall and Cropping Patterns-Tamil Nadu 1976), mainly because of the presence of fertile alluvium and the rapid process of urbanisation. As to the role of economy in the cultural and social structures of the region, agriculture occupies a vital position, closely followed by pastoral activities. In the dry land, with the help of irrigation, many crops are cultivated. In the wetland, paddy is the main crop which constitutes 37.6% (Singh 1971). As a rainfed crop, groundnut is cultivated on a large scale (28.6%) (Statistical Atlas of North Arcot District 1965; Singh 1971). Sugarcane, as a commercial crop comes next in prominence. Pastoral activity takes place in the dense hilly region, covered with thick vegetation. Cattle pastoralism is prominent than the sheep-goat pastoralism. Male cattle are larger in number. After independence, small scale industries became popular in rural areas. 36 2.4.ANCIENT LANDSCAPE AS BASED ON LITERATURE The literary data from the Cankam literature has been studied as a source to understand the nature of archaeological sites and their relationship with the physical landscape. The Cankam literature is a collection of Tamil poems belonging to Tamil academy which has been dated between 300 B.C and 300 A.D. The major works of this literary academy are Tolkappivam (Ancient Tamil Grammar work), Ettutokai (Eight anthologies) and pattuppattu (Ten idylls). Unlike other works, the Cankam literature deals with the day-to-day activities of the common people. The stage set for these human actions is the natural landscape. Having realized that the "human behaviour cannot be explained or understood even in its social aspects without recourse to geographic factors" (Rose as quoted in Rajarajeswari 1968:34), the ancient Tamils divided the landscape into five divisions called Aintinai. which form the basic theme of all the Cankam poems. The five-fold division of the landscape include I Kurinci (mountainous zone), Mullai(pastoral zone), Ma rutam (riverine zone), Nevtal (coastal zone) and Palai (arid zone). The tinais or zones not only include the classification of land into five but also the conduct code ascribed to love situations in each division of land. In relation to these two features, each tinai has its own characteristic features such as time, season, fauna, flora, avifauna, occupation and human population (Ramanujan 1967) (see Appendix A), The subsistence of the people residing in these five divisions differ according to their ecological conditions such as, hunting and gathering in Kurinci: 37 animal husbandry and minor cultivation in Mullai; agricultural activities in Marutam: fishing in Nevtal: and cattle lifting and plundering in Pa1a i. According to Tamil scholars like V,R.R.Dikshitar and P,T.Srinivasa Iyengar, these ecological divisions reflect the different stages of mankind in prehistoric times (Sivathamby 1968), Many scholars have approached these landscape divisions of ancient Tamils in different ways, and assigned various zones in Tamil Nadu to these tinais. For example, the Nilgiris and Anaimalai hills to Kuriffci: the Palar-Ponnaiyar trough, Tamil Nadu hills (the Javadis and Shevaroys), and Coimbatore to Mullai: Cauvery delta to Marutam: western and eastern coasts to Nevtal: Tirunelveli and Ramanathapuram to Palai (Srinivasa Iyengar 1989; Selvanayagam 1968 & 1969). Most of these works treat the divisions as distinct and separate entities (Sambamurthy 1968; Zvelebil 1975). Disagreeing with this set of rules and based on the concept of tinaimavakkam mentioned in Tolkappivam. Ramanujan feels that a macrozone may consist of one or two attributes of other zones too (Ramanujan 1967). For example it is not reasonable to assign the Nilgiri hills only to Kurinci because, on account of the presence of rich pasture, the same mountainous zone could be assigned to Mullai also. Based on the criteria enunciated in ancient Tamil literature, the upper Palar basin has been divided into different ecozones and mainly the characteristic features of pastoral, riverine and arid zones of the area are identified. 38 2.5.ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA BASED ON FIELD SURVEY As the upper Palar basin has diverse physical features, the cultural landscape created through human actions in various environmental zones, has provided a different set of archaeological data. Keeping this in mind, four seasons of field survey were conducted during the years 1994-1996 in the hilly tracts as well as in the riverine zone. The survey had brought to light thirty eight burial and habitation sites belonging to the megalithic culture. Among them, some were discovered by the Department of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras (I.A.R and personal communication from K.Kumar, Madras), and the Department of Archaeology, Tamil University , Thanjavur (Rajan 1991-92). 2.5.1.BURIAL SITES The, survey conducted in the upper Palar basin has brought to light two kinds of burial sites; the dolmens and the stone circles. The following compendium deals with the location, nature and description of the burial sites (map 2,1). 2.5.1.1.DOLMENS A dolmen is a table like structure, made out of four slabs with one of them acting as top slab and other three as side slabs or orthostats. The monument is not sunk into the ground and as such does not have any funerary remains; it serves as a memorial or commemorative marking. As there are no human vestiges the dolmens cannot be precisely dated. However, on the basis of the nature and size of the monuments (literally mega-1 ithic), they have 39 0 been assigned to the megalithic period (Rao 1988). In the study area, a few dolmens sites were found. They are found usually on the hill tops, i.e.on the rocky terrain. The hilly region is thickly vegetated with thorny shrubs like the cactus. There are natural springs or sunai near the dolmen complex. Close to the clusters of these dolmens, there is rich pasture land which is being used by the present-day pastoralists. Otherwise the area is dry and arid. Based on these physical landscape features we can ascribe the region to Mullai and Palai ecozones of the ancient Tliterature. This is the reason why the dolmens although-\y^ey occur in hilly area, are not assigned to the Kurinci or hil^^zone. The dolmen sites are noticed only in the north and northwestern portion of the study area. Five sites were found. Site Name Details Rangasamudram 12*57’N 78*48’E Discovered by the author. Location: 6 km northwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: The hill top of Rangasamudram hill situated 1.5 km west of the village; Natural spring water; pasture land. Elevation: 400 m AMSL. Area of the site: 120 m NS X 200 m EW. Total number of dolmens: 20 9^60 Condition: Disturbed. Description: The cap stone of the dolmens consists of a single stone and the side orthostats are 40 PLATE.4 DOLMEN AT RANGASAMUDRAH PLATE.5 DOLMEN AT MELPATTI 41 SITE HAP QF POONGULAM p a s t o r a l l a n d LEGEND DOLMEN N i . ■ ■ ■ ■ ELEVATION 400H ■ ■ ■ ■ 0 10 20 30 40H ■ MAP.2.2 mad© of rubble stones. The stones are undressed. The dolmens face towards north or east. Plate:4 Poongulam 12*57’N 78*47’E Discovered by the author. Location: One kilometre southwest of Rangasamudram. Natural setting: The hill top of Nalikal hill situated 1.5 km north of the village;pasture land. Elevation: 380 m AMSL. Area of the site: 190 m NS X 260 m EW. Total number of dolmens: < 20 Condition: Intact. Description: Mostly, the cap stones and orthostats are made of single slabs. In a few dolmens, the orthostats consist of small boulders. Map: 2.2 Melpatti 12“51’N 78M7'E Discovered by the author. Location: 10 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: The hill top of Melpatti hill situated 1.5 km northeast of the village; Natural spring water. Elevation: 400 m AMSL. Area of the site: 60 m NS X 40 m EW. Total number of dolmens: 3 Condition: Two are intact; one is disturbed. Description: The dolmens are mad© of single slabs. Du© to the excessive weight of the top slab, the side orthostats of one of the monuments 43 M A P . 2 . 3 have collapsed. Plate:5 Pogalur 12*54’N 7 8 M 7 ’E Discovered by Rajan (1991-92) Location: 9 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: The hill top of the Pogalur hill situated 2 km southeast of the village; natural pond roughly measuring 10 xlO m located to the south of the dolmens. Elevation: 400 m AMSL. Area of the site: 230 m NS X 260 m EW. Total number of dolmens: 14 Condition: Intact. Description: A single dolmen was noticed on one of the hill ranges of the Pogalur hill. About 100 m south of this dolmen was a cluster of dolmens. The stone slabs are not dressed. Map: 2.3 Kargur 12"53’N 78*46’E Discovered by Rajan (1991-92). Location: 13 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: The hill top of Pallalakuppam hill situated one km west of Kargur;pastoral land. Elevation: 350 m AMSL. Area of the site: 240 m NS X 350 m EW. Total number of dolmens: 30 Condition: Intact. Description: The dolmens are larger in size.They are found surrounded by stone circles . The slabs used for dolmens are larger and 45 SITE MAP OF KARGUR LEGEND ■ DOLMEN ■ ■ N PASTORAL LAND / 0 10 20 30 40M ELEVATION 340M HAP.2.4 PlJVTE-6 d o l m e n a t k a r g u r 47 intact. Map; 2.4 Plate:6 2.5.1.2.STONE CIRCLES Stone circle is a burial type where the burial area is marked by arranging huge boulders in a circular way. They are in some cases, covered with the cairn packs and they usually contain either a cist (a chamber-like structure made out of four granitic slabs with an opening in eastern orthostat) or a sarcophagus (a terracotta container for human remains). The stone circle sites in the study region are situated at the foothill area nearer to water sources. The vegetation in this region is thick, and in some places pastoral land was noticed. In a few areas, they were found in the agricultural zone too. We can ascribe this region to Mullai and Marutam ecozones, as based on the pastoral and agricultural aspects respectively. Site Name DetaiIs Kamalapuram 12*56’N 78*46’E Discovered by Kumar (personal communication) Location: 13 km west of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill area of Kam^ilapuram hill situated one km north of the village; social forest area; natural spring Area of the site: 100 m NS X 60 m EW Total number of stone circles: 10 Condition: Disturbed 48 PLATE.? STONE CIRCLE AT KAMALAPURAM 49 SITE MAP OF CHERTKARANPATTI agricultural l a n d SOCIAL FOREST AREA i • • (II O N l e g e n d # STONE CIRCLE L (Q) t r i a l t r e n c h n ID 30 hOH MAP.2-5 Description: Some of the stone circles are covered with cairn packs. In some cases, the cairns indicate the presence of circles. A hero stone of Vijayanagara period was found 50 m south of the site. Plate:? Cherikaranpatti 12*56’N 78“46’E Discovered by Kumar. Location: 10 km west of Gudiyattam, Natural setting: Foothill area of Cherikaranpatti hill situated half a kilometre north of the village; small nalah descending from the hill; social forest area; agricultural land Area of the site: 150 m NS X 220 m EW Total number of stone circles: < 30 Condition: Some are disturbed while few are intact. Descri ption: The stones used for the circles are undressed. At a few burials cairn packs were noticed. Some of them were covered by cap stones. The diameter of the circles varies fromStoSm. Map: 2.5 Some of the burials were opened by the local villagers. In the course of presentfield research, a trial dig was made to expose one of the burials which had already been opened by the villagers; they had broken the capstone and removed the top soil. The stone circle measured 7m dia. Digging started at the level of 35 cm. and revealed a cist burial measuring 250 cm NS X 130 cm EW. At the 85 cm level after the clearance of the compact red soil on the western and northwestern sides of the cist, burial pottery was encountered. The burial assemblage included three three-legged jars, a conical pot of BRW and a group of red ware 51 pottery. Most of the pottery contained ash and red soil. A detailed study of pottery typology from this region is attempted under the study of cultural materials (2.7.1.2). No skeletal remains were encountered. Site Name Details Kilpatti - 1 2 ^ 1 — N— 7 8 ^ 4 7 -^ ^ Discovered by Kumar. Location: 9 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill zone of a small hillock, located 50 m north of the village bus stand; agricultural land; the Palar flows 2 km north of the site. Total number of stone circles: 3 Condition: Highly disturbed. Desc ri ption: Huge boulders were used to mark the burial area.According to the local people, there were many stone circles in the past which have been destroyed due to agricultural activities. Ulli 12"58’N 78*51’E Discovered by Kumar. Location: 6 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill rone of Ulli hill, situated one kilometre north of the village; densely vegetated. The Palar flows a kilometre south of the site. Total number of stone circles: < 15 Condition: Highly disturbed. Description: The stone circles are provided with cairn packs which are intact. The boulders 52 have been removed for building purposes. Pachchaikuppam 12*49’N 78*46’E Discovered by Kumar. Location: 17 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill area of Mayiladumalai hill; The Palar flows 50 m north of the site. Total number of stone circles: 10-15 Condition: Some are intact while some are disturbed. Desc ri ption: The boulders are not dressed. No cairn pack was noticed. The stones were destroyed during the construction of Madras-Bangalore railway line. Ramalai 12’50’N 78*53’E Discovered by the author. Location: 6 km north of Gudiyattam Natural setting: Situated 2 km west of Addamalai hill and one kilometre southeast of Tattimanapalli hill; agricultural land; natural spring Area of the site: 160 m NS X 180 m EW Total number of stone circles; 20 Condition : Partially intact and partially d i s t u r b e d . Description; An iron smelting area was noticed in an agricultural land. It is a small black mound locally known as Karimedu. which yielded a large quantity of iron slags and terracotta pipes used for iron smelting activities. A few potsherds having medieval characteristics were found in the iron smelting area. The southern and northern boundaries of the iron smelting area are marked by the presence of stone circles. The local people, a few years back, had removed two stone circles which revealed the cist burials with the characteristic 53 SITE HAP OF RAKALAI LEGEND w STONE CIRCLE agricultural land 0 1 IRON SMELTING AREA N i _ • • 0 10 20 30 40M MAP.2.6 PLATE.8 STOWE CIRCLES AKD IROH SMELTING AREA AT RAHALAI 55 BRW and red and black pottery. No cairn pack was noticed. Map: 2.6 Plate:8 Melpudur 12'*57’N 78“56’E Discovered by the author. Location: 9 km northeast of Gudiyattam Natural setting: Foothill zone of Nagal hill^ situated half a kilometre west of the village; natural spring. Total number of stone circles: 8 Condition: Some are intact and few are d i s t u r b e d . Desc ri ption: The stones are not dressed. Not all the stone circles are circular in shape; One is found to be elliptical. Plate:9 Unaimottur 12*53’N 78"59’E Discovered by Kumar. Location:1.5 km north of Anaicut Natural setting: Foothill area of Unaimalai hill.situated 250 m west of the village; natural s p r i n g . Total number of stone circles: < 10 Condition: Intact Description: All the stone blocks are dressed. The cap stone is visible in almost all burials. The villagers had exposed a burial which contained a sarcophagus and characteristic BRW pottery. Plate:10 56 PLATE-9 'P i •STOHE CIRCLE (ELLIPTICAL) AT MELPUDUR PLATE-10 >-**;.• -V I ‘ • - '*¥!•? ' • r ^ T ^ i - / « ■■ STOHE CIRCLE AT UHAIHOTTUR SI Pallikuppam 12*52’N 78*53’E Discovered by the author. Location: 9 km south of Gudiyattam Natural setting; No hill formations; the Agaram river flows half a kilometre east of the v i l l a g e . Total number of burials: 3 Condition: Highly disturbed Description: Only the remnants of three stone circles were noticed. The local people, a few years back, had removed one of the burials which contained a sarcophagus inside a cist, Sasavanayakanpalayam 12"51’N 78"53’E Discovered by the author. Location: 10 km south of Gudiyattam Natural setting: Foothill zone of Karungal Guddai hill; The Agaram flows half a kilometre east of the si te. Total number of stone circles: 4 Condition: Disturbed Desc ri ption: The stone circles are covered with cairn packs. According to the local people, a number of stone circles were destroyed due to agricultural activities. Muthukumaranmalai 12*26’N 78*56’E Discovered by Rajan (1991-92) Location: 16 km south of Anaicut. Natural setting: Foothill area of Muthukumaranmalai hill, situated 250 m south of the village; Area of the site: 300 m NS X 260 m EW 58 SITE HAP OF HUTKuKUMARAHHALAI r..EGEND # STONE CTRCr.E Q. 'h oc • < •• • • • • • • • L 0 10 20 30 40 i-i Hir.r. HAP.2.7 59 Total number of stone circles: 30 Condition: Some of the monuments are intact. Description: The thorny shrubs mark the area of burials. A few BRW sherds were found. No cairn packing was noticed. Unlike other stone circles which occured in clusters, here they were found in a dispersed condition. Map: 2.7 Kallukuttai 12*46’N 78*54’E Discovered by the author Location: One kilometre northeast of Odugathur. Natural setting: No distinct natural feature exists. Total number of stone circles: 3 Condi tion I n t a c t Description: The stones are partially dressed. The diameter of one of the circles is 20 m. The villagers informed that they found three-legged pyriform jars and skeletal remains of human beings a few years ago.The present village is named after this site. (Kallukuttai in Tamil means stone circles). Madaiyapattu 12“45’N 78“52’E Discovered by Richards (1924) Location : 2 km south of Odugathur. Natural setting: No distinct natural features are noticed; area of circles consists of agricultural land. Condition: Highly disturbed Desc ri pt i o n : In the early 20th century, this site was excavated by Richards and a detailed account of the excavation was published. Most of the burials have been disturbed due to agricultural activities. In one of the burials, a boulder was converted into 60 PLATE, il. ^■- : l’"' _ - - — — l'9-^i^>.r'-/''„...t,:.— ,^„ ',,.^t . . >1,1^:,.~ w ii-' A BOEDER OF A STOWE CIRCLE CONVERTED THTO A VAISHNAVTTE SHRIKE AT HADAYAPATTU 61 a Vishnu shrine by decorating it with a Vaishnavit© symbol. Plate; 11 Chinnapallikuppam 12“46'N 78*50’E Discovered by the author. Location: 6 km west of Odugathur. Natural setting: Foothill area of Rasimalai hill situated half a kilometre east of the village; agricultural land; the Kallaparai river, a minor tributary of the Palar flows 300 m east of the village. Total number of burials: 6 Condition: One of the burials is intact; Others are highly disturbed. Desc ri ption: The stones are partially dressed. A few BRW and red ware sherds were found scattered in the field. This scattering was obviously caused by the destruction of burials and their contents by local people. 2.5.2.HABITATION SITES Besides the burial sites, a few habitation sites were also noticed. The habitation sites in the study area are generally situated in the foothill region, and in the modern agricultural fields. The water sources are formed by either the main river or its tributaries. These usually lie within a radius of two kilometre from the habitation sites. Most of the sites are disturbed due to agricultural activities. Based on their agricultural potential, these sites could be attributed to the landscape of Marutam. Along with BRW pottery , a few medieval sherds were also noticed in almost all the sites, A few sites A7 - PC^TE- 12 HABITATION SITE AT ALIfiJTKUPPAH G3 yielding only medieval pottery were also found in the course of field survey (see Appendix B). The study area has a total number of eighteen sites. A general description of the habitation sites is given below..Isl Site Name Details A1i nj i kuppam 12“50’N 78*45’E Discovered by the Dept of Ancient History & Archaeology, University of Madras (lAR 1975-76 & 1978-79). Location : 18 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Na tu ra 1 SQ11 i ng : Foothill zone of Kallerimalai hill situated half a kilometre west of the village; area occupied by agricultural land; the Palar flows 2 kilometre east of the site. Condition: Highly disturbed. Descri ption: This site was excavated by the Dept of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras.The habitation site revealed the cultural materials belonging to megalithic/ early historic period. It had yielded urn burials too. The soil of this site is blackish clayey in nature. Plate:12 Gurunathapuram 12*52’N 78*48’E Discovered by Kumar. Location: 7 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill area of Adimisanmalai hill situated half a kilometre west of the village; agricultural land: the Palar flows 2 kilometre west of the site. Area of the site: 240 m NS X 150 m EW. SITE HAP OF GURuHATHAPURAM LEGKND <1 PF.RTFKERY ^iARITATTON AREA r V / — — ~ 1 I - r ( 1 I SECTTOW . r t I 1 1 1 o' / f 1 ^ r •f y -r •f 'f ■f ■y T* LN 1 0 10 20 30 40 H HAP.2.a SECTION SCRAPING AT GURUNATHAPURAM HEDIt-VAL DEPOSIT ( NOT SCRAPED ) 0 10 20 3u 40 CM LKGEND PS- POT SHERD RS- RTH SHERD ■S- STONE FIG.2.i B- BONE 66 p l a t e .13. f - f - ^ -.. -V \ f - < V - •• '* 1 •■■ '■* - . ' . V I ^ y " ■H SECTION SCRAPING AT GURUNATHAPURAM G7 Condition: Highly disturbed. Description: The site yielded BRW pottery and other associated wares. To know the nature of the cultural assemblage and its stratigraphical context, a section scraping was undertaken. Map: 2.8. Section scraping: A pit measuring 1 m X 1 m was dug. In the section scraping, the natural soil was not encountered. Three layers were noticed as follows (Fig 2.1 and Plate 13). Layer 1: (1-35 cm) It is a loose ashy grey soil. A few potsherds of medieval period were found. 10 YR 6/2 light brownish grey. Layer 2: (35-65 cm) It is a compact clayey greyish soil. A few red ware sherds and iron ore were encountered. 10 YR 4/2 dark greyish brown Layer 3: (65-110 cm) It is a comapct brownish soil. BRW pottery and black polished ware were found. 10 YR 4/3 brown (65-85 cm) 10 YR 3/3 dark brown (85-110 cm). Site Name Details Kamaraj Nagar 12“52’N 78*48’E Discovered by Kumar. Location: 6 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: The Palar flows 2 kilometre southwest of the village. Condition: Disturbed. Desc ri ption : The modern village of Kamaraj Nagar is located on the habitation mound. The foundation laid for the construction of PLATE.14 HABITATION SITE AT CHENDATKUR 69 houses, exposed a section which yielded BRW and red ware. Chendathur 12’53’N 78*47’E Discovered by the author. Location: 12 km southwest of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: ^ Foothill zone of Chendathur hill, situated 1.5 km north of the village;agricultural land; Pastoral land; a hill stream flows 50 m north of the site. Condition: Disturbed. Desc r i pt i on : An area of 1-3 acres of land yielded BRW pottery along with red ware. Iron slags were also noticed in the northern corner of the site. The habitation deposit was nearly 2 m as revealed by a section in the foot hill area. Plate:14 Paravakkal 12“57’N 7 8 M 9 ’E Discovered by Kumar. Location: 7.5 km southwest of Qudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill area of Paravakkal hill.situated half a kilometre west of the village bus stand; agricultural land. Condition: Disturbed. Description: In an area of 5 acres of land, some BRW sherds along with the medieval pottery were collected. A celt found in the land during ploughing activities, is now being considered as an object of veneration. The area is said to have yielded TO figurines. Erthangal 12’56’N 78’48’E PLATE.15 ROCK PAINTING AT ERTHANGAL 71 PLATE-16 HABITATfoN SITE AT PA K K ^ Discovered by kumar. Location: 6.5 km west of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill zone of Erthangal hill, situated one kilometre south of the village; the Kaundinya river flows 2 km northeast of the si te . Condition: Partially intact. Description: On the hill, rock paintings were noticed.They were painted in white. In the foothill region BRW pottery was noticed. The villagers informed that the area had yielded coins, TC figurines and querns. Plate:15 Pakkam 12*58’N 78*52’E Discovered by Kumar. Location: 5 km north of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill area of Pakkam hill, situated half a kilometre north of the village; the Goddar, a tributary of the Kaundinya flows 2 kilometre west of the village; agricultural land. Area of the site: 165 m NS X 100 m EW Condition: Disturbed. Description: This highly disturbed land yielded BRW pottery along with medieval wares. No rim sherds of BRW were encountered. Plate:16 Tattimanapalli 13*00’N 78“53’E Discovered by the author. Location: 7 km north of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill zone of Tattimanapalli hill; agricultural land. 73 SITE HAP QF TATTTHa NAPALLT LEGEND r t HABITATION ARE? :L s L I SECTION f r Y Y Y / r Y Y •/ / r r •f Y YY Y Y Y Y Y r y f Y ■r Y Y r ‘ Y Y Y Y Y r Y ■Y ■/’ Y Y Y < r r Y Y r Y y YY Y Y - r Y -r Y r - o ' ■ f Y r Y Y Y Y Y Y Y r Y Y T YY YY YY Y Y Y y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y YY Y Y Y YY Y Y Y Y ~r YY Y IT Y Y Y Y Y Y Y r Y Y Y Y Y AGRICULTURAL LAND Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y r r Y ■r Y Y r Y r" Y r y i _ ■r -r 0^ 1 0 2 ^ 30 4 6 M HILL MAF-2.9 SECTION SCRAPING AT TATTIHANAPALLi LEGEND PS- POT SKEk D RS—RIH SKERD S- STOKE B'l- BONE C- CARBON HATERTAC. 0 10 20 30 40 CM FIG. ^ 75 Area of the site: 150 m NS X 260 m EW. Condition: Disturbed, Description: The site yielded BRW pottery along with medieval potsherds.A few TC figurines were collected,which could be dated to early medieval period based on the stylistic features of the figurines. Map: 2.9 Section scraping: A trial trench measuring 1 m X 1.7 rri was dug to ascertain the stratigraphical contexts of cultural materials. Eight layers were encountered (Fig 2.2 and Plate 17). At a depth of 170 cm, weathered granite with red soil was noticed. The layers are as follows. Layer 1: (0-15 cm) Humus,consisting of rubble. 7.5 YR 5/3 brown soil. Layer 2: (15- 55 cm) It consisted of compact brownish soil. A broken pot and a few blocks of stone were encountered. 7.5 YR 4/3 brown soil. Layer 3: (55-70 cm) It was loose in texture as compared to layer 2, A bon© fragment was noticed. 10 YR 4/2 dark greyish brown. Layer 4: (70- 110 cm) It was a thick layer of compact greyish soil, A few small blocks of stone were encountered,along with potsherds of medieval period. A few bone fragments were found. 10 YR 5/2 greyish brown Layer 5: (110-132 cm) It was an ashy layer. A small bone fragment and a rim sherd of red ware were found. 10 YR 6/2 light brownish grey. Layer 6: (132-145 cm) This was a small patch of brownish soil. No cultural material was encountered. 76 PLATE-17- SE.CTTOH SCRAPIKG AT TATTTHAKAPALLI PLATE.18 _ ROCK PAINTTHG AT CHENNARAyAHAPALLI 7? 10 YR 5/3 brown. Layer 7: (145-165 cm) A loose white ashy layer. This level yielded a few 8RW sherds. No rim shards were found. A few animal bone fragments were noticed. Iron slags were also noticed. The layer yielded a large amount of carbon materials. 10 YR 7/2 light grey. Layer 8: It was a mixture of thick clayey soil and disintegrated granitic red soil. No cultural material was found. 5 YR 4/3 reddish brown . Site Name Details Chennarayanapalli 12*57’N 78*54’E Discovered by the Department of Ancient History & Archaeology, University of Madras (JAR 1983-84). Location: 3 km northeast of Gudiyattam, Natural setting: Foothill area of Kolikuthinamalai hill; natural spring water. Condition: Slightly disturbed. Description: At Kolikuthinamalai hill, situated half a kilometre north of the village , rock paintings assignable to the megalithic/early historic period were noticed by the Department of Ancient History & Archaeology, University of Madras. The paintings were made with white pigments. They depict the pictures of men on horses carrying swords and other weapons. During the present survey iron slags and tuyeres used for the smelting of iron were found. A few BRW_ sherds were also noticed. Plate:18 78 Nathamedu 12*55’N 78*54’E Discovered by the author. Location: 4 km south of Gudiyattam. Natural setting:' Agricultural land; The river Kaundinya flows one kilometre north of the village. Area of the site: 25-30 acres of land. Condition: Disturbed. Description: It is interesting to note that ancient site near a village is called Nathamedu in Tamil dialect of the study area. When it is known that there exists a village in the same name, it was decided to explore the village. It has been found that nearly 25 to 30 acres of agricultural land of Nathamedu village yielded BRW pottery along with red ware and a few medieval ware. The depth of the habitation is nearly one metre thick as revealed by a well section. In the well section, a thick layer of ashy greyish soil was found overlying the bed rock. Nagal 12“56’N 78“56’E Discovered by the author. Location: 6 km northeast of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill zone of Nagal hill; Foothill area of Tannimalai hill;agricultural cum pastoral land; A kanaru (wild stream) flows 250 m northeast of the site. Condition: Partially intact. Description: At the foot of Nagal hill, situated half a kilometre north of the village, a rock shelter was found.In the vicinity, an iron smelting area with slags & tuyeres was found, No other cultural materials were noticed. In an agricultural land at the foot of the Nagal hills,a menhir like structure is said to have been removed by the villagers and they found a three-legged jar and black pottery. At the time of author’s visit, a few red ware and black ware sherds were noticed. A habitation site at the foothill 79 area of Tannimalai hill, situated 1.5 km east of the village, yielded some red ware and BRW pottery. Kosavanpudur 12“56’N 78“57’E Discovered by Kumar. Location: 8 km east of Gudiyattam. Natural setting: Foothill area of Kosavanpudur hill; agricultural land. Condition: Disturbed. Description: The foothill zone yielded a few BRW sherds along with medieval pottery. A hero stone was also noticed. Kandaneri 12“54’N 78"58’E Discovered by Kumar. Location: one kilometre east of Pallikonda. Natural setting: The Palar flows one kilometre north of the site; agricultural land. Area of the site: 2 to 4 acres of land. Condition: Disturbed. Description: This site yielded BRW sherds and red ware along with the coarse red ware of medieval period. Pudumanai 12“51’N 78‘56’E Discovered by the author. Location: 5 km west of Anaicut. Natural setting: Foothill zone of Pudumanai hill; the Periyaar river flows one kilometre west 80 of the site; natural spring water; pastoral-cum-agricultural land. Area of the site: 190 m NS X 140 m EW. Condition; Partially disturbed. ______ Description: The site is situated 250 m east of the village,yielding BRW and red ware sherds.A small amount of medieval sherds was also noticed. The BRW and red ware were found concentrated more on the western side of the site. The thickness of the deposit,as revealed by a well-section was more than a metre. Appukal 12*53’N 78*59’E Discovered by the Department of Ancient History & Archaeology, University of Madras (lAR 1976-77, pp 47-48 & 1979-80, pp 70; Raman 1977). Location: 2 km south of Anaicut. Natural setting: . Foothill zone of a small•hillock locally known as Pennivar tippai:agricultural- cum-pastoral land. Area of the site: 200 m NS X 270 m EW. Condition: Highly disturbed. Description: This site was excavated by the Department of Ancient History & Archaeology.University of Madras.It yielded BRW pottery along with red ware. The site is larger in size. A rad ware jar was found in situ in the southern periphery of the site. This site yielded some animal remains. Map: 2.10 Kilkothur 12M8’N 78*56’E Discovered by Rajan (1991-92). Location: 10 km south of Anaicut. Natural setting: Foothill area of Javadis, situated 5 km east of the village; nalah descending from the hill. 81 oc Area of the site: 95 m NS X 190 m EW. Condition: Highly disturbed due to erosion. Description: This site is badly eroded due to the water activity of wild stream. It yielded a small amount of BRW ware and coarse red ware. Iron slags were also noticed. Muthukumaranmalai 12*46’N 78“56’E Discovered by Rajan (1991-92) Location: 16 km south of Anaicut. Natural setting: agricultural land. Area of the site: 75 m NS X H 5 m EW. Condition: Disturbed. Description: The habitation site is situated a kilometre north of the burial site yielding BRW and red ware.The village people informed that the site yielded TC figurines too. Arimalai 12“47’N 78®51’E Discovered by the author. Location: 4 km northwest of Odugathur Natural setting: agricultural-cum-pastoral land. Area of the site: 130 m NS X 170 m EW Condition: Partially intact. Description: This site is important as it yielded a solitary Russet coated painted ware of early historic period along with the BRW pottery.The depth of the habitation site was more than a metre. Plate:19 83 PLATE.19 --•‘^^f.^r.|i.fev;' -v'*.. "' ■ '• HABITATION SITE AT ARIWALAI S4- 2.6.THE PROBLEM OF BRW AND HABITATION SITES Till 1985, no less than 1116 burial sites of early iron age were known in India. As against this, only about 40 habitation sites of this period were reported (Deo 1985). This extermely low proportion of habitation sites applies to Tamil Nadu also. This unequal proportion and the lack of architectural features in habitation sites have led a few archaeologists to postulate that the megalith-buiIders were nomadic pastoralists; they further argued that artifacts like sickles, bill-hooks and grass knives etc., found in the burials indicate a pastoral way of life. The thin habitation deposit has been treated as an indication of a seasonal way of life (Leshnik 1974). Against this background, the presence of more than 15 habitation sites in the area of study is important. They are situated in the foothill zone of small hillocks. Very few sites like Arimalai, and Kandaneri are situated in the plain region. The cultural affiliations of these habitation sites are determined by the presence of BRW. In most of the habitation sites, along with BRW, a small amount of red ware of early historic period was also noticed. Only one site (Arimalai) yielded Russset coated painted ware, which is characteristic of early historic period. Archaeologists have refuted the notion of ''incipient coexistence’’ of megaliths and BRW (Soundara Rajan 1969; Narasimhaiah 1980) because the BRW occurs over a long period of time. Moreover the BRW from the burials is different from the habitation sites in all aspects except the technique. At this juncture a few questions come to our minds: a. What is the BRW of the megalithic habitation sites? 85 b. Is there a distinction between the BRW of the megalithic habitation sites and that of the early historic sites? The questions raised above cannot be answered without a proper stratigraphy and adequate chronolgy. The data from excavated sites in Tamil Nadu treat the BRW from the habitiation area as belonging to megalithic as well as early historic time periods. There is also the emphasis on the notion of '"cultural continuity’’ (Devaraj et. a.1 1995). Can one then assign the habitation sites to the broader cultural phase covering both the megalithic and early historic cultures?. This question remains to be answered. 2.7.STUDY OF CULTURAL MATERIALS Archaeology being essentially a study of material culture, the collection and analysis of cultural materials prove to be of immense value to the understanding of the past culture. Without the evidences deduced from these cultural objects, the knowledge of any civilization would remain unattained. The artifacts or the man made cultural objects in the form of pottery, stone tools, iron implements etc. add more information to the recognition and understanding of various cultural traits that are present in a particular cultural phase. These act as the foundation for reconstructing the material culture of the past. Only through the study of these materials, the social, economic and religious implications of the cpncerned community can be discerned. For example, in the reconstruction of megalithic culture in South India, pottery and iron tools played a significant role. The megalithic culture has become synonymous 86 with its characteristic material objects. As the culture is essentially burial in nature, the reconstruction is based on the burial monuments. However, the other aspects of the culture such as chronology, subsistence pattern, social organization and technological advancements have been studied only through the analysis of the artifacts found in the burials as grave goods. In the course of the present field work, a large number of cultural materials were collected. They include pottery, terracotta figurines, stone, and iron implements. At a few sites, systematic collection of pottery was carried out. All the cultural materials were studied and analysed in detail as given below. 2.7.1.STUDY OF CERAMICS All the sites in the area of study yielded a large number of potsherds. In the analysis of cultural materials, the study of pottery is given additional importance, because it serves as a vital source of information. A brief account of this particular cultural material is given below, as it would help in understanding the role of pottery in the entire cultural system. Pottery, due to its imperishable nature, plays a crucial role in unravelling the complexities of the past culture. Due to its common usage, it acts as a medium to reconstruct the past. The spatial and temporal variations within a pottery assemblage, are helpful to identify characteristic traits of a cultural phase. In the absence of any absolute dating, the occurence of pottery helps to date the cultural sequence. The typological classification of pottery thus is an important aspect in dating a 87 culture. The absence and presence of a particular type of pottery in stratified layers also provide clues to the existing cultural set-up. 2.7.1.1. Mejga 1 ,ith.i_c Burial Pottery Each culture has its distinct variety of pottery, characterised either by the fabric or shape. Regarding the megalithic pottery of South India, the most common varieties include Black and Red ware. All Black ware, and Red ware. Black and Red Ware: This is the characteristic fabric of the megalithic culture. The BRW occurs over a wide span of time. However, the BRW of megalithic culture, is temporally and spatially different from that of earlier cultural phases. The pottery is black inside and red outside. It is commonly believed that this colour was achieved by adopting a firing technique known as inverted firing. In this method, the pots are arranged upside down in the kiln. Due to the oxidizing condition, the outer surface becomes red and the interior turns black under reducing condition (Allchin 1960; Ramachandran 1980; Gurumurthy 1981). A few scholars argue that this colour was achieved through double firing in which a pot was fired twice to get the Black and Red colour (Majumdar 1969 as cited in Gurumurthi 1981). The pottery is wheel turned and is made of well levigated clay. The BRW generally has a fine lustre due to burnishing. It is slipped too. Salt glazing is noticed in this ware, as stated by Wheeler (1947-48). Most of the pottery are fine to medium in texture. The common types are bowls of various categories, globular pots. 88 basins, and dish on stand (Mahalingam 1969). Apart from these utilitarian types, some exclusive types like the conical vessels are also noticed in the assemblage of grave goods. At many sites, this pottery contains graffiti marks and Brahmi inscriptions (Raman 1988; Rajan 1994) which help the archaeologists to date the cultural sequence. All Black Ware: This also forms an important component of grave assemblage. This ware, also turned on wheel, is made of well levigated clay. It generally has a slip and a lustrous surface. This pottery is found in almost all the burials in association with the BRW. The main types include vessels, lids, and ring stands. Red ware: It is usually medium to rough in texture. Grave goods like three-legged jars, and sarcopahgus belong to this category. They are partially wheel made; the legs are luted to the body. Other common type include globular pots. 2.7.1.2. Burial Pottery Typology from Upper Palar Basin. Tamil Nadu In Tamil Nadu, burial pottery was obtained from various sites such as Sanur (Banerjee 1956), Kunnathur (lAR 1955-56,56-57,57- 58), Amirthamangalam (JAR 1954-55), Adichanallur (Mevissen 1991), and Kodumanal (Rajan 1994). In most of these sites, a comprehensive pottery typology was attempted. The major shapes recognised in the burial pottery from the upper Palar basin are as follows: 89 a.Bowls: These are the most common types found in almost all the msgalithic burial sites of Tamil Nadu. They are usually noticed in BRW fabric. A few bowls of burnished and slipped red ware are also known. This type is noticed at Odugathur (Richards 1924), Cherikaranpatti, and Ramalai. b. Conical Vessels; This peculiar type of bowl is noticed at the cist burials at Odugathur and Cherikaranapatti. They are found in BRW fabric. Similar types are noticed at Sanur and Adichanallur. This variety of bowl has tapering sides. They are usually placed upside down in a burial. c. Dishes: They are found only in black polished ware. This was noticed in the cist burial at Cherikaranpatti. d.Miniature cups: Made of black polished ware. Noticed at Odugathur (Richards 1924), The miniature cup is with a saucer shaped base. However, this type in not noticed at Cherikaranpatti. e.Globular pots: This is a cooking vessel type commonly found in the megalithic burials. It is found in red ware fabric. In Cherikaranpatti, a few of these pots were noticed with differences in the rim shapes. Richards also noted the occurence of these pots at Odugathur. f .Three-legged jars: These pyriform burial jars containing the human remains are the general types noticed in the burials at Sanur, and Kunnathur. In the study area, three three-legged jars 90 were found containing ash and soil at Cherikaranpatti. A similar pottery type was noticed at Odugathur (Richards 1924). 2.7.1.3.Description of Burial Pottery In the area of study, the stone circles wherever disturbed yielded BRW sherds along with the red ware and black ware pottery. In the present research, pottery from the trial trench dug at Cherikaran patti is studied as given below (Figures 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7 and Plate 20). The pottery from Brahmagiri,Karnataka, has been taken as index for this purpose (Wheeler 1947-48). 1. It is a bowl with featureless rim. BRW. The pottery is well fired and burnished. It is fine to medium in section. Traces of mica are noticed. Similar to Brahmagiri type C 1 (fig 9). 2. A conical vessel with featureless rim; It is found upside down filled with soil in the northwestern corner of the burial. BRW. It is thin in section and the fabric is fine to medium. The pottery is well burnished and fired. Brahmagiri type C 8 is a variant of this type (fig 9). 3. A small bowl with everted rim in red Ware. Thepottery hasa lustrous surface. This is well burnished, and is made of well levigated clay. The pot is filled with soil, found very close to the conical vessel. Similar to Brahmagiri type C 20 (fig 11). 4. A dish with grooved rim. Black ware. The pottery is well burnished and has a shining surface. The fabric is medium to coarse. 91 POTTERY FRCW CHERIKARANPATTI 92 2 1 /. r-M FIG.2.3 POTTERY FROM CHCRTKARANPATTI 9 3 4 CM FTG.7 A TH k E E l e g g e d j a r f r o m C m ERTKARAHPATTI _ PLATE.20 COKICAL POT FROM STONE CIRCLE AT CHERTKARAKPATTI ~ 9 S POTTERY F kOH CHERTiCARANFATTT lo 11 FIG.2.6 0 1 2 3 4CM • (0 N 5. A small vessel of globular base with everted rim. Red ware. The fabric is slightly coarse. Red slip was applied on the surface. Similar to Brahmagiri type C 23 (fig 11). 6. A small bowl with out-turned rim. 8RW. This has a lustrous surface. The section is thin and smooth. The fabric is fine to medium. Similar to Brahmagiri type C 14. (fig 10). 7. A wide mouthed vessel with everted rim. Red ware. The fabric is coarse. Traces of red slip are noticed. Similar to Brahmagiri type C 21 (fig 11). 8. Three-legged jar. Coarse red ware. It is partly wheel made and the legs are hand made which are luted to the main body. The pot is found with ash and soil. This jar is found covered by a number of pots in the northeastern direction. 9. A bowl with everted rim. BRW. The bowl is well burnished and is made of well levigated clay. It has a lustrous surface. Only the black colour was prominent. However, traces of red slip on the exterior made it possible to attribute this variety to BRW. It is similar to Brahmagiri type C 18 (fig 10). 10. A wide mouthed vessel with thickened rim. Red ware. The pottery is burnished and the fabric is coarse. It is a sturdy ware. Slip is noticed on the exterior. It is a variant of Brahamgiri type C 24b (fig 11). 11. A vessel with grooved rim. Red ware. Grooves are noticed on the exterior of the pottery. It is burnished and slipped. The fabric is slightly coarse. It is similar to Brahmagiri type C 28b (fig 12). 98 12.A bowl with out turned rim. Red Ware. It is a sturdy ware. The fabric is slightly coarse. It is burnished and slipped. 13. A globular pot with ridged rim. Red Ware. It is coarse ware. Temper materials such as. quartz and mica particles are noticed. This pot is found at a depth of IGO cm. It is similar to Brahamgiri type C 29 (fig 12). 14. A pot with everted rim. Red Ware. It is burnished and slipped. The section is medium to coarse. Similar to Brahmagiri type C 27 (fig 12). 2.7.1.4.Burial Pottery: A Discussion In the present study, burial pottery from Cherikaranpatti only was analysed. Apart from the above-mentioned pottery, other ceramic types are also noticed in other sites. As known from the account of villagers, sarcophagus, urns and pyriform jars occur in this region. At Pallikuppam, a few sherds of sarcophagus are noticed. The stone circle at this place is disturbed due to agricultural activities. During ploughing, the local people have come across sturdy coarse red ware pieces. They also reported about the occurence of pieces of legs of the sarcophagus. Urn burials were excavated at Alinjikuppam by the Department of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras (lAR 1975-76;78-79). However, due to the non-availability of published records, no definite knowledge about the burial pottery can be attained. At Madaiyapattu, the excavation of stone circles yielded burial pottery similar to the material found at 99 Cherikaranpatti. The site however yielded varieties of conical pots (Richards 1924). 2.7.1.5.Pottery from Habitation Sites The main varieties of pottery from the habitation sites include BRW, red slipped ware, coarse red ware and russet coated ware (Gurumurthy 1981), Black and red ware: It is not as fine as the burial ware. This pottery is also made by the adoption of inverted firing technique. The fabric is medium to coarse. Most of the pottery is well burnished and slipped on both sides. It is wheel made. The pottery is thin and/or thick in sizes. Unburnished pottery with thick fabric is also a common occurence. In some sites, graffiti and Brahmi inscriptions are noticed (Raman 1988; Rajan 1994), The common types are utilitarian in nature and they include bowls, cooking pots, dishes, globular pots and lids. Red Slipped Ware: This is a very common fabric and is medium to coarse in texture. Slip is noticed on the pale red surface. It is wheel made and sometime burnished. Usually temper is quite prominent and degraissants include quartz particles, mica and feldspar. The general types include bowls and pots. Coarse Red Ware: It is sturdy and coarse in texture. The section is usually thick. It is wheel made. Storage jars, and wide mouthed pots are the common types. «r Russet Coated and Painted Ware: Also known as Andhra ware, it is I h . ^ ^ ( , 0 lOO a characteristic pottery of early historic period. This ware occurs in two forms - red ware and BRW. The pottery is made of well levigated clay. After firing, paintings were executed by applying a thin paste of kaolin,and then a wash of red ochre was applied. The common designs are linear patterns, zigzag lines, wavy patterns etc. They are found at sites like Uraiyur (Raman 1988), Tirukampuliyur and Alagarai (Mahalingam 1970), and Kodumanal (Rajan 1994). The common shapes are bowls. In the course of present field work, pottery was collected from all the habitation sites. At a few sites, pottery was obtained from stratified layers (Gurunathapuram and Tattimanapalli). The sites yielded all the above mentioned varieties. All habitation sites are multi-cultural in nature, yielding BRW, red ware and russet coated and painted ware along with medieval sherds. Three megalithic/early historic sites lying on the banks of the river Cauvery namely Tirukampuliyur (Mahalingam 1970), Uraiyur (Raman 1988), and Kaveripattinam (Soundara rajan 1994) are selected for comparative study. The analysis of pottery is as follows (fig.2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, and 2.14). Most of the pottery is made of well levigated clay and is well burnished. Slip is commonly noticed. There are more than 30 types which have parallels in the sites on the Cauvery basin. 1. A bowl with featureless rim and thin sides. BRW from Tattimanapalli; also found at Gurunathapuram and Chennarayanapalli. Surface is well burnished and slip is also noticed. It has a lustrous surface. A similar type is noticed at Tirukampuliyur 29 (fig 6a). 101 POTTERY FROM HABTTATTON SITES / 4a 4B 0 , 1 2 “1 CM 102 « « N (i t- i’- s h *- K X X u C h- H •< . t" H- ffl • fO o < in 00 Cf) <71 POTTERY FROM HABITATION SITES 10 i J \ 11 K y 12 K ( 13 i 14 1 / 15 ] 3 4 CM FTG,2.10 104 " POTTERY FkOH HABITATION SITES 16 c 17 1 8 19 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 CM f i g .2.I 1 105 POTTERY FROM KABTTATION SITES 21 2 2 22a 0 1 2 3 4 CM' FTG.2.12 106 POTTF.kY ruOM HaKTTATTON s t t f .s 23a 25 26 27 ] FTG 2.13 0 1. 2 3 4CK 107 POiiKkY tkOH KABTTATTON S7TF.S 28 29 f 3 i ) 32 F T G .2 .t 4 0 1 2 3 4CM 108 2. A straight-sided bowl with externally curved rim. BRW from Tattimanapalli; also found at Chendathur. It is thin in section and is well burnished. Slip is noticed, A variant is from Uraiyur 30 (fig 10). 3. A bowl with incurved rim. BRW from Tattimanapalli;also found at Kandaneri. The surfaces are unburnished and the walls are thick. There is a trace of slip. A similar type is noticed at Uraiyur 16 (fig 9). 4. A bowl with everted rim and rounded base. BRW from Tattimanapalli; also found at Gurnathapuram, Erthangal, and Paravakkal. It is burnished and slipped. It is medium to coarse in fabric. This type is quite common.. A variant is noticed at Uraiyur 8 (fig 8). 4a. Variant of the above form from Chendathur. BRW. This pottery is thicker than the previous one. 4b. Variant of the above form from Kamaraj Nagar.BRW. It is thinner in section and has a lustrous surface. 5. A bowl with incurved rim. Coarse BRW from Tattimanapalli; also found at Chendathur, and Nathamedu. This is one of the common types found at the habitation sites in Tamil Nadu. A similar type is found at Uraiyur 10 (fig 10) and Kaveripattinam 10 (fig 13). 6. A shallow dish with incurved rim and thick sides. BRW from Tattimanapalli; also found at Kandaneri- It is thick and slightly coarse. A variant occurs at Tirukampuliyur 37 (fig 6b). 109 7. A lid. BRW from Tattimanapalli.lt is well burnished and slip is also applied. 8. A dish with slightly internally thickened rim. Coarse BRW from Chendathur; also noticed at Tattimanapalli. Temper materials such as mica and quartz are noticed. A similar shape is noticed at Kaveripattinam 3 (fig 13). 9. A bowl with internally grooved rim. BRW from Tattimanapalli; also found at Gurunathapuram and Chendathur. This is also coarse in texture. Slip is applied. A variant is found at Kaveripattinam 1 (fig 13). 9a. Variant of the above type from Nathamedu, BRW. The surface is not burnished and traces of slip are noticed. It is thick in section, 10. A bowl with incurved rim. Coarse Black ware from Nathamedu, Combed designs are noticed on the exterior. Surface is unburnished. Black slip is noticed. Also found at Tattimanapalli albeit without designs. A similar type is found at Uraiyur 13 (fig 9). 11. A bowl with incurved rim. BRW from Chendathur. The pottery is slipped and tempering materials are clearly visible. A variant is known from Uraiyur 31 (fig 10). 12. A bowl with outturned rim. BRW from Pudumanai. The pottery is burnished and has a lustrous surface. It is medium to coarse in texture. A variaint occurs at Tirukampuliyur 2 (fig 6). 110 13. A bowl with featureless rim and a shallow base. Russet-coated - i painted Red ware with criss-cross pattern from Arimalai. This is a solitary piece of russet coated and painted pottery. It is well burnished and has a lustrous surface, A variant is noticed at Uraiyur 20 (fig 9). 14. A straight-sided bowl with featureless rim and flat base. BRW from Arimalai. It is well burnished and has a metallic sound. The fabric is fine to medium. A similar shape is found at Uraiyur 20 (fig 9). 15. A bowl with inturned rim and flat top. Black ware from Gurunathapuram. It is well burnished. A variant is noticed at Kaveripattinam 3 (fig 13). 16. A bowl with incurved rim. Red ware from Gurunathapuram. It is coarse in texture. Slip is noticed. A variant is found at Tirukampuliyur lA (fig 8). 17. A bowl with everted rim. The graffiti marks are noticed on the exterior which resemble the shape of a trident. It is in black ware and comes from Nathamedu, It is well burnished and slipped. It has a shining surface. It is thin in section, 18. A shallow bowl with inturned rim . BRW from Appukal. The fabric is lightly coarse. Slip is noticed . A similar type is found at Uraiyur 25 (fig 9). 19. A dish/ bowl with inturned rim . Black ware from Kamaraj Nagar. The surface is well burnished and slipped. ill 20. A straight-sided vessel with everted and thickened rim. Black ware from Kamaraj Nagar. It is burnished and traces of slip are noticed. A similar type is found at Tirukampuliyur 14 (fig 10). 21. A wide mouthed vessel with internally thickened rim. BRW from Arimalai. The pottery is coarse and unburnished. A variant is noticed at Uraiyur 35 (fig 10). 22. A pot with outturned rim and bulging body. Red slipped ware from Tattimanapalli. The surface is burnished. No parallel is noticed at other sites. 22a. A variant of the above form from Gururnathapuram. The surface is well burnished and the seiction is thinner as compared to the one above. 23. A pot with everted rim. Red ware from Tattimanapalli. It has a lustrous surface. A similar type is noticed at Tirukampuliyur 11 (fig 12). Here, the type belong to period II. 23a. A variant of above form from Nathamedu.lt is thinner and smaller in size compared to the one above.. It is well polished and the texture is from fine to medium- 24. A lid of red slipped fabirc from Tattimanapalli. It is well burnished. It is medium to coarse in texture. 25. A globular pot with everted rim. Red slipped ware from Chendathur. It is thin in section. It is burnished and has a smooth surface. 112 26. A wide mouthed vessel with externally thickened rim. Red slipped ware from Nathamedu; also found at Arimalai. The pottery is slightly coarse. 27. A knob of black ware from Nathamedu. It is burnished and traces of slip are noticed. 28. A lid of red ware from Pudumanai. The surfaces are both burnished and slipped, 29. A straight sided vessel with grooved rim. Red ware from Gurunathapuram. Grooves are noticed on the exterior. It is thin in section. 30. A pot with everted and flattened rim and flaring body. Red ware from Pudumanai. It is coarse in texture. A variant is found at Tirukampuliyur 2 (fig 12). 31. A bowl with thickened rim. Black ware from Tattimanapalli. It is coarse and unburnished. Traces of slip are noticed. A similar type is noticed at Tirukampuliyur 14 (fig 10). 32. A deep bowl with externally turned rim. BRW from Kamaraj Nagar. It is burnished and slipped. It has a lustrous surface. A variant is noticed at Tirukampuliyur 3 (fig 6). 2.7.1.6.Habitation Pottery: A Discussion The problem of identifying the megalithic habitation sites through the study of BRW has already been dealt with. Regarding the function of pottery from habitation sites, the shapes are all utilitarian in nature. Red slipped ware occurs in a large quantity, which is followed by BRW. Only a few black ware sherds 113 and a solitary specimen of russet coated and painted red ware have been noticed in the collection. The section scrapings undertaken at Gurunathapuram and Tattimanapalli have failed to yield any proper rim sherds. Only body sherds of red ware and BRW were encountered. In some sites there is a clear distinction between the concentration of megalithic or early historic pottery and medieval pottery. For example, at Pudumanai, BRW and red ware sherds were abundant on the western side of the site. The concenration of medieval pottery is less. To get a clear picture of these cultural phases, what is needed is a definite stratigraphical and chronological sequence of the cultures. 2.7.2.Iron Implements The megalithic culture is also characterised by the presence of iron implements along with the BRW pottery. The profuse utilization of iron during this period is known through a variety of iron tools found in many burials in South India. A study of iron implements from the South Indian megalithic burials was made by Leshnik (1974) who classified the major types of iron implements into many categories such as short swords, daggers, spearheads, arrow heads, knives, trident forks, battle axes, sickles, bill-hooks, ploughshares, ladles, spoon lamps and tripod stands. Based on the presence of this cultural trait, some scholars prefer to use the term Iron age for megalithic culture. However, the use of this nomenclature seems to be inappropriate in the context of Tamil Nadu, where the iron implements have been found in some burials only. Despite the paucity of iron tools from 114 STT II'Z dVW JiO dvw 3XIS burials, in Tamil Nadu, a number of iron smelting areas have been identified. In the course of the present field work, iron smelting sites were discovered by the author at Ramalai, Nagal and Chennarayanapalli■ The iron smelting site at Ramalai (Map 2.6) is partially intact. Due to agricultural practices, the area is disturbed. It yielded many terracotta tuyeres used for smelting iron. The residue of iron in the form of slags was also noticed in abundance (plate 21). The process of iron smelting turned the red soil area into a black mound. Here, the associated pottery is medieval in nature. At Nagal, an undisturbed iron smelting area (Map 2. 11) is noticed. Chennarayanapalli, too yielded iron slags and tuyeres. Other sites like Chendathur, Chinnapallikuppam, Kilkothur, and Tattimanapalli yielded iron slags. However, no iron furnaces are noticed in these sites. The ores for smelting iron seem to have been derived from the hills of the region. At Nagal hill, the local people showed a heavy stone with haematite content and according to them, it is an ore of iron (irumbu kal). In the early 19th century, Buchanan mentioned the availability of iron ores in the form of black sand which was smelted in the summer (Buchanan 1988, reprint of 1807). The gneissic hills in the region also provide iron ore in considerable quantities (Foote 1879; Cox 1881). In Arakonam taluk of North Arcot-Ambedkar district, a few iron smelting furnaces have been reported and the raw material is obtained from the surrounding area (Dr.Dayalan, personal communication). Regarding the finished products, no implement was encountered in the present field work. The burial at Cherikaranpatti also failed 116 TkOn OB.IF.CiS FkOH hadayapattu (After Ttichardn lfl24,Pjfi-2 and F ig .3). 117 PLATE.2 i TERRACOTTA TUYERES USED FOR IRON SMELTIKG PLATE.22 STOKE CELTS IK A SHRTKE AT GURUKATKAPURAH 118 to yield any iron object. However, iron implements were discovered during excavation of stone circles at Madaiyapattu by Richards (1924). The main implements include iron swords, daggers, axe heads, plates, knives and spear heads. He also reported the occurence of iron sheets in different forms (Fig 2.15). A peculiar feature is the presence of copper discs attached to the iron sheets. Appukal which was excavated by the Department of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras (lAR 1976-77,79-80) also yielded iron implements. However, there are no published illustrations of the objects. 2.7.3.Stone Objects Unlike the preceding cultures, the megalithic culture is devoid of any stone tools like scrapers, choppers and adzes. Stone is used mainly to construct huge monuments. However in the present field survey, in some villages, it was noticed that the stone celts were worshipped by the local people by placing them in a shrine. However, they are not aware of the primary context of these stone celts. In Gurunathapuram, nearly ten celts are kept in a shrine and worshipped as the forms of Lord Ganesha (Plate 22). At Paravakkal, a single celt occupies a prominent position in a temple. It is reported that the site of Appukal yielded a number of stone celts (Gurumurthy 1981). However, during the author’s visit, no stone tool was noticed. At some places (Rangasamudram, Pichanur), grinding grooves were noticed. Whether they are the products of preceding neolithic culture or of the megalithic culture is not known, as the context of the 119 celts is unclear. Apart from the celts, other stone objects like rubberstones, hammerstones, querns, and ringstones were noticed by the author at Appukal, Erthangal, Muthukumaranmalai, Pogalur and Ramalai. They are made of granite. A rubberstone found at Pogalur is polished and the stone used was a fine grained variety. In the neighbouring region, at Paiyampalli (lAR 1964-65; 1967-68), a smooth hammerstone made of quartz was noticed. This site yielded a number of stone objects like pestles and mullers. Stone pestle, mortar and whet stone were reported by Richards (1924) from the burials at Madayappattu. The raw materials used are diorite, and green stone. 2.7.4.Terracotta Objects and Beads Terracotta art is ''one of the most popular medium of the artistic expression of the people from the earliest times’’ (Prakash 1985:19). Using this as an effective instrument, the megalithic and medieval inhabitants of the region produced a variety of terracotta objects. Human figurine is the most popular subject. Only one animal figurine was found in the course of field work. At Tattimanapalli, some terracotta figurines were found by the local people during ploughing activities. Out of 5 figurines, 4 are human figurines. All of them seem to be mould-made. They are executed in a delicate way. A brief description is given below (Plate 23). 120 i j a< < X M < (1 CM • U] QC H a cnJ a W3 2 o < H O • i X ne (<] Eh 1. The head and bust of a male figurine. The eye sockets,, chin and ears are rnarked very prominently. Ornaments like a necklace, and earrings adorn the figurine. There is a crown or kirta on the head. 2. Head of a human figurine. Highly corroded. Eyes and lips are drawn with a thin sharp metal. The nose is pinched. The figurine is adorned with two necklaces, the designs of which are executed in sharp lines. The gender is unknown. 3.Head of a human figurine. It is highly damaged. Only the right ear which is elongated is prominent. The head dress is a simple turban with no decorations. 4.Head of a figurine. Like the above mentioned terracotta figurines, the features are not clear. Only the ears and the head dress are prominent. 5. It is a beak of a bird (could be of rooster or peacock). There is a depression to mark the eye socket. It is painted with red pigment. Based on the stylistic features of the figurines, these could be dated to early medieval period (Mr.Alone, personal communication). A few terracotta objects were found at Gurunathapuram, which were highly damaged due to agricultural activities. A terracotta bead was found at Nathamedu, a habitation site. Two stone beads were noticed at Ramalai and Meenur. 122 Decorated discs, cones and spindle whorls made of chank shells were reported from Nadayappattu (Richards 1924). 2.8.STUDY OF FAUNAL REMAINS Study of animal remains from archaeological sites play a vital role in understanding the food habits of the people, transport mode and the existing ecological system. During the field survey, a systematic collection of animal remains was obtained from the sections at Tattimanapalli and Appukal. A brief description is as follows. 2.8.1.Animal remains from the section at Tattimanapalli 1.Fragments of vertebrae of Bos indicus from layer 4. 2.Part of astragalus of Bos indicus from layer 5. 3.Astragalus of Bos indicus from layer 7. 4.A part of skull of Bos indicus from layer 7. 5.Distal end of humerus of Bos indicus from layer 7, 6.A few long bones are found which, according to Dr.P.K .Thomas (personal communication), the archaeo-zoologist at Deccan College, could have functioned as bone tools. 2.8.2.Animal Remains from Appukal The site yielded a few bone fragments like that of meta tarsel, pelvis, ribs, long bones and dental fragments of Bos Indicus. A noteworthy find is the phalange of eauus species. The bone is smaller than that of the horse and larger than that of the donkey. It could probably be that of a mule (Dr.P.K .Thomas, 123 Personal Communication). Some terrestrial molluscan shells, belonging to the family of Ariophantidae (Dr.Arati Deshpande, Personal Communication), were obtained from the burial at Cherikaran patti. 124