4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

The 7th Symposium of International Languages and Knowledge 2020 (SILK2020)

4th August 2020

At Faculty of Liveral Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom, Thailand

Organizer:

Mahidol University

Co-Organizers:

Thonburi Univeristy (TRU) Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya (RUTS) Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP) Walailak University (WU) Thaksin University (TSU) Srinakharinwirot University (SWU) Chiang Rai Rajabhat University (CRRU) Songkhla Rajabhat University (SKRU) Rajamangala University of Technology Rattanakosin (RMUTR) Rajamangala University of Technology Isan (RMUTI) Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL) Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon (RMUTP) Rajamangala University of Technology Suvarnabhumi (RMUTSB) Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-ok (RMUTTO) Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi (RMUTT) Rajamangala University of Technology Krungthep (RMUTK)

4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

Welcome Speech of the Dean, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University Assistant Professor Dr. Thanayut Thanathiti (ผู้ช่วยศาสตราจารย์ ดร.ธนายุส ธนธิติ)

for The 7th Symposium of International Languages and Knowledge 2020 (SILK2020)

4th August, 2020

At Room 729, 7th Floor of Siriwittaya Building, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakorn Pathom, Thailand

The Vice President for International Relations and Corporate Communication of Mahidol University, the President of Thonburi University, the President of the Thai Simulation and Gaming Association (ThaiSim), the President of Rajamangala (ราชมังคลา) University of Technology Srivijaya (ศรีวิชัย), the Vice Chancellor of Universiti Malaysia Perlis, the committees, distinguished guests and all participants.

On behalf of the Faculty of Liberal Arts, I am pleased to welcome to you to the 7th Symposium of International Languages and Knowledge 2020.

It is an honor of the Faculty of Liberal Arts to host this wonderful international conference. It is also a challenge for us to hold this virtual online conference during the COVID 19 situation. However,

4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

the conference has been well accepted by many professors, students, and researchers with 53 papers submitted for presentation to this conference.

I would like to thank you all organizing members for their kind support in arranging conference facilities. If you have any problems or inconvenience, please contact our staff. They are happy to assist you. However, please accept our apologies for any inconvenience we may have caused.

Before closing, I have to extend further thanks to all of our networking institutions, who greatly helped in organizing these conferences. I am also grateful to many experts who have come to share their knowledge today.

Thank you.

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4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

REVIEWERS

No. Name Organisation Country 1 Sharmini Abdullah (Ph. D.) Universiti Malaysia Perlis Malaysia 2 Rozilawati Mahadi (Ph.D.) Universiti Malaysia Perlis Malaysia 3 Ina Suryani (Ph. D.) Universiti Malaysia Perlis Malaysia 4 Dipima Buragohain (Ph. D.) Universiti Malaysia Perlis Malaysia 5 Harshita Aini Haroon (Ph. D.) Universiti Malaysia Perlis Malaysia 6 Faharol Zubir Universiti Malaysia Perlis Malaysia 7 AfiFah Hanani Universiti Malaysia Perlis Malaysia 8 Norlizawati Ghazali Universiti Malaysia Perlis Malaysia 9 Loo Shih Min (Ph. D.) Universiti Malaysia Perlis Malaysia 10 Rhodora I Delra Rosa (Ph. D.) Central Luzon State Philippines University 11 Norkhairi Bin Ahmad (Ph. D.) Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Malaysia France Institute 12 Rungpat Roengpitya (Asst.Prof. Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 13 Somboon Pojprasat (Asst.Prof. Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 14 Paisan Sukjairungwattana (Ph. D.) Mahidol University Thailand 15 Suppachai Chanwanakul (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 16 Rangsima Ninrat (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 17 Suthathip Thirakunkovit (Asst.Prof. Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 18 Payungsak Kaenchan (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 19 Kornsiri Boonyaprakob (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 20 Wipapan Ngampramuan (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 21 Natthapong Chanyoo (Asst.Prof. Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 22 Tanporn Trakantalerngsak (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 23 Yuwadee Tirataradol (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 24 Wichaya Bovonwiwat (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 25 Pitchanee Sotthiyothin (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand

4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

No. Name Organisation Country 26 Thapanee Musiget (Ph.D.) Mahidol University Thailand 27 Aj. Rhee Seongha Mahidol University Thailand 28 Tassanee Kirisri (Assoc. Prof. Ph.D.) Rajamangala Thailand University of Technology Srivijaya (RUTS) 29 Jutaporn Parapob (Asst. Prof. Ph.D.) Rajamangala Thailand University of Technology Srivijaya (RUTS) 30 Kittima Tantihachai (Ph.D.) Rajamangala Thailand University of Technology Srivijaya (RUTS)

4th August 20202020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

Full paper

CONTENTS

Page 1: Kamonnate Iadkert, Azirah Hashim: 1 An acoustical analysis of diphthongs in Thai English 2: Jirayu Songkhro: 9 Challenges in Teaching Culture in EFL Classroom 3: Lauro Dequina Jr., Phanlapa Khathayut, Treetasat Piboon, Kajohnpong Mahasawad, Karittha Suwanmanee:

16 The Effectiveness of the Tutorial YouTube Video on Conjunctions in Improving the Writing Skills of the First Year EIC Students, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya 4: Achiraya Promsathit, Nattacha Jaihow, Thanyaporn Sriyapan, Metas Panich: 24 Development of Chinese Conversation Blog for Pre-Internship Students 5: Phanlapa Khathayut:

31 “How can I avoid plagiarism, as I don’t know how to paraphrase and cite sources properly?”: An exploration of Thai students’ understanding of plagiarism 6: Jittima Choopun, Arkhom Luksanasakul, Patcharin Kangkha:

41 The Development of an ESP Instructional Material for Electrical Engineering Students of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya 7: Mitchelle R. Juaban, Somporn Maneechote, Peeraya Saraviroj, Kusumaiyah Dunkhade, Chatchawan Nuprasong: 50

Self-Generated Website: Enhancing Academic Verb Acquisition of Thai EFL Learners 8: Ryan Rommel M. Dominguez, Kittima Tantihachai, Chananat Chuvilai, Worapan Jinda, Jenjira Thainthong: 59 The Impact of Self-Generated YouTube Pronunciation Video on Improving Thai EFL Learners‟ Pronunciation Ability 9: Vikrom Chantarangkul:

67 The Effectiveness of an English Research Writing Manual for Students in English for Communication Program 10: Palachai Khaonuan, Patcharin Kangkha, Suchada Buntho:

The Use of an Electronic Student Portfolio to Promote the Undergraduate English 72 Vocabulary Skills at Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya

4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

Page 11: Taksuriya Madsa, Aree Tehlah, Chakrit Wangsa:

81 The Strategy of Language Learning Used in EFL Industrial Students at Rattaphum College, RUTS 12: Umapan Nunsong, Passada Thandee, Awatif Che-awae, Patimoh Yuso: 86 EFL Learners‟ Views on English Idioms Learning through Netflix 13: Siriporn Tichachart, Sirinan Nuypukiaw:

94 Hidden English Learning Obstacles in English Classroom: A Case Study of Public Administration Students of Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University 14: Sirinan Nuypukiaw, Siriporn Tichachart:

102 Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity between First-Year and Second-Year English Major Students at a State University in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya 15: Alongkorn Chantaravipak, Songsri Soranastaporn, Orrathip Geerathivudhipong: 110

The Creative Thinking Ability of Matthayomsuksa 6 students in AEC 4Fun Game 16: Nattapoom Khoomboon, Songsri Soranastaporn:

116 Thai ELF Learners‟ Pronunciations in the Final Two-consonant Clusters: A Case Study 17: Nattapoom Khoomboon:

123 The Variation of Post-copula Nominal Pivots in English there-Existential Constructions: The Corpus-based Analysis 18: Sophea Yin, Natthapong Chanyoo:

133 An Analysis of L1 Interference in the Writing Composition of Cambodian EFL Learners

4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

An acoustical analysis of diphthongs in Thai English

Kamonnate Iadkert1 and Azirah Hashim2

1Department of English for Communication, Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80110 Thailand 2Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia

Abstract. Thai learners who speak Thai as a first language (L1) are typically monolingual speakers of Thai. L1 influence plays a vital role in how Thai learners produce English vowels, especially diphthongs. This study investigated how Thai learners produced six diphthongs, including , , /, , and . This study extracted formant frequencies (F1 and F2) that were used to plot vowel charts in the Bark scale and to evaluate ROC values. The vowel tokens were recorded from the participants reading a passage. The results revealed that and  show the greatest formant movement in vowel height change compared to the other diphthongs. Among the six diphthongs, the positive value of F2 ROC is only in shows no backward movement exists. The participants pronounced the three English diphthongs as Thai long monophthongs , and /, respectively that show characteristics of ASEAN Englishes for monophthongal vowels. Furthermore, the diphthong  was produced as a Thai diphthong . The findings suggested that the diphthongs produced by Thai learners were affected by the Thai language.

Keywords: vowels, Rate of Change (ROC), formant frequency, language transfer

Background and Statement of the problem The speaking and listening ability in English of Thai students have been minimal because they have little chance to practice speaking English in or outside classrooms. The students are trying to translate from Thai to English. They tend to carry the intonation, phonological processes, and pronunciation rules from Thai into English speech. They may also create innovative pronunciations for English sounds, which are not found in the speaker's first language. Ellis [6] stated that learner speech was 'structurally organized' because it constituted a system in its own right. This process called fossilization, when a sound in a second language (L2) consistently replaced with a phonetically sound close to a first language (L1). Thus, speech production in L2 is different from a similar speech produced by a native speaker. Given the role of English as an international language (ENL), which is used in almost the communication domain, amongst several factors hindering the success of English language learning, the English pronunciation of the Thai learners should be focused. According to Weinreich (1953 as cited in [13]), language interference can cause errors in either phonetic and phonology, including sound substitution, inaccurate categorization as mismatching L1-L2 inventories, and misinterpretations of L2 distinctive features. L1 phonology's influence varies among non-native English speakers, especially monolingual ones; however, the phonological transfer can establish the phonological core intelligibility [11]. Some pronunciation features that are not found in Inner Circle varieties of English are shared by the Englishes of Outer Circle and Expanding Circle countries such as Singapore, Philippines, and China. The phonological features are in cases of not only without comprehension interference but also intelligibility enhancement [4]. If speakers' pronunciation feature does not break them being easily understood internationally, there seems little reason to eliminate it. On the other hand, the non-native English variety should be promoted as a part of the standard English that is emerging in ASEAN countries. Vowel production is one of the linguistic characteristics for investigating language varieties, e.g., New Zealand English [21], Nigerian English [10], British English and American English [12]. According to Khan and Alzobidy [12], British speakers prefer // while American // in such words as laugh, draft, and path. Vowel variations for /e/ in the word again between British and American English are // and /, respectively [12]. The variation of vowels is one of the results of the English varieties. One of the vowel variations that are general in the ASEAN region is 1

4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

monophthongal. For example, the diphthongs /and / are pronounced as // and //, respectively [2]. The monophthongal feature does not break international intelligibility even though they deviate from an Inner Circle model such as RP [4]. The main purpose of the current study was to analyze English diphthongs produced by Thai speakers acoustically. Thai has more diphthongs than English, twenty versus eight diphthongs. Five English diphthongs are near equivalent to the Thai ones, /-/---- , whilethree English vowels , /e, and  are not comparable to any Thai diphthongs [9]. Based on the classifications of L2 vowel sounds, nearly all L2 phonetic errors involve sounds that do not occur in L1 (New vowels). Two languages frequently have sounds that may seem identical but which are acoustically different. For example, Thai speakers' English monophthong production is not significantly different from Australian speakers while the English diphthongs /e, and  are monophthongal movement as // and //, respectively [19]. To this point, it can be seen that the five English diphthongs, /, are familiar to Thai speakers, but not the three diphthongs, , /e, and  which can cause the pronunciation difficulty. According to the Speech Learning Model (SLM), adult speakers will establish new phonetic categories L2 sounds that do not already exist in L1 [7]. To operationalize the distinction between new and similar L2 sounds, the SLM employs three criteria for classification. First, the IPA symbols used to represent the sounds of the L1 and L2 are considered. Then, acoustic measurements and finally, the listener's perceptual judgments of sounds in L1 and L2 are employed. An identical sound is one that has the same IPA symbol in the L1 as well as in the L2. The acoustic measurements of these identical sounds in the L1 and the L2 are not significantly different. The identical sound is usually produced authentically because of a process which is called "positive transfer" [7]. A similar sound can have the same IPA symbol, but some acoustic differences between the sounds in the L1 and L2 must exist. Similar sounds must be auditorily discriminable in phonetic categories, such as formant frequencies or duration. A new L2 sound differs acoustically and perceptually from the L1 sound, which resembles the most. Other than the similar sound, a new L2 sound has no equivalent IPA symbol in the L1 language [7]. Additional evidence supporting the SLM prediction indicates that adult L2 learners, provided with sufficient phonetic input, will eventually establish a new category in their vowel repertoire for the new L2 vowels, and these vowels can be produced authentically [7], [8]. Even though the previous studies reveal non-native English speakers produce the latter three diphthongs , /e, and  with monophthongal movement, for example in Brunei English [16], Malaysian English [14], Singapore English [5], [23], there is little research on the diphthongs produced by Thai speakers. From the previous research, non-native speakers possibly rely on their L1 vowel pronunciation regularities and produce substitutions for similar vowels of L1 and L2 [8], [16], [20]. The categories of new and similar sounds of the diphthongs produced by Thai speakers are rarely investigated and compared. The diphthongs' status should be encouraged and to consider what speech features can allow Thai speakers of English to be understood by people from elsewhere.

Objective This study investigated how Thai learners produced six diphthongs, including , , /, , and . For this purpose, this study aims to investigate formant frequencies (F1 and F2) and analyze English diphthongs' formant movement by calculating the rate of change (ROC) produced by Thai speakers.

Expected benefits Some varieties of language are still considered to be almost incorrect or degenerate forms of the “standard” language that is used in formal education and in the mass media. These views are also held by Thai speakers of English that mostly use Thai manners in using English. The results of this study can figure out features of Thai English and should be encouraged as part of regional varieties of English.

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4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 Conceptual framework Two hypothesis of the SLM [7] were chosen as a conceptual framework as follow 1) Category assimilation: The speaker does not create a new category for an L2 sound but, rather, substitutes a similar L1 sound for it in modified form. 2) Category dissimilation: The speaker creates a new phonetic category and produces L1 and L2 differently from each other. Based on the above concepts, the six diphthongs were grouped into two categories including , / and / (new category) and , /a, and / (similar category). The diphthong production can be predicted as follow a) the similar diphthongs are substituted with Thai diphthongs, and b) the new diphthongs are produced differently from the English ones.

Research Methodology Participants Five participants were selected from students majoring in English at a university in the south of Thailand. The participants were all undergraduate females, aged 21 years old, to hold gender and age constant. The first language is Thai. They started learning English from school at the kindergarten level and have never been abroad. These five participants were selected as a result of their achievement in English Speaking subjects from the university that was high (Grade A); moreover, they were recommended by their English teacher. The short interviews gathered language background information to determine if the participants had any listening or speaking impairments and familiarized them with audio-recorded participants. Materials and procedures Each participant was asked to read a passage of the „Boy Who Cried Wolf.' The passage reading was recorded on a Zoom H4n Handy Recorder. The Wolf passage contains 216 words that have plenty of vowel instances for measurement including six target diphthongs , / /, , /a, and /. The five participants' data allow us to consider phonological features of vowels found in this variety of English. The utterances were analyzed using PRAAT software [1]. The vowel measurements exclude either the vowels followed by the lateral /l/ and the velar nasal // or preceded by the approximants // to avoid the influence of neighboring consonants [3], [18], [17]. Based on the Wolf passage, a total of 135 English tokens (27 tokens x 5 participants). There are three vowels of the new category, including , / and / and three vowels of a similar category including , /a, and /. Data analysis The acoustic analysis of vowels was based on an auditory and visual examination via the first author's instrumental measurements. A one-way ANOVA and a paired t-test were employed to detect the vowel features. The values for vowel quality were generated from average F1 and F2 values for each speaker and inverted into a Bark scale based on the methodology discussed in Deterding [3]. F1

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4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

is inversely related to vowel height, while F2 is affected by tongue backness and lip rounding. The rate of change (ROC) was measured to figure out vowel quality [2], [16], [19]. The average values of F1 and F2 for each speaker were extracted at 20% and 80% of a diphthong vowel spectrum. According to Deterding, the F1 ROC is adequate for providing comprehensive acoustic modeling of closing diphthongs [2] because the F1 ROC values can provide how formant movements are. A vowel with unchanging quality of F1 between onset and offset has a small positive ROC, which is exhibited as a monophthong. However, this present study will examine closing diphthongs and a centering diphthong that the F2 ROC should also be concerned. Regarding the F2 ROC, a negative value shows a backward movement. In conclusion, the unchanging quality reflects that a diphthong produced as a monophthong.

Research Results The average duration and formant frequencies (F1 and F2), including either onset or offset, are shown in Table 1, and a trajectory of English diphthongs produced by Thai learners are shown in Figure 2. There were no statistically significant differences among the participants‟ means as determined by one-way ANOVA (p > 0.05). The closing diphthong // is the shortest (0.163 sec) followed by // (0.191 sec) and the centering diphthong // the longest (0.287 sec) followed by the closing diphthong // (0.272 sec), /// showing near average duration (0.235 and 0.236 sec respectively). Tsukada [19] states that Thai speakers produce English diphthongs equal to long Thai vowels. The closing diphthongs // and // in words there and homes and the centering diphthong /in word air are quite deviated and pronounced as long monophthongs //, // and // respectively. According to Tsukada, Thai English diphthongs are produced longer than Australian English diphthongs [19]. The lengthen vowels also occur in closing diphthongs of Javanese English [22]. Regarding a paired t-test, the diphthongs //, //, //, and / showed no significant differences between onset and offset F1 values (//: t(22) = -1.78, p > 0.05; //: t(78) = -1.80, p > 0.05; //: t(47) = -0.71, p > 0.05; /: t(8) = -3.37, p > 0.05) while the diphthongs // and // showed significant differences (//: t(62) = 7.02, p < 0.05; //: t(8) = -3.37, p < 0.05). For the differences between onset and offset F2 values, significant differences were found in the diphthongs //, //, /// (//: t(22) = -16.01, p < 0.05; //: t(78) = 2.74, < 0.05; /: t(22) = 2.68, p < 0.05; // = t(14) = 4.47, p < 0.05) whereas the diphthongs // and / showed no significant differences (//: t(68) = 1.59, p > 0.05; //: t(54) = 1.11, p > 0.05).

Table 1 Average durations and formant frequencies for Thai English diphthongs

Duration F1 (Hz) F2 (Hz) Vowel (sec) onset offset P-value onset offset P-value // 0.272 612 691 0.089 1032 2151 0.00 // 0.163 504 538 0.075 2206 2045 0.01 // 0.236 826 582 0.000 1523 1472 0.53 // 0.191 550 555 0.865 1405 1311 0.27 // 0.235 584 539 0.382 2136 1703 0.01 // 0.287 426 621 0.010 2477 1744 0.00 Average 0.231

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4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

Figure 2 Trajectory of English diphthongs produced by Thai learners As shown in Figure 2, distinct patterns of format movement are observed for the six diphthongs produced by Thai learners. The end of the arrow represents the onset and offset of a diphthong. The great movement of formant frequencies was found in the diphthongs //, //, and // whereas the diphthongs //, // were almost overlapped and /e/ had a small distance between onset offset. The three diphthongs //, //, and // were produced with greater diphthongal movement than the others //, //, and /e/.

Table 2 Average Rate of Change (ROC) for Thai English diphthongs (p > 0.05) ROC (Hz/sec) SD Vowel F1 F2 F1 F2 // -675 6707 542 2333 // 247 -532 1006 3679 // -1775 -818 1024 2058 // 113 -579 1445 3666 // -58 -2650 741 2645 // 921 -3789 1036 2602

The ROC of the first and second formants (F1 and F2) is derived as an estimate of the diphthongal quality, which is done by finding the difference of the onset and offset values and then the value divided by the duration. According to Deterding, the F1 of closing diphthongs is expected to be decreasing, and the ROC is expected to negative as a result of the vowel quality that shifts from an open vowel such as // in // and /e/ in // to a more closed vowel // [2]. On the other hand, the F1 ROC of the centering diphthong // is expected to be positive since the vowel quality a high vowel // to a lower //. From Table 2, the closing diphthongs // and // exhibited negative ROC values, but the closing diphthongs // and // had positive ROC values. It is indicated that the vowels // and // were produced with a diphthongal movement while the vowels // and // were produced as monophthongs // and // respectively. The centering diphthong // exhibited a positive F1 ROC while a small negative value of the diphthong // showed being centralized with a little diphthongal

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movement. It suggests that the diphthong // was produced as a diphthong, whereas the diphthong // was produced as a Thai monophthong //. The second formant frequency (F2) reflects the tongue backness and lip rounding, so the F2 ROC of the diphthong // is expected to be positive while the other five diphthongs are negative, as illustrated in Figure 1. From Table 2, the large negative F2 ROCs of the diphthongs // and //, and the significant positive of the diphthong // showed the diphthongal movement. The diphthongs // and // showed small negative F2 ROC values, suggesting that the diphthongs are monophthongal. Auditorily, the // was produced with less diphthongal movement, although it showed a significant negative F2 ROC value.

Discussions Based on the six English diphthongs produced by Thai learners, the changes of formant frequencies appeared in the diphthongs //, //, and //, whereas the other three diphthongs //, // and // had little changes. The results were consistent with the hypotheses. The production of new category i.e. //, // and // was different from native English speakers that had less formant movement and were substituted with monophthongs. Regarding the similar category i.e. //, // and //, the diphthongs were substituted with Thai diphthong counterparts. The Thai language possibly influenced English diphthongs. The diphthongal movement was quite long that were near equivalent to long Thai diphthongs [19], for example,  in [] „to wait‟,  in [j] „long‟, and / in [m] „wife‟, whilethree English vowels , /, and  were not comparable to any Thai diphthongs [9]. This can be explained that the uses of the Thai diphthongs /,  and still maintained. The lengthen diphthongs are similar to Javanese English‟s closing diphthongs [22]. For the absence of the closing diphthongs / and , and the centering diphthong / in the Thai vowel inventory can be the reason why the Thai learners produce these English diphthongs as Thai monophthongs /,  and //. According to Roach [15], the first vowel in // is generally more open than the vowel in //. The monophthongization of these diphthongs also occurs in other varieties of ASEAN English, for example, Singapore English [23], Malaysian English [14] and Brunei English [16] that do not diphthongize in //, //, and /e English variety [12].

Conclusion and Recommendations The production of Thai English diphthongs has been influenced by the set of diphthongs attributed to Thai language phonetic features. Thai English diphthongs are predicted to be different features from native English. The Thai English diphthongs / and  have minimal movement with positive ROC values of F1 while the centering diphthong  is a little more diphthongal movement with a small negative F1 ROC. These diphthongs /,  and  become monophthongs /, and  respectively. Of all the diphthongs examined, there are three diphthongs //, // and // appear to be obviously diphthongal and substituted with long Thai diphthongs , , and / respectively. The ROC measurements suggested some changes in the production of Thai English diphthongs, and the changes are consistent with formant trajectories. Future research is necessary to investigate the perception of Thai English diphthongs and how they are intelligible to non-native Thai learners from three different circle countries: the inner circle, the outer circle, and the expanding circle.

Acknowledgment We are also immensely grateful to Thaksin University, Thailand, for providing us their students and a place during the course of this research. We would also like to show our gratitude to Dr. Rachel Tan Siew Kuang for her comments on earlier version of the manuscript, although any errors are our own and should not tarnish the reputations of these esteemed persons.

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Reference [1] P. Boersma and D. Weenink. PRAAT (Version 5.3.82). [Online software]. Available: https://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/download_win.html [Accessed Apr. 2017]. [2] D. Deterding, “Measurements of the/eɪ/and/əʊ/vowels of young English speakers in Singapore,” The English language in Singapore: Research on pronunciation, 2000, pp. 93-99. Available: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper. [Accessed Oct. 2017]. [3] D. Deterding, “An instrumental study of the monophthong vowels of Singapore English,” English World-Wide, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 1-16, Jan 2003. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/. [Accessed May 2017]. [4] D. Deterding, “Norms for pronunciation in Southeast Asia,” World Englishes, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 364-377, Aug. 2010. Available: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467971X. 2010.01660.x. [Accessed July 2016]. [5] D. Deterding, “Variation across Englishes: phonology,” in The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes, A. Kirkpatrick, Ed., New York: Routledge, 2010, pp. 385-399. [6] R. Ellis, “The Interaction Hypothesis: A Critical Evaluation,” in Language acquisition and the second/foreign language classroom, E. Sadtono (Ed.), Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre, 1991, pp. 179-211. [7] J. E. Flege, “Second-language speech learning: Theory, findings, and problems,” in Speech perception and linguistic experience: Issues in cross-language research, W. Strange (Ed.), Timonium MD: York Press, 1995, pp. 229-273. [8] J. E. Flege, O.-S. Bohn, and S. Jang, “Effects of experience on non-native speakers' production and perception of English vowels,” Journal of Phonetics, vol. 25, no. 4, 1997, pp. 437-470. [9] K. Iadkerd, and R. S. K. Tan, “Vowel Transcriptions of Thai and English--Some Preliminaries,” In Proc. The Symposium of International Languages & Knowledge (SILK), Songkhla, Thailand, 2016, pp. 87-90. [10] M. Ibrahim Atta, “An acoustic study of Nigerian English vowels produced by Hausa speakers,” M.S. thesis, University of Malaya, KL, Malaysia, 2016. [11] J. Jenkins, World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. USA: Routledge, 2009. [12] A. Khan, and S. A. M. Alzobid, “Vowel Variation Between American English and British English,” International Journal of English Linguistics, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 350-356, 2019. [13] A. Moyer, Foreign accent: the phenomenon of non-native speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. [14] S. Pillai, S. A. Manan, and H. A. Rahim, “The monophthongs and diphthongs of Malaysian English: An instrumental analysis,” English in Malaysia: Postcolonial and beyond, pp. 55-86. 2014. [15] P. Roach, English phonetics and phonology fourth edition: A practical course. UK: Ernst Klett Sprachen, 2010. [16] Salbrina Haji Sharbawi, “The vowels of Brunei English: An acoustic investigation,” English World-Wide, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 247-264, Jan. 2006. Available: https://www.jbe- platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/eww.27.3.03sha. [Accessed July 2017]. [17] Salbrina Haji Sharbawi, “Revisiting the vowels of Brunei English,” World Englishes, vol. 31, no.2, pp. 177-197, May 2012. Available: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-971X.2011.01725.x. [Accessed August 2016]. [18] R. S. K. Tan, and E.-L. Low, “How different are the monophthongs of Malay speakers of Malaysian and Singapore English?” English World-Wide, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 162-189, Jan. 2010. Available: https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/eww.31.2.03tan. [Accessed August 2016]. [19] K. Tsukada, “An acoustic comparison of English monophthongs and diphthongs produced by Australian and Thai speakers,” English World-Wide, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 194-211. Apr. 2008.

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Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233525527_An_acoustic_comparison_ of_English_monophthongs_and_diphthongs_produced_by_Australian_and_Thai_speakers. [Accessed Jan. 2016].

[20] K. Tsukada, “Comparison of native versus non-native perception of vowel length contrasts in Arabic and Japanese,” Applied Psycholinguistics, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 501-516, July 2012. Available: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716411000452. [Accessed August 2016]. [21] C. I. Watson, M. Maclagan, and J. Harrington, “Acoustic evidence for vowel change in New Zealand English,” Language variation and change, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 51-68, 2000. [22] R. Widagsa, “Closing Diphthongs among Javanese Learners of English,” Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 1-10, 2017.Available: https://www.phonetik.uni-muenchen.de/~jmh/research/papers/Watsonetal2000.pdf. [Accessed April 2019]. [23] L. Yin, “An instrumental comparison of diphthongs in Malaysian English and Singapore English,” M.S. Dissertation, University of Malaya, KL, Malaysia, Available: https://www.academia.edu/12856705/AN_INSTRUMENTAL_COMPARISON_OF_DIPHTH ONGS_IN_MALAYSIAN_ENGLISH_AND_SINGAPORE_ENGLISH. [Accessed Oct. 2016].

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Challenges in Teaching Culture in EFL Classroom

Jirayu Songkhro

Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla, 90000, Thailand E-mail:[email protected]

Abstract. Learning culture is one of the vital aspects while learning a new language. Without having a stronghold over cultural context in which that language occurs, students will encounter difficulty to master that language. In fact, this issue has been raised for many decades; however, the confusion regarding the cultural content that should be indeed included in EFL classroom has been still debated. This paper, therefore, focuses on 1) the current trends of teaching culture in Thailand and EFL context 2) target culture or interculture? that should really be the first focus in the EFL classroom, and 3) the effective methods to include culture in the 21st century. At the end of this paper, it is suggested that the students need to acquire both target culture and interculture in order to overcome communication failures.

Keywords: Cultural Content, Teaching Culture, EFL Classroom

1. Background and Statement of the Problem It has long been forgotten that a full mastery of a language does not just mean understanding the rules and using for four skills perfectly. It also requires a full mastery of the culture of that language. In other words, Tomalin and Stempleski [1] claim that “if we learn a foreign language, we also need to learn its culture” (p. 150). Therefore, in order to communicate successfully, one has to be fluent culturally and linguistically. Recently, importance of „culture‟ teaching in foreign language teaching became immensely acknowledged. In foreign language teaching, numerous educators have long advocated that language and culture should be integrated in the language classroom [2], [3]. The reason is that culture is inseparable from language and study. Academically, it has become evident that cultural competence is an integral part of communicative competence [4]. In addition, many scholars in the field of culture teaching, [5], [6] support a diverse range of how to integrate culture into English language teaching or how to teach culture. Thus, in order to be successful in communication, it is imperative for learners to acquire cultural knowledge, and it cannot be neglected in English teaching [7], [8]. Bennett [9], supported that focusing on learning one language structure can cause students to become a „fluent fool‟, or someone who speaks English language well but does not understand social or philosophical issues of that language. These people, therefore, may undergo a problem when they are communicating in a social situation due to lack of cultural knowledge. Chlopek [10] stated that communication that is lack of appropriate cultural knowledge can result in hilarious incidents. Likewise, Purba [11], proposed that language learning is at once a cultural learning. One‟s mastery of the linguistic elements alone does not guarantee he/she will be able to communicate through a language effectively. In Asia where English is mostly used as a foreign language, for instance, „humility‟ has been taught to people and embedded in the society for a very long time. Culturally, most of us are trained to listen to adults without having to speak or comment because silence can be interpreted as acceptance and respect. Apart from this, „smile‟, non-verbal communication in Thai culture, obviously conveys different meanings and interpretations. „Smile‟ can be interpreted as pleasure, happiness, and embarrassment [12]. However, in western countries, „smile‟ is considered as one doesn‟t feel any guilty when doing something inappropriately. Therefore, it is distinct the students should not only acquire the language but they should acquire its culture. It seems to imply that teaching and learning English in EFL context, particularly in Thai context has been based on teaching target culture or standards of British and American. However, considering the current situation which English is now

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perceived as a Lingua Franca, the confusion on which culture, target culture or interculture, that should be really taught in the classroom is still not concluded. This paper also discusses the methods that are really helpful in providing the culture content and create clearer understanding for the students in the 21st century.

2. What is Culture? Academically, culture is defined differently by many scholars. The reason is that the concept of culture is rather extensive. Nonetheless, there are a great number of scholars attempting to define this term. In the 1965, William proposed a comprehensive definition of culture by categorizing into three ordinary issues. Firstly, the „ideal‟ it represents to human perfection, in terms of certain universal values. Second the „documentary‟ in which people is depicted as the body of imaginative and intellectual work. Third, a „social‟ in which culture is a description of a particular way of life, value and ordinary behavior [13]. According to William‟s third categories, it can be stated that a „social‟ definition of culture covers a social value as well as way of life of particular group of people and countries. This proposed definition is similar to Brown‟s [14]. He defines culture as a way of life, in which people exist, feel, think, and relate to others within the same context and culture. In the other words, "It is the 'glue' that binds a group of people together" (p.163). Apart from these definitions, Krachru [15], defined culture as “share knowledge” based on this term, it can be described what people must know in order to act as they do, make the thing they make, and interpret their experience in the distinguished way they do. However, different definitions of culture share identical aspects. To summarize these various definitions, it can be stated that culture exists only in a specific group of people and represents the way of life.

3. The Current Trends of Culture Perspective in the Era of English Used as a Lingua Franca In this era, it is undeniable that English has been broadly used as a medium for communication purposes worldwide. It cannot indeed be said the number of people who use English as a second or foreign language increase each year. It should rather be claimed that the number of people who use English as a Lingua Franca increase each year. Seidlhofer [16] (as cited in Kongkerd, [18]), stated that the majority who use English to communicate in the recent year are from every corner of the world. English, therefore, is spoken with a variety of accents, norms, and cultures. The following figure proposed by Kachru [17] displays clear presentation of „World Englishes‟ which is English is used as a Lingua Franca.

Inner Circle English is first language. (e.g. USA, US, Canada) Expanding Circle English is learned as a foreign language. (e.g. Germany, Japan, China, Thailand)

Outer Circle English is a second language. (e.g. India, Malaysia, Philippines)

Kachru (1985) proposed a visual presentation of 3 circles which shows a group of nations where English is learned and used differently. Inner Circle refers to the nations where English is spoken as a first language (L1) or as a mother tongue language. The countries in this circle are United

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Kingdom (UK), United States of America (USA), Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. Their linguistic norms are commonly used as a model for other Englishes to follow. Outer circle nations are a group of countries that were previously colonized by countries that use English as their mother tongue. In these regions, English is not the native tongue, but serves as a useful Lingua Franca and official purposes between ethnic and language groups e.g. India, Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines, Nigeria, etc. Expanding Circle encompasses countries where English neither plays historical nor governmental role, but where it is however broadly used for international communication purposes. This includes much of the rest of the world's population ranging from 100 million to one billion users such as China, Nepal, Russia, Japan, South Korea, Egypt, Thailand etc. In Thailand, English is categorized in the Expanding circle. Therefore, English has been taught as a foreign language in academic institutes for centuries. However, as the phenomenon of the term „Lingua Franca‟ has becoming a debated issue in English language teaching these days, this creates confusions to Thai English teachers on how or which ways they should follow. To clarify of the role of English as a lingue franca in Thailand, defining the definition of the term is essential. Seidlhofer [16] (as cited in Kongkerd, [18]) defined Lingua Franca as “any use of English among speakers of different fist languages for whom English is the communicative medium of choice, and often the only options” [16], (p.7). It means that a speaker uses English as just a tool to communicate with people but use his/her own accent and culture. This can be claimed that Thai students are allowed to use their own accent and use their own culture (source culture) when communicating with people across the world. Apart from this, they also need to acquire international culture in order to survive in communicating with people from different backgrounds and cultural knowledge. When the students communicate with Malaysian, for instance, they should know the interlocutor‟s culture. Kongkerd [18] and Katchamat [19] confirmed that English as a Lingua Franca has become obvious since the ASEAN Economic community has been formed in 2015 and the ASEAN Charter No. 34 states clearly that the main language used in communication among ASEAN members is English. Kongkerd [18] further added that Thai people will have more chances to work and interact with number of people from ASEAN member countries. In order to be successful in current English context, hence, mastering only English skills from inner circle countries is insufficient. One has to be proficient in listening other accents and acquiring particular culture of the interlocutors. It is likely that English teaching and learning in Thailand will probably have some adjustments on the approaches of teaching English in the classroom according to Lingua Franca phenomenon. Regarding integrating culture in the classroom, it has been listed as one of the five goals in foreign language teaching and learning by Standard of Foreign Language Learning in the New Century [20]. This can be stated that aside from learning linguistic, learning culture is also a must in the classroom. Many decades, learning and teaching culture in Thailand has been focused on target culture which refers to culture of English native speakers. The ideal of teaching the target culture is that once the students learn English, they should absorb its culture in order to create the understandings and avoid communication breakdowns when speaking English. As confirmed by Brown [21] that language and culture are inseparable because both of them share the same component. Lack of culture knowledge can cause communication failure. However, as the aforementioned of Lingua Franca phenomenon, it is not only teaching approaches of linguistic aspects that should be taken into the consideration but also culture.

4. Target Culture or Interculture? That Should Really Be the First Focused in the EFL Classroom Target culture or intercultural culture that should be really emphasized in the EFL classroom has been raised as a hot debated issue in English language teaching and learning. Providing the definitions and characteristics of both cultures are necessary. What is Target Culture? Target culture refers to the culture that is used by native English-speaking countries which are United Kingdom (UK), United States of America (USA), Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. It covers geography, history and achievement in science and arts, architecture, literature, history,

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festival, celebration including the practices performed by the native English. Such practices are bowing, shaking hands, etc. [22]. What is Interculure? Interculture is defined as a common set of conventions, social norms, etc. adopted by a group whose members are culturally diverse [23]. In communication, interculture refers to using one‟s own culture to communicate with others who possesses different culture, for example, when talking with people from China, a speaker should have certain knowledge of the interlocutor‟s culture on what should do and is regarded as a taboo. It is imperative for a speaker to realize the differences, create connections with others, and cultivate mutual respect. To restate, in an intercultural society where people with cultural diversity interact each other, no one is left unchanged because everyone learns from one another and grows together [24]. Which culture that should be really focused in EFL classroom? The trends and perceptions of teaching and learning English nowadays has changed from the original approaches. The goals of new teaching approaches are to encourage learners to create connections between their own world and the world of others and to negotiate or mediate difference. This is hoped to help develop learners‟ abilities to interact and empathize with others and to critically analyze intercultural experiences. It creates them chances to consider their own attitudes and beliefs in a new light, and so gain insight into themselves and others. Considering Thai context, many scholars and researchers have attempted to shed the light on this issue. Some researchers, [18, 25, 19] claimed that to achieve in communicating with people from multilingual and multicultural backgrounds, it is insufficient to master only target culture, but a speaker should know culture internationally and English grammar and pronunciation teaching should not base on the native English speaking model. Nonetheless, it is rather difficult to reach all elements of intercultural communication within a few years. This is because some obstacles such as students‟ attitudes, teachers‟ beliefs, and textbooks or teaching materials are found in the recent research results. Jindapitak and Teo [26] studied Thai tertiary English majors‟ attitudes towards and awareness of world Englishes. The results revealed that Thai learners embraced positive attitudes towards the mainstream inner-circle Englishes than non- native Englishes. Likewise, Katchamat [19] investigated on English Major Students‟ Attitudes toward World Englishes, Native and Non-native English Teachers: A Case Study of Thepsatri Rajabhat University. The findings revealed that most of students did not clearly recognize and were not familiar with the concept of World Englishes. Importantly, most of the students considered that British and American English are Standard English. Considering teachers‟ beliefs, it revealed relatively results with the student‟s attitudes. Saengsukkha [27] explored Thai EFL teachers‟ beliefs about World Englishes with 30 Thai EFL English teachers at the secondary level. It was found that most of the teachers agreed to teach English grammar, vocabularies, pronunciation, and idioms following the standards of British or America. However, both teachers and students realize that learning about diversity or World Englishes is also important. The students in the study of Katchamat [19] agreed that there should be courses related to English language diversity open for the students. Similarly, the teachers in Saengsukkha‟s study [27] viewed that using textbooks contained varieties of English is acceptable and can be useful for the students. However, when deeply look into the commercial books that are available for EFL classroom teaching, it seems to contrast with the current trend of teaching English in EFL context. Pronkandorn and Burutphakdee [28] claimed that British and American English from the Inner circle are the most recognized varieties in Thailand and EFL context as evidenced in textbooks and other instructional materials. Considering the English commercial books used in EFL classrooms, it was found that the content of interculture is still limited. As confirmed by the study of Pasand and Ghasemi [29] investigated an intercultural analysis of English language textbooks in Iran, found that range of cultural topics presented in the book is quite insufficient. Additionally, the textbooks should highlight more about tasks or activities related to interculture in order to help develop the students‟ intercultural competence. Likewise, Obaid, Ismail, Razali, and Mansor [30] analyzed intercultural content of the EFL textbooks used in the intermediate schools in Iraq. The finding revealed that most of the intercultural contents contained in the textbook are fact-stating materials. It is considered by the researchers that these contents do not help Iraqi EFL learners to improve their intercultural 12

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competence. From the above evidences, it is obviously revealed that teaching and learning English in Thailand still adhere to the standards of British or America in terms of grammar structure, lexical, accent, pronunciation, idiom, and culture even though the trend of English teaching approaches has changed as teaching for intercultural communication purposes. This implied that English teaching methods in Thailand cannot be immediately changed, but should be gradually changed, particularly culture contents. It is because the culture information in the textbooks are provided and presented as a fact which is rather difficult for the students understand it. To achieve in communication these days, however, it is undeniably that learning other cultures is also crucial. It is suggested from the evidences that the educational institutes should open more courses regarding to cultural diversity or World Englishes [19]. To sum up, it has been a hot issue of discussion that “Which culture, target or interculture, that should be really focused in EFL classroom?” The answer from the evidences is that they should be equally empathized because the students can benefit both of it. Ur [31] and Kongkerd [18] agreed that the students need to aware of their home culture, international culture and the culture of the native English speakers in the form of verbal and nonverbal in order to be able to apply in their real-life conversation with people internationally to get rid of misunderstandings. However, this will be a hard work for the teachers to balance both contents and cope with the obstacles. To assist the teachers. The efficient ways to include culture in the 21st century in EFL settings where students have less opportunity to be exposed to English outside classroom is presented in the next topic.

5. The Effective Methods to Include Culture in the 21st Century The 21st century is regarded as the age of technology that not only has changed human or business activities, but it also has changed the nature of instruction and learning [31]. In this century, foreign language teachers will have more chances to create effective instructional materials as the technology promotes various learning sources from all over the world not only language structure but also knowledge of culture. With the attractive benefits of the technology, teaching culture in the classroom is more effective as it provides authentic communication in an interactive environment [33]. However, there also some problems in case of the teachers permit the students to independently study culture in the websites though it provides various aspects of culture. Moore [34] studied technology and teaching culture: What Spanish teachers do. It was found that most of students simply “surf the net” rather than being engaged in the learning. This will be a hard responsibility for the teachers to control the students when learners are engaged passively [31]. To help solve the problems, the teachers need to find the interesting activities online that can best attract the students‟ interest. Here are 3 interesting lists of applications promoted by The Tech Edvocate [35] that can be used as a guideline in integrating any sorts of culture. 1. Games for Change This application was created with the aims to bring awareness and change via games. Many of its games have a fee attached, but there are several free games, such as 3rd World Farmer. The game presents issues like war, hunger, poverty, education, etc. An additional free game is Ayiti: The Cost of Life, that requires students to assist a family in Haiti in fighting through a series of trial and tribulations over four years. These applications enable the students to attain knowledge about social changes. 2. Flat Stanley Flat Stanley was produced as a game with the goal to increase reading and writing skills, as well as teaching children about people and cultures from different places. Students can travel to various parts of the world as a paper figure and they can learn various cultures that are totally different from their own. This application will create students‟ intercultural understanding. 3. Reading Rainbow With this app, students will have a chance to enjoy books written by people from various perspectives, cultures, countries, races, etc. They can obtain the knowledge from people with different perspectives so that it will be easier for the students to view the things with understanding.

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6. Conclusion To restate, as the current trends of teaching English as a Lingua Franca, it is indisputable that the direction of English teaching and learning has been changed not only language linguistic, but also sorts of culture that should be emphasized in the classroom. With the evidences that have been discussed throughout the paper on which culture, target culture and interculute, that should be included in the classroom?, it can be concluded that target culture has been ingrained in English teaching and learning in Thailand and some EFL countries. Meanwhile, interculture also pays vital role in teaching and learning English as it comes along with Lingua Franca phenomenon. This paper, thus, suggested that to assist students survive in today‟s communication, the teachers should balance teaching both cultures and select attractive activities that are up-to-date to attract the interest and create better understanding. These will be a big challenge for the English teachers.

References [1] B. Tomalin. and S. Stempleski, Cultural awareness. Oxford, 1993. [2] J. Cummins, “Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children”. Reviews of Educational Research, vol 49, no 2, pp. 222-251, 1979. [3] L. Prodromou, “What culture? Which culture? Cross-cultural factors in language learning” ELT Journal, vol 46, no.1, pp. 39-50, 1992. [4] D.H Hymes, On communicative competence. Philadephia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972. [5] H. Hammerly, Synthesis in second language teaching. Washington: Second language Publications, 1982. [6] R. Lafayette, Integrating the teaching of culture into the foreign language classroom. In A.J. Singerman (Ed.), Toward a new integration of language and culture. Reports of the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference. pp 47-62, 1988. [7] R. Swatevacharkul, “How to Integrate Cultural Awareness and Understanding into English Language Teaching”. Journal of Applied Arts Issues, vol 2, no.6, pp.50-58., 2009. [8] M. Hesar, K.Yafuz, Z. Elham, “Why and how to apply culture in an EFL classroom” International Conferences on Language, Media, and Culture IPEDR. vol. 33, no.12. pp. 68- 72, 2012. [9] M.J. Bennett, "How not to be a fluent fool: understanding the cultural dimension of language". In A. Fantini (Ed.), New ways in teaching culture. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. 16-21., 1997. [10] Z. Chlopek, “The intercultural approach to EFL teaching and learning” English Teaching Forum. vol. 4, pp.10-27, 2008. [11] H. Purba, “The Importance of Including Culture in EFL Teaching”. Journal of English Teaching. vol.1, no.1. pp-43-56, 2011 [12] A. A Damnet, Enhancing acquisition of intercultural nonverbal competence: Thai English as a foreign language learners and the use of contemporary English language films (Doctoral Dissertation, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia), 2008.

[13] R. Williams, The Long Revolution (Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, Middx); first published by Chatto and Windus, London, 1965.

[14] H. D. Brown, (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents, 1994. [15] Y. Krachu, Cultural meaning in world Englishes: Speech act and rhetorical. In Tickoo, M.L. (Ed.), Language and Culture in Multilingual Societies: Viewpoints and Visions (pp. 178-179). Singapore: Sherson Publishing House, 1995. [16] B. Seidlhofer, Understanding English as a lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

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[17] B. B. Kachru, Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: the English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk, & H. G. Widdowson 119 (Eds.), English in the World: Teaching and Learning the Language and Literatures (pp. 11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. [18] W. Kongkerd, Teaching English in the era of English used as a lingua franca in Thailand., 2013.

[19] P. Katchamart. “An investigation of English Major Students‟ Attitudes toward World Englishes, Native and Non-native English Teachers: A Case Study of Thepsatri Rajabhat University” Proceedings pp.1225-1238, 2017. [20] National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, Standards for Foreign Language Learning: Preparing for the 21st Century (SFFLL). Lawrence, KS: Allen Press, 1996. [21] H. D. Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (3rd edn). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents, 1994. [22] National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, Standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Author, 2006. [23] Reklis, Definition of interculture, n.d.

[24] Schriefer .(2016).What‟s the difference between multicultural, intercultural, and cross-cultural communication?, 2016. [25] S. Sirikhan, “The Preparation of Thai English Teachers‟ Attitudes and Empowering Concepts Concerning English As A Lingua Franca for ASEAN”. FEU Academic Review, vol. 8, no. 1. pp.46-60, 2014. [26] N. Jindapitak, and A. Teo, “Thai tertiary English majors‟ attitudes towards and awareness of world Englishes”. Journal of English Studies, vol.7. pp.74-116., 2012. [27] R. Saengsukkha, “Thai EFL Teachers‟ Beliefs about World Englishes”. Published M.A. thesis, Thammasat University: Thailand, 2015 [28] S. Pronkandorn, and A. Burutphakdee, “Post-Vocaltic /R/ among English Major Students at Thai Tertiary Level 1”. 3rd International Conference on Language, Literature, and Cultural Studies, July 19-20, 2018. pp.267-278, 2018. [29] P.G. Pasand, and A.A. Ghasemi, “An intercultural analysis of English language textbooks in Iran: The case of English Prospect Series”. Journal of Applied Language Studies, vol 12. No.1. pp. 55-70, 2018. [30] A. A.Obaid, L.Ismail, A. Razali, and N. S. Mansor, “A Descriptive Analysis of Intercultural Content of the Efl Textbooks Used in the Intermediate Schools in Iraq”. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, vol.8 no.4. pp. 738–756., 2019. [31] P. Ur, Grammar practice activities (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. [32] O. Dema, and A.K. Moeller, “Teaching culture in the 21st century language classroom. Faculty Publications”: Department of Teaching, Learning and Teacher Education. vol 181, 2012. [33] L. Lee, “Promoting intercultural exchanges with blogs and podcasting: A study of Spanish- American telecollaboration” Computer Assisted Language Learning, vol.22 no.5, pp. 425-443, 2009. [34] Z. Moore, “Technology and teaching culture: What Spanish teachers do”. Foreign Language Annals, vol. 39. no.4. pp 579-594, 2006. [35] The Tech Edvocate. 9 Apps for Teaching Global Cultural Awareness and Sensitivity, 2017.

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The Effectiveness of the Tutorial YouTube Video on Conjunctions in Improving the Writing Skills of the First Year EIC Students, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya

Lauro Dequina Jr.1, Phanlapa Khathayut2 , Treetasat Piboon3 , Kajohnpong Mahasawad4, Karittha Suwanmanee5

1,2,3,4,5Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla, 90000, Thailand

Abstract. Conjunctions are essential elements in the development of writing skills. They are crucial in linking ideas and so learners must be able to accurately use these connectives. The common problems encountered by the students in the application of conjunctions in their writing are caused by their lack of understanding, knowledge, or their low proficiency in this particular part of speech. The purpose of this research is to enhance the learners‟ knowledgeability and understanding of the use of conjunctions through the tutorial YouTube video. The researchers compared the scores obtained by the 20 first year EIC students in both pre-test and post-test which the samples took before and after they viewed the tutorial video. The respondents rated the instructional video through the use of a satisfaction assessment survey questionnaire. The results showed that the test scores of the samples increased after watching the tutorial YouTube video, and they regarded the material as satisfactory. Furthermore, when the learners‟ pre-test and post-test results were compared, it was found that after watching the tutorial YouTube video, the test scores showed a statistical significance (p <0.01) which indicates an improvement of the learners‟ skills in applying conjunctions in their writing, hence the tutorial YouTube video is effective.

Keywords: Effectiveness, YouTube Video, Improving, Conjunctions, Writing skills

Background and Statement of the problem Writing is one of the communication skills language teachers aim to develop in their learners and strive to find the best way to teach it as they know how this skill can help people discover ideas, relationships, connections, patterns in their lives and in the world. In college, students write to discover paper topics, develop those topics, expand ideas, and connect seemingly unrelated material in coherent patterns. In this sense, writing is one of the most powerful learning tools available [1]. Apart from the importance of having a wide range of vocabulary, learners must likewise be knowledgeable of grammar and syntax and must learn how to establish connections between sentences in their compositions. One of the ways learners can achieve comprehensible and cohesive ideas when they write is to be familiar with the use of linkers or connectives like conjunctions.These linkers are one of the five linguistic mechanisms [2] pointed in order for a text to have cohesion as they are essential in showing relationship between sentences or paragraph [3]. Conjunctions are defined by Swan [4] as words used to join clauses together. He explains that students who speak other languages (Arabic or Chinese, for example) may find it difficult to use English conjunctions correctly. Some of the main problems he mentioned are using double conjunctions like „although, but‟, „because, so‟ together in a sentence and using conjunctions in an incomplete sentence or thought. Aphisuntharangkul [5] explains that learners are unable to create more complex sentences or conversations in various writing styles because they have never practiced using conjunctions to connect phrases or sentences resulting in duplication of content and lack of interest. Since writing is a complex combination of skills, there are several writing skill areas where students need to further improve and the application of conjunction is an important one in linking the ideas they put into their writing.

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The problem of the learners concerning the use of conjunctions is what this study intends to address. Conventionally, students learn writing through books and worksheets. In this era of modernization and the use of digital learning, teachers now are utilizing technology in the classroom. Furthermore, the use of Internet and social media applications have become trends among teachers as the learners during this period are exposed to social media daily.In this regard, the researchers considered investigating the effectiveness of using a tutorial YouTube video as Nonthamand [6] explains that videos are considered popular and important educational media these days as they are more appealing to viewers than communicating through text and images.Aside from the development of the learners‟ interest, participation, and engagement, YouTube can stimulate learners‟ critical thinking skills [7]. Also, Kwan et al. [8] explains that the increasing demands of learning through YouTube can positively transform the learning ecology. All of these assumptions and information on the use of YouTubein teaching show that thissocialmedia tool has the potential to improve learners‟ skills.

Purpose of the study

This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of the tutorial YouTube video on conjunctions in improving the writing skills of the first year English for International Communication students, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya.

Literature Review

Using conjunctions in students’ writing

One essential element of writing as a skill is the application of conjunctions in writing. There are three main types of Conjunctions in English. The first one is the coordinating conjunction which joins structural units and is grammatically independent of this unit [9] The coordinators in English are „for‟, „and‟, „nor‟, „but‟, „or‟, and „yet‟. The second type is called subordinating conjunction which joins clauses where in one depends for full meaning [10]. Some examples of subordinators are „because‟, although‟, „if‟, „when‟, and „unless‟. The last type of this part of speech is the correlative conjunction. These conjunctions are always in pair such as „either... or‟, „neither... nor‟, „not only... but also‟, and „whether...or‟. Conjunctions are essential types of connectors which learners may overuse, underuse, and even misuse in their writing. Familiarity of these types of connectors can help the students better apply them in writing [11]. Nugroho [12] identified the learners‟ difficulties in using conjunction in writing, namely, not being able to understand the meaning of the conjunctions, lack of knowledge and understanding how to use conjunctions, and punctuation mark issues upon using conjunctions. Pangaribuanet al. [13] investigated the students‟ error in using certain conjunctions in sentences and found that students‟ errors in applying conjunctions in their sentences are caused by interlingual, carelessness, and context. Supreya et al. [14] explains that cohesive devices are important for translators to have a coherent work and that conjunctions are important cohesive devices which semantically bind clauses together. Using YouTube tutorial video to improve students’ writing skills

When aiming to address learners‟ writing problems, teachers essentially should explore various methods and examine how they work in facilitating the students‟ learning process in writing. Using the Internet in education has a positive influence on the learning and teaching process, particularly in classes [15] which is also supported by Boster et al. [16]. YouTube has become popular among instructors to utilize in their English language teaching [17] as it is an attractive social medium [18] and is known to have a positive impact on the teaching-learning process, for it offers fun and fast access to instruction [19]. Using YouTube clips is a new method for teaching English and it is proven effective [20].Maryani and Aguskin [21] investigated the use of YouTube video clips to develop the students‟ understanding of the target topic and their findings show that the students‟ understanding towards the topic has improved due to watching YouTube video clips.In fact, Berk [22] 17

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provides 15 benefits regarding why videos should be used in teaching, and YouTube is one of the effective tools to motivate students‟ learning. Almurashi [23] also writes that it is important to use new method for teaching so that the class becomes more interesting and enjoyable.

Based on the findings of the researchers who delved into and conducted studies onusing video teaching materials, it can be said that such are advantageous to capture learners‟ attention easily and motivate them to learn. Thus, the researchers designed an instructional YouTube video with in-depth and easy-to-understand content to teach the students about conjunctions and address their problems or difficulties in applying linkers in their writing.

Research Methodology

The respondents of this study were 20 first year EIC students (transfer credits). The statistics used in the analysis of the quality of the research instruments, namely, the tutorial YouTube video, the satisfaction questionnaire, and the test (pre-test and post-test) was the Index of Item Objective Congruence (IOC) [24] Three (3) language experts examined the suitability and the accuracy of the three instruments to gauge their consistency index average. All of the three research instruments had an IOC of 1 which means that they are all suitable to use for the study. The program used for the analysis of the research instrument is Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) program which is used to calculate statistical values and statistically analyze data obtained from the questionnaires, specifically, to calculate the average scores in each area and then divide the class of points by using Mean, Standard Deviation (S.D.) and Percentage [25]. Reference statistics is also applied to take data collection from the sample to reference and illustrate the entire population. The description or conclusion will be based on probability to test the hypothesis by comparing the differences between two independent variables by using Independent-Sample T-Test.

Research Results

The results of data analysis and their relevant discussions are presented in this section. The analysis comprises three parts and each part includes tables containing statistical information for a more tangible view of the analysis.

Part 1: Results of the data analysis on general information of respondents

Rate of General information x̅ S.D. satisfaction 1. Are you knowledgeable enough about the types, 3.35 .93 Neutral examples, and functions or usage of conjunctions? 2. Do you think the skills to use conjunctions 4.35 .81 Very satisfied correctly are important in writing? 3. Do you think watching tutorial videos on 4.05 .69 Satisfied conjunctions is an effective way to improve your skills in using conjunctions? Total 3.92 .81 Satisfied Table 1 Percentage of personal factors

Table 1 reveals that the respondents showed neutrality in describing their level of knowledge on conjunctions (x̅=3.35, S.D.=.93). It can be implied that they need some more training to enrich their knowledgeability about conjunctions. Moreover, the learners certainly regard the skills to apply conjunctions properly as an essential element in writing (x̅=4.35, S.D.=.81), and they recognize the effectiveness of watching instructional audio-visual materials such as YouTube videos in improving their usage of conjunctions in their English writing (x̅=4.05, S.D.=.69). 18

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Part 2: Satisfaction assessment towards the tutorial YouTube video on conjunctions with four sections: (1) the format of the video, (2) the content of the video, (3) the evaluation, and (4) the overall quality of the Tutorial YouTube video on conjunctions. Table 2The average, standard deviation and rate of satisfaction in the format of the video

Rate of The format of the video x̅ S.D. satisfaction 1. It is convenient to use. 3.80 .41 Satisfied 2. The illustrations used in the video are appropriate. 4.10 .55 Satisfied 3. The sound quality is clear. 4.20 .61 Satisfied 4. The presentation is interesting. 4.00 .45 Satisfied 5. The time used to present the content is sufficient. 3.15 .59 Neutral Total 3.85 .52 Satisfied

As shown by the results (Table 2), the respondents showed satisfaction on the overall video format specifically the convenience of usage, the suitability of illustration, the clarity of the sound, and even the visual appeal or the respondents‟ level of interest towards the presentation. However, the learners showed neutrality in the sufficiency of time spent in presenting the lesson. This implies that the time for the presentation of the content may not be sufficient or the learners desire more time to learn and understand the lesson.

Table 3 The average, standard deviation and rate of satisfaction on thecontent of the video Content of the video x S.D. Rate of satisfaction 1.The content corresponds to the lesson. 4.00 0 Satisfied 2.The content is accurate. 4.15 .59 Satisfied 3. The content is adequate. 4.15 .49 Satisfied 4. The content matches the pretest - posttest. 4.00 .46 Satisfied 5. The content is easy to understand. 3.90 .64 Satisfied Total 4.04 .44 Satisfied

As regards the content of the video (Table 3), the students were generally satisfied with it. Specifically, they found the content of the video parallel or correspondent to the lesson (x̅=4.00, S.D.=0). They were also satisfied with the content accuracy (x̅=4.15, S.D.=.59), the content adequacy (x̅=4.15, S.D.=.49), content correspondence to the pre-test and post test (x̅=4.00, S.D.=.46), and the content understandability (x̅=3.90, S.D.=.64).

Table 4 The average, standard deviation and rate of satisfaction on the content of the video evaluation test Rate of Evaluation Test x̅ S.D. satisfaction 1. The questions are clear and understandable. 3.90 .31 Satisfied 2. The questions are challenging enough to answer. 4.25 .64 Very satisfied 3. The number of questions in the quiz is sufficient. 3.95 .39 Satisfied 4. The different conjunctions are equally represented in 3.90 .45 Satisfied the questions. 5. The multiple choices are neither too few nor too many. 4.10 .45 Satisfied Total 4.02 .45 Satisfied

Table 4 shows that the respondents were generally satisfied with the evaluation test which garnered a mean value of x̅= 4.02 (S.D. = .45). The respondents showed high level of satisfaction 19

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towards the level of difficulty of the test (x̅=4.25, S.D.=.64). Also, the respondents were satisfied with the number of choices in the test (x̅=4.10, S.D=.45), the number of questions in the test (x̅=3.95, S.D.=.39), the clarity and understandability of the questions (x̅=3.90, S.D.=.31), and the equal representation of the types of conjunctions in the test (x̅=3.90, S.D.=.45).

Table 5 The average, standard deviation and rate of satisfaction on the overall quality of the tutorial YouTube video on conjunctions

The overall quality of the tutorial YouTube video on Rate of satisfaction conjunctions x̅ S.D. 1. The streaming time of the video is fast. 3.85 .49 Satisfied 2. The video provides high quality resolution. 4.00 .46 Satisfied 3. The video settings are appropriate. 4.00 .79 Satisfied 4. The video has an attention-grabbing thumbnail. 3.95 .60 Satisfied 5. The video has an outstanding and interesting over-all 4.00 .46 Satisfied appeal. Total 3.96 .56 Satisfied

As shown by Table 5, the first year EIC students regarded the overall quality of the video satisfactory (x̅=3.96, S.D.=.56). The findings likewise prove that factors such as the resolution of the video (x̅=4.00, S.D.=.46), the video thumbnail (x̅=3.95, S.D.=.60), the pacing of streaming time of the video (x̅=3.85, S.D.=.49), the appropriateness of setting of the video (x̅=4.00, S.D.=.79), and the overall appeal of the video (x̅=4.00, S.D.=.46) are crucial factors in achieving satisfaction or positive feedback from the viewers of the material.

Part 3: The analysis of the test data before and after learning via the tutorial YouTube video on conjunctions

Table 6 The average, standard deviation and t-test of pretest and posttest

Test N Mean S.D. T Df Sig Pretest 20 12.20 4.916 -6.007 19 .007 Posttest 20 18.70 5.592

Note: Statistical significance )p <0.01( As shown in Table 6, the mean of the pre-test the participants took before viewing the tutorial YouTube video was 12.20 whereas the mean of the post-test taken after viewing the tutorial YouTube video was 18.70. This indicates that there is a substantial increase in the number of points after using a tutorial YouTube video on conjunction as shown by its statistical significance (p <0.01). It can be concluded that the designed tutorial YouTube video for this research is an effective tool in teaching the students the proper usage of conjunctions in writing.

Discussions

As regards the data analysis on the satisfaction assessment of the first year EIC students of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla towards the tutorial YouTube video on conjunctions, it was found that the content of the video received the overall highest satisfaction among the four sections. This corresponds to the study conducted by Nagy [26], she found that the video media users‟ group who used tutorial video were satisfied with the content of the video because it was easy to understand. In addition, the usage of the video had a significant effect on both the learning performance and their satisfaction. Another study conducted by Draus et al. [27] explains 20

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that the content of the video on YouTube had a positive influence on the satisfaction of the students and their participation in asynchronous online courses.

Upon comparing the test scores before and after learning through the tutorial YouTube video on conjunctions using T-test Dependent Samples statistics, it was found that there was a substantial increase in the number of points after the participants viewed the tutorial YouTube video as shown by the achieved statistical significance. This signifies that the tutorial YouTube video on conjunctions can be used to improve the skills of the learners in applying conjunctions in their writing or compositions. This corresponds to the study conducted by Sianna et al. [28] wherein they discovered that the students of the experimental group who viewed videos had improved their writing skills effectively more than students of the controlled group. In addition, the study conducted by Elchaira [29] supports the result of this study that a tutorial video can be used to improve the students' ability in writing, and also to increase the students' enthusiasm and enjoyment in the learning process.

Another study that corresponds to the findings of this research is that of Mamun‟s [30] wherein he explains that the use of audio-visual aids can be used to assist both the instructors and learners in teaching and learning language effectively. Rivaiet al. [31] found that learning about writing descriptive by using video was successful in improving students‟ ability to writing descriptive text. Lastly, the study conducted by Almurashi [23] revealed that YouTube videos are important supplementary material to enrich the effectiveness of students' improvement and their understanding of English.

According to all the above information, it can be said that the use of a tutorial YouTube video is as effective as those non-audio-visual materials like books, modules, etc. In other words, the use of a tutorial YouTube video offers some benefits or advantages in teaching topics in writing.

Conclusion

Based on the overall findings of the research, it can be concluded that students regarded the use of conjunctions as an important element in writing and that viewing instructional videos is an effective means or way to further enhance their skills of using conjunctions in writing. The objectives set to making the tutorial YouTube video which the researchers designed as the tool for this study were achieved because the findings revealed an improvement in the students‟ skills in applying conjunctions in sentences. As regards the learners‟ satisfaction towards the tutorial video, the learners rated the material as „satisfactory‟. Thus, the format, content, and the overall quality of the video are crucial in designing a tutorial YouTube video. Some of these specific criteria teachers or tutorial YouTube video designers should consider in creating one are the appropriateness of illustration, the audibility, accuracy, resolution, and thumbnail of the video. All of these would make any tutorial YouTube video satisfying, appealing, quality, and effective in teaching students regardless of the subject matter. Time allotment for the video presentation is equally important. Since the learners showed neutrality towards the length of the video, it implies that there should be further investigation on the presentation allotment so as to determine how much timelearners would mostly preferin watching a video clip. Lastly, when comparing the results of the pre-test with the post-test after learning about conjunctions via the tutorial YouTube video, it was found that the test scores increased substantially after the students viewed the material. This guarantees that the tutorial YouTube video is practically appropriate and useful for enhancing the learners‟ knowledgeability and understanding of the use of conjunctions in writing.

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[23] W. Almurashi, “The effective use of YouTube videos for teaching English language in classrooms as supplementary material at Taibah University in Alula” (master‟s thesis). European Centre for research training and development UK. Taibah University. Retrievedfromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/329727456_THE_EFFECTIVE_USE_ OF_YOUTUBE_VIDEOS_FOR_TEACHING_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_IN_CLASSROOMS _AS_SUPPLEMENTARY_MATERIAL_AT_TAIBAH_UNIVERSITY_IN_ALULA, 2016. [24] C. Munchart, “The development of project based learning activity with the use of eDLTVmedia in the course “computer and information for work”(master‟s thesis). Mahasarakham: Rajabhat Mahasarakham University, Retrieved from http://202.29.22.187/cgibin/koha/opacdetail.pl?biblionumber=116647, 2016. [25] S. Chanakhun, Data analysis. Retrieved fromhttps://doctemple.wordpress.com/2017/01/25/, 2017. [26] J. Nagy, “Evaluation of online video usage and learning satisfaction: An extension of the technology acceptance model” (master‟s thesis). Athabasca University Press: Edutus College, Budapest, Hungary.Retrieved fromhttps://www.erudit.org/en/journals/irrodl/1900-v1-n1- irrodl039 27/1050881ar/abstract/, 2018. [27] J.P. Draus, J.M. Curran, & S.M.Trempus, The Influence of Instructor-Generated Video Content on Student Satisfaction with and Engagement in Asynchronous Online Classes (master‟s thesis). Retrieved fromhttps://jolt.merlot.org/vol10no2/draus_0614.pdf,2014. [28] Sianna, Ramlah, &Salasiah, “Teaching writing with authentic video in EFL classroom” (master‟s thesis). Indonesia. Hasanuddin University. Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/document/405280788/Teaching-Writing-With-Authentic-Video-in- EFL Classroom, 2018. [29] N. Elchaira, Improving the students‟ability in writing procedure text through tutorial video at eightgrade of SMP Islam TerpaduAlmanarHamparan Perak in academic year 2018/2019 (master‟s thesis). Indonesia. State Islamic University of North Sumatera Medan. Retrieved from http://repository.uinsu.ac.id/8023/1/SKRIPSI%20NADYA%20ELCHAIRA%20%2834154185 %29.pdf, 2019. [30] A. Mamun, & M. Abdullah. Effectiveness of audio-visual aids in language teaching in tertiary level (master‟s thesis). Dhaka. BRAC University. Retrieved from http://dspace.bracu.ac.bd/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10361/3288/13177014.pdf, 2014. [31] M. Rivai, A. Arniz, & S. Mujadidi, The effectiveness of using video on students‟ writing ability in teaching descriptive text (A case study at tenth grade of SMK Pasundan 1 Kota Serang) (master‟s thesis). Indonesia. Universitas Sultan Ageng, 2014.

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Development of Chinese Conversation Blog for Pre-Internship Students

Achiraya Promsathit1, Nattacha Jaihow2 , Thanyaporn Sriyapan3, Metas Panich4

1, 2, 3, 4Foreign Languages Department, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University ofTechnology Srivijaya, Songkhla, 90000, Thailand

Abstract. The objectives of this research are: 1) to develop a Chinese conversation blog for pre- internship students, 2) to compare students‟ learning achievement before and after using the blog, and 3) to investigate students‟ level of satisfaction with learning through the Chinese conversation blog. The research instruments were self-assessment reports (year 2016-2018), a Chinese conversation blog developed by researchers, a pretest, a posttest, and a questionnaire. Data from the self-assessment reports were used to develop the blog to suit the needs of the workplaces. The purposive sampling technique was used to select the participants. The participants were 35 third-year students minoring in Chinese who are studying at a university in Songkhla, Thailand. Data were analyzed using mean, standard deviation, and t-test. The results showed that 1) the blog was consistent with the needs of the workplaces to prepare students‟ language skills before the internship; 2) the students had a posttest score significantly higher than the pretest score at .05 level; and 3) the students were satisfied with the blog at a high level.

Keywords: Blog, Chinese conversation, internship

Background and Statement of the problem

Currently, Chinese education in Thailand has been increasingly popular. In many years ago from the survey of the Ministry of Tourism and Sports for the past 3 years during the year 2016 -2018 remark that the number of Chinese tourists visiting and doing business in Thailand increased by more than 7.7 million people and continuously increasing [1]. Later on, Chinese language come to play a role in Thai labor market such as Tourism industry business or joint investment with Chinese businessman for needing to increase the potential of Chinese language for domestic countries which deal with agricultural products and educational cooperation with China [2]. There are many educational institutions which give a lot of important to teaching and learning of Chinese language courses. In addition, learning in the classroom and finding knowledge from other channels are also important because currently technology is one factor that makes learning Chinese language not easy [3]. But since the education in the 21st century, there are modern and diverse teaching methods to apply in education, making it more interesting. The modern technology is applied and developed with computer network in order to develop education system. Also, Formal and Non-formal Education used technology for creating online teaching materials and electronic books. Technological media have been developed to be more effective as a tool to increase the potential for students and teaching materials with modern technology are attractive which can encourage learners to learn more. [4]. A blog is a type of website that combines with articles, images, audio, video, and graphics. Most of the blogger stories are usefully presented by authors on the web, and the readers can comment on it. A blog is divided into two categories, which are divided according to the type of the media in the blog and the content of the blog, with components such as blog title, and article title, the author, and contents in a blog. [12, 11]. In Chinese studying, Juree [5] found that ICT (information communication technology) was used for Chinese language teaching and learning by using blogs as a tool. A blog can develop Chinese learning, increase Chinese skills, and also practice students to write blogs in Chinese. It was written to help increasing learning efficiency. Base on the information regarding the internship and cooperative experience of English for International Communication students, from the Faculty of Liberal Arts at Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya 26.88% chose to have internship in Tourism industry, 25.80% in Hotel, 19.36% in Airline, 5.38% Tour agency, and 22.58% other occupations. Mostly, students are interested in an 24

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internship about service. Therefore, the researcher became interested in developing the Chinese language in the service working for the next generation of students. In order to have the ability to communicate in Chinese before starting to intern or work in the future, the researcher created a blog for the development of Chinese conversation, with contents that the learners can use for daily life. Moreover, the blog is also an instructional media that can be studied easily, conveniently, and accessible anywhere anytime.

Objectives 1. To develop a Chinese conversation blog for pre-internship students 2. To compare students‟ learning achievement before and after using the blog 3. To investigate students‟ level of satisfaction with learning through the Chinese conversation blog

Definition of Terms - Chinese conversation blog deals with Chinese vocabulary and dialogue which are classified in the level of Chinese proficiency Test 1-3 (HSK 1-3). The researcher used it to develop students‟ knowledge together with the Pretest and Posttest. - Students are undergraduate 3rd year students enrolled in Chinese minor with a total of 35

Literature Review The importance of the Chinese language The economic and cultural fast progress in China is an important factor that has led people to realize the importance of using Chinese for communication and the benefits of business, work, and education. [6], [7], [8]. Blog A blog is a website that has elements relating to the author's presentation of useful stories in text, graphics, or video, which are divided into 2 types, according to the type of the media in the blog and the contents of the blog on the network. The internet and articles are published for visitors to read and comment on it. [9], [10]. Research Methodology This study is categorized as questionnaire research wherein the learning of one group type was measured before and after. Population and Sample The population is composed of undergraduate 3rd year English for International Communication students of the Faculty of Liberal Arts with a total of 83 people. The sample group consists of an undergraduate 3rd year English for International Communication students enrolled with a total of 35 people chosen through purposive sampling. Research Instruments 1) A Chinese conversation blog developed by researchers: the blog contains various situations divided into 6 units such as 1. Greeting 2. Asking for help 3. Asking for directions 4. Buying goods and exchanging money 5. Talking on the phone 6. Making appointments The above situations were studied by the sample for 5 weeks. 2) A pretest and posttest are a four-part, multiple-choice test comprising 30 questions which are as follows: 1. To choose the most correct answer 10 items (0.5 point per item, 5 points). 2. To match the meaning of the vocabulary correctly 10 items (0.5 point per item, 5 points). 3. To arrange the groups of sentences correctly 5 items (1 point per item, 5 points).

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4. To complete the vocabulary in the sentence 5 items (1 point per item, 5 points). The examination was taken for 40 minutes. The result of the test is with a consistency (IOC) of 0.66 to 1.00, and difficulty of the test is 0.09 to 0.79. 3) The Satisfaction questionnaire used for the blogs is divided into 4 parts namely, content, design and formatting, links in blogs, and benefits of using blogs. The questionnaire used the Likert scale to value estimate. The result of the consistency of the question (IOC) is 0.60 to 1.00. Data collection The researchers data collection is described as follows: 1. The researchers made a sample group appointment for conducting the research. 2. The researchers explained the purpose of the research and how to use the Chinese blog to the sample group in order to understand and take the test before studying. The exam takes 40 minutes to complete. 3. The researcher suggested blog address https://pngchinese.wixsite.com/chineseblog to the sample group, and create the Chinese blog to allow the sample group to study for five weeks and made an appointment again to take the test after studying. 4. The researchershad the sample group take the same set of tests for 40 minutes. 5. Students answered the satisfaction questionnaire about using a Chinese conversation blog. 6. The researcher check the score, analyze the data, Summarize, and report.

Results and Discussion The researcher analyzed the data by computer, using spss program which is a statistical package that can analyze data efficiently. The statistics used in data analysis were mean, standard deviation, and t-test. From academic results by using Chinese conversations blog and student‟s achievement, the research results are shown below Table 1: The comparison of satisfaction of scores of pretest and posttest from the Chinese blog study

full test N ̅ S.D. t df Sig marks pretest 20 35 9.71 4.15 4.931 34 .001 posttest 20 35 12.62 3.49

As shown in Table 1, there was an increase in the learning achievement average of the respondents as the posttest mean average (x̅ =12.62) was significantly higher than the pretest (x̅ =9.71). This implies that the learners‟ satisfaction studying the Chinese blogs improved.

Table 2: The average value and standard deviation of the level of student satisfaction with the use of Chinese blogs in contents aspect

Questions x̅ S.D. Rate 1. Contents 1.1 The content suitable for students. 4.40 0.55 Good 1.2 The content is comprehensive according to the objectives. 4.49 0.50 Good 1.3 The descriptive content is interesting and easy to read. 4.31 0.71 Good 1.4 The content is comprehensive and useful to users. 4.51 0.56 Excellent 1.5 The content is consistent with the illustrations. 4.14 0.91 Good

Total average 4.37 0.65 Good

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Based on the table above, the students‟ satisfaction on the content of the Chinese blog, overall, is at a good level (x̅ =4.37). The content suitability, comprehensiveness, interest and readability, and consistency with the illustrations are all at a good level (x̅ = 4.40, x̅ =4.49, ̅x =4.31, and x̅ =4.14 respectively). This signifies that the content features of the blog can satisfy the readers‟ needs for information.

Table 3: The average value and standard deviation of the level of student satisfaction with the use of Chinese blogs in design and formatting aspect

Questions x̅ S.D. Rate 2. Design and formatting 2.1 The design of the homepage of the weblog (Homepage) is 4.43 0.60 Good suitable.

2.2. Layout and composition of weblog is convenient to use. 4.26 0.74 Good

2.3 the positioning of content and components menu of blocks is 4.31 0.67 Good suitable.

2.4 Various menus within the blog are simple to choose. 4.51 0.56 Excellent

2.5 The style, size and color of the letters of the block are 4.37 0.73 Good appropriate.

Total average 4.38 0.66 Good

With regard to the design and formatting of the Chinese blogs, the students‟ satisfaction with it, overall, was at a good level (x̅ =4.38). Four features of the design and formatting, namely the suitability of the design of the homepage, the user-friendliness or usage convenience of the layout of the blog, variety of the menus, and the appropriateness of the blogs lettering are all at a good level (x̅ = 4.43, x̅ =4.26, x̅ =4.31, and x̅ =4.37 respectively). Remarkably, the ease of usage of the menu bars of the blogs was rated as excellent (x̅ =4.51).

Table 4: The average value and standard deviation of the level of student satisfaction with the use of Chinese blogs in the linking aspect Questions x̅ S.D. Rate 3. Linking

3.1 The links have convenience in data searching 4.34 0.68 Good 3.2 The links can speed of screen display and accessibility in the data 4.20 0.75 Good section

3.3 The Links within the weblog are easily accessible 4.43 0.60 Good

3.4 Linking outside of the website is correct 4.29 0.62 Good

3.5 The links can download information easily 4.31 0.58 Good

Total average 4.31 0.65 Good

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In relation to linking, the students, overall, rated their satisfaction with it at a good level (x̅ =4.31). All the features of the linking of the blogs, namely, data searching convenience, speed of screen display, blog accessibility, correctness of website name in search suggestions, and the speed of information downloading were all rated at a good level (x̅ =4.34, x̅ =4.20, x̅ =4.43, x̅ =4.29, and x̅ =4.31 respectively).

Table 5: The average value and standard deviation of the level of student satisfaction with the use of Chinese blogs in Benefits of using Questions S.D. Rate

4. Benefits of using

4.1 The blog can be a source of knowledge and disseminate

information 4.60 0.55 Excellent 4.2 The blog is a good source of information and Meet the needs of users 4.51 0.50 Excellent 4.3 The Blog is useful for students and general people interested in studying the Chinese language. 4.57 0.50 Excellent

4.4 Knowledge of web blogs can be used in actual situations. 4.57 0.55 Excellent

4.5 They are able to apply the knowledge they have received to meet 4.57 0.55 Excellent their objectives.

Total average 4.56 0.53 Excellent

In terms of the benefits of using the blogs, it shows that, overall, the students‟ satisfaction with it was at the highest level (x̅ =4.56). All the items under this section of the questionnaire, namely, the blog as a source of information, the blog meeting the users‟ need, the usefulness of the blog as regards learning Chinese, practicality of the blog, and the utility of the blog in achieving objectives were all rated „excellent‟ (x̅ =4.60, x̅ =4.51, x̅ =4.57, x̅ =4.57, and x̅ =4.57 respectively).

Table 6: The average value and standard deviation of the level of student satisfaction with the use of Chinese blogs in each part.

̅ Aspect x S.D. rate

contents 4.37 0.65 Good design and formatting 4.38 0.66 Good links 4.31 0.65 Good benefits of using 4.56 0.53 Excellent Total average 4.41 0.62 Good

According to the table above, it can be seen that, overall, the level of satisfaction of the students with the use of Chinese blogs is at a good level (x̅ =4.41, SD=0.62). Content (x̅ =4.37), design and formatting (x̅ =4.38), and links (x̅ =4.31) are all at a good level whereas the benefits of using the blogs (x̅ =4.56) is remarkably rated as excellent.

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Conclusion and Suggestions The study of learning results in Chinese blogs, students‟ achievement can be summarized and discussed as follows: 1. The results of the development of Chinese blogs in order to prepare the students before their internship was found to be useful and effective as shown by the level of satisfaction of the sample group towards the Chinese blog which is at a good level. 2. Upon comparing the pretest and posttest results, it can be concluded that the Chinese blog used by the respondents for this study was effective as indicated by the increase in the learning achievement average of the respondents. The posttest mean average (x̅ =12.62) was significantly higher than the pretest (x̅ =9.71). The statistical significance level is .05. This implies that the learners‟ satisfaction studying the Chinese blogs improved. In addition, as the researchers periodical follow ups in learning through Chinese blogs and encouragement of the students to study more using the Chinese blog resulted to students' increase in scores. Self-learning through online media is a new perspective that is not limited to the classroom only. Students can study and search for more knowledge of content anywhere and anytime as needed.

3. Based on the findings, the satisfaction of the respondents towards the use of Chinese blog was at a good level, (x̅ = 4.41, SD = 0.62) as the students had an overall good opinion on using the Chinese blog whereas the students‟ satisfaction towards the benefits of using a blog was at the highest level. Moreover, It was found that a Chinese blog can increase students' knowledge of the Chinese language, and the blog is a good source of information for students. Also, students have commented that the content of the Chinese blog is useful and suitable for their internship.

Suggestions for using Chinese blog - Chinese blog is suitable for students or who have already learned basic Chinese language and they can read the Chinese phonetic alphabet (Pinyin) in order to read and understand more easily.

General suggestion - The researcher should check the accuracy of the content within the blog and the instruments before conducting the test to prevent the mistakes during the test. -The researcher must follow up the learning outcomes of the sample group by taking the test before and after studying to explore the development of Chinese language skills -The sample group or interested students, in general, can use Chinese blog as a tool to improve their Chinese language skills

Suggestions for future research - The researchers suggest Chinese blog is ideal to be utilized in combination with classroom learning in developing Chinese language skills for learners as they can review the lessons anytime as needed and to increase their knowledge other than the use of text books.

References [1] Ministry of Tourism and Sports, Domestic Tourism Statistics 2019 (Research Report), Bangkok: Division of Tourism Statistics and Research, 2019. [2] Vijaichina,(2012, Aug,24) The 2nd Seminar Agricultural Economy and Trade of Agricultural Products and Thai-Chinese Products [Online]. Available: http://www. vijaichina.com. [3] W. Yongsiri , et al, Asia Trend, Bangkok : Institute of Asian Studies Chulalongkorn University, 2000, pp.28. [4] C. Prayoonwong, “Digital Learning: Learning English in the Digital World of the 21st Century,”.Journal of Graduate Studies Valaya Alongkron Rajabhat University, vol. 13, no. 1, pp.210-223, 2019. [5] J. Suchonvanich, “Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language with Information and Communication Technology (ICT): A Case Study of the People‟s Republic of China.” Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (Graduate Study), vol. 6, no. 2, pp.1-13, 2018. 29

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[6] L. Yang, Campas Talk. Bangkok: Duangkamon, 2010. [7] N. Chaitammarath, Can speaks Mandarin within 69 hours. Bangkok: Science Center, 2010. [8] S. Piyapasuntra, Popular word composing Mandarin Chinese. Bangkok: Theory, 2008. [9] P. Panichkul, Information Technology. Bangkok: KTP Comp, 2005. [10] N. Makudomlarp, On Basic Internet Learning and Basic Guide Window 7 2012 – 2013, Nontaburi: IDC Premier, 2011. [11] W.Ruengthong, (2011). Components of the blog [Online]. Available: https://weblog54.wordpress.com. [12] M. Panjai, (2015). Creating a website with a blogger [Online]. Available: https://www. webblogedu.blogspot.com.

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“How can I avoid plagiarism, as I don’t know how to paraphrase and cite sources properly?”: An exploration of Thai students’ understanding of plagiarism

Phanlapa Khathayut1

1 Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla 90000 Thailand

Abstract. Students’ plagiarism has been explored for a decade, and much research has discussed students perception of plagiarism and their plagiaristic behaviors. However, plagiarism is still problematic, especially when students are asked to write their assignment, not only in the English language but also in the Thai language. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate Thai undergraduate students’ understanding of the meaning of plagiarism. Purposive sampling and volunteer sampling techniques were used in this study. The participants were 56 third-year students who were studying at a Thai university in Songkhla province, Thailand in the academic year 2019. A scenario-based questionnaire was conducted in this study. Descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage were analyzed for the questionnaire, and a thematic analysis was used for an open-ended question. The findings revealed that most students did not fully understand what plagiarism is, and they lacked paraphrasing and summarizing skills including knowledge of citing sources and using quotation marks.

Keywords: Plagiarism, Thai students, paraphrasing, summarizing

Background and Statement of the Problem Students’ plagiarism has been explored for a decade, and much research has discussed students’ perception of plagiarism and their plagiaristic behaviors. However, plagiarism is still problematic, especially when students are asked to write their assignment. Moreover, there is scant research on investigating undergraduate students’ awareness of plagiarism in Thailand. In the Thai context, plagiarism avoidance has not been taught explicitly and seriously [1]. Although many universities in Thailand have attempted to manage this problem by applying plagiarism policies and a text-comparison program to check students’ written assignments, it seems that those have not been applied to undergraduate students. In addition, some universities have neither a text-comparison program nor a plagiarism policy. It is not surprising that many people in Thailand are confused about the exact meaning and types of plagiarism. Also, many previous studies found that Thai students did not know what plagiarism is, and they did not realise the forms of plagiarism [2], [3], [4]. For example, Khathayut, Walker-Gleaves and Humble [4]. found that most of Thai students could not summarise the main ideas of the original text in their own words, so they underlined some important ideas and joined those underlined sentences in their work [5]. Some previous studies considered the concepts of plagiarism as cheating, whilst some of them argued that it shows an overlap between cheating and plagiarism because both of these substitutes dishonest behaviors [6]. Regarding these issues, this study aimed to extend the knowledge of how well Thai undergraduate students understand plagiarism, and the results of this study might be beneficial to other universities in Thailand to deal with plagiarism of their students.

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Purpose of the Study This study aimed to investigate Thai undergraduate students’ understanding of the meaning of plagiarism. The research question was: To what extent do Thai undergraduate student understand plagiarism?

Literature Review Definition of Plagiarism A six definitional model of plagiarism by Pecorari [7] revealed all aspects of plagiarism. She pointed out that plagiarism is defined as: an object (i.e. language, words, text), which has been taken (or borrowed, stolen etc.) from a particular source (books, journals, internet) by an agent (student, person, academic) without (adequate) acknowledgement and or without intention to deceive. According to Collins COBUILD Advanced English Dictionary [8], ‘plagiarism’ means ‚the practice of using or copying someone else’s idea or work and pretending that you thought of it or created it‛. Pecorari [9] defines the term ‘plagiarism’ as: a form of academic misconduct involving a writing process, which results in an appropriate relationship between the new text and its source(s). Specifically, plagiarism involves a writer re-using propositional content and/or form of expression from another text without adequately signaling that relationship to the reader, and with an attention to mislead the reader about that relationship. Regarding the definitions, it can be widely concluded that every piece of work, which is taken from others without giving appropriate acknowledgement can be considered as plagiarism. Types of Plagiarism Plagiarism has been categorized in various types by several researchers and academics such as Walker [10] and Plagiarism.org [11]. Walker [10] classified seven types of plagiarism in terms of academic writing, whereas Plagiarism.org [11] has defined plagiarism in general concepts including using images, video, music and media. Walker [10] has classified each type of plagiarism as follows.

Type Definition Sham Paraphrasing Material copied verbatim from text and source acknowledged in-line but represented as paraphrased. Illicit Paraphrasing Material paraphrased from text without in-line acknowledgement of source. Other Plagiarism Material copied from another student’s assignment with the knowledge of the other student. Verbatim Copying Material copied verbatim from text without in-line acknowledgement of the source. Recycling Same assignment submitted more than once for different courses. Ghost Writing Assignment written by third party and represented as own work. Purloining Assignment copied from another student’s assignment or the person’s papers without that person’s knowledge.

Verbatim copying is the most frequently found in students’ written assignments. Many previous studies [7], [12] indicated that students usually copy words or information from the websites, and they struggle when they have to write them in their own words [3]. In this case, the students copied and pasted from original texts without citing sources. A similar case was also found in Butler [13]’s study. Butler [13] and Orluwene and Magnus-Arewa [14] called it ‚cut-and-paste‛ or ‚copy and paste‛ strategy, 32

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which means students copied sentences from various sources and then mixed those sentences together in their written work. Illicit paraphrasing was also frequently found in student’s written work. Thus, it can be said that although students paraphrase the sentences from original texts appropriately, if they do not cite the source, it is still considered plagiarism. Awareness and Perception of Plagiarism When considering awareness and perception of plagiarism in academic contexts, many researchers [15]- [18] found that most of university students have less awareness of plagiarism because the information of plagiarism at the universities have not been informed. Powell [19] demonstrates relationship between awareness and intention to plagiarize. Powell [19] stated that students may not be aware of plagiarism because they ‚do not understand what plagiarism is and/or that it is considered undesirable by their learning institution‛, and this may cause unintentional plagiarism. On the other hand, if students ‚understand what plagiarism and that plagiarism is considered undesirable by their learning institution‛, this causes intentional plagiarism [19]. Furthermore, Ajzen [20] ) explained theory of planned behavior and plagiarism that plagiaristic behavior is the result of two dimensions: intention to plagiarize and perceptions of control over behavior. Intention to plagiarize has been influenced by attitude to plagiarism and subjective norms, which relate to how people in each context perceived about what plagiarism is. In contrast, perceptions of control over behavior refer to individual decision to plagiarize. Consequently, raising student understanding and awareness of plagiarism is necessary [21], [22], at least, to prevent unintentional plagiarism.

Methodology Participants Purposive sampling and volunteer sampling techniques were used in this study. The population was 69 students who enrolled in an advanced reading course in the second semester of academic year 2019 at a Thai university in Songkhla province, Thailand. This group of students was purposively selected because they must finish their research in an independent study course before their completion of the study. Therefore, investigating students’ understanding of plagiarism is necessary, as it might affect the quality of their work, plagiarism in academic writing in particular. Before data collection, the consent forms were given to all students, and they were informed that the responses would be anonymous and confidential. This study also would not affect their grades. Sixty- three (63) students volunteered to participate in this study, and all of them were third-year students. Most of them were female, ages between 21 and 23 years old. The scenario-based questionnaire was also used as a test to find how well students understand plagiarism, and the result showed that six students were outliers. After the outliers were omitted, the z-scores of the skewness and kurtosis showed the normal distribution as the values were not greater than 1.96 [23], meaning that this group of students shared the same understanding of plagiarism. Therefore, the data of 56 students were used in this study. Research Instruments The research instrument used in this study was a questionnaire, which comprises two parts: a scenario-based questionnaire and suggestions. Part 1 is the scenario-based questionnaire which was designed as multiple-choice questions: Yes/No/Not sure. The questions were drawn based on the related literature regarding the situations that related to plagiarism [10], [11], [24]. It consisted of 14 items. Part 2 is the open-ended question, which allows the participants to write their suggestion and their experience towards plagiarism. The validity and suitability of the questionnaire was checked the by three experienced researchers applying Index of Item-Objective Congruence (IOC) approach. The mean score of IOC result was 1, meaning that the instrument was suitable for data collection.

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Data Collection The data were collected in the 2nd semester of academic year 2019. Before data collection, the consent forms were given to all students (69 students) who were studying in an advanced reading course. Sixty-three (63) of them, which accounted for 91.30%, participated in this study. Then the questionnaire was allocated to the participants a week after the midterm examination by the researcher. The researcher facilitated the participants throughout the process of data collection to ensure that they understood all the questions in the questionnaire. All questionnaires (63) were completed. The responses in Part 2 of the questionnaire were also collected to investigate students’ awareness of plagiarism. Data Analysis Data from part 1 of the questionnaire were analyzed finding descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage, and data gathered from the open-ended question was analyzed using a thematic analysis [25] regarding students’ perception of plagiarism and their experience of plagiarism.

Research Findings Figure 1 reveals the test score of the students’ understanding of plagiarism. It shows that the mean score was 7.25 (S.D.=1.324). The lowest score was 5 and the highest score was 10. Most of the students (57%) were scored lower than the mean. Moreover, only 5.4% of the students were scored 10. This signifies that most of the students have a limited understanding of plagiarism.

Figure 1 Test Scores of Students’ Understanding of Plagiarism 35.00% 30.00%

25.00% 20.00%

15.00% Percentage 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 5 6 7 8 9 10 Scores (14 scores in total)

As seen in Figure 2, two items (Items 5 and 9) are not accounted for plagiarism in the questionnaire. When considering these two items, most students could recognize that summarizing information in their own words with appropriate citation (94.6%) and paraphrasing with citation (46.4%) are not plagiarism. However, some of them (32.1%) were not certain in cases of paraphrasing with citation.

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Figure 2 Cases of Summarizing 100 90 80

70 60 50 40

Percentage 30 20 10 0 Yes No Not sure Item 5 1.8 94.6 3.6 Item 9 21.4 46.4 32.1

Figure 3 illustrates that most students did not understand how to paraphrase properly, as they could not recognize cases of sham paraphrasing (Items 4 and 8). Most of them (75%) thought that when they write their assignment and get information from other sources, if they have already cited sources, they do not need to paraphrase those original sentences (Item 4). In addition, 69.6% of students perceived that they could copy 10 to 15 words consecutively from original texts with citation but no quotation marks, and this is not considered plagiarism (Item 8).

Figure 3 Cases of Sham Paraphrasing 80 70

60

50 40

30 Percentage 20 10 0 Yes No Not sure Item 4 21.4 75 3.6 Item 8 16.1 69.6 14.3

With regard to the verbatim copying presented in Figure 4, it shows that most of them realized that ‘copying information verbatim from websites and using it in their written work’ is plagiarism (Item 12: 78.6%). However, some of them (8.9%) were not sure about it. Additionally, most students understood that ‘retyping other people’s thesis or research and using it as their own work’ (Item 13: 98.2%) is also a plagiaristic behavior.

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Figure 4 Cases of verbatim copying 100

80 60 40

Percentage 20 0 Yes No Not sure Item 12 78.6 12.5 8.9 Item 13 98.2 1.8 0

When considering the cases of recycling (Figure 5), it was found that the responses were quite varied. Items 2 and 7 were about reusing or resubmitting their written work that has been submitted in previous semester or in one subject to another subject. The findings showed that most of them (Item 2: 53.6% and Item 7: 50%) realized that those cases are plagiarism. Nevertheless, 58.9% of students responded that using a part of their work to submit in another place can be accepted (Item 6). It is interesting that only 5.4% of them (n=3) understood that it is a case of plagiarism.

Figure 5 Cases of Recycling 70

60

50

40

30 Percentage 20

10

0 Item 2 Item 6 Item 7 Yes 33.9 58.9 26.8 No 53.6 5.4 50 Not sure 12.5 35.7 23.2

As seen in Figure 6, cases of ghostwriting (Items 10 and 11) revealed that most students (71.4%) did not realize that asking other people to write their work is plagiarism, and 57.1% of students also thought that hiring someone to do their assignment is acceptable. Not many students understood that it is one type of plagiaristic behaviors (16.1% and 21.4%, respectively).

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Figure 6 Cases of Ghostwriting

80 70

60

50 40

30 Percentage 20 10 0 Yes No Not sure Item 10 16.1 71.4 12.5 Item 11 21.4 57.1 21.4

According to the qualitative findings of the open-ended question, it was found that the themes could be divided into four themes: having limited knowledge of plagiarism avoidance (n=5), easiness of plagiarizing (n=5), peer pressure (n=4), and ignorance (n=3). Having Limited Knowledge of Plagiarism Avoidance The findings reveal that most students have limited understanding of plagiarism and plagiarism avoidance, especially summarizing and paraphrasing with citation. For example: When I do assignment, sometimes, I don't have ideas or inspiration to do that, so I decided to copy information from the website. We can use information from the website and do not need to cite sources. (OP12) We have poor reading and writing skills, and we do not know how to cite sources. That’s why we plagiarize. (OP21) Many students around me, or even my classmates, still copy information from the Internet without citation, and they think it is ok. It is public, so they can use it. (OP40) When I did a report, I usually searched for information from other sources and I used it without citation. I don’t know that we need to cite sources. I believe that many people do not know much about this. (OP10) Easiness of Plagiarizing The participants also reported that it is very easy for them to complete their work in a limited time. Sometimes, their teachers assigned too much homework, and they found that copying information from the websites is the easiest way. For example: It is well known that the most of students use the Internet for searching and copying information to their work because it is very easy. I do not need to think much because I can delete some words I do not want and the teacher cannot prove it. (OP3) Mostly, using a copy-paste method is easier and faster. Sometimes, teachers assign too much homework. Students do rough homework in order to have homework sent to the teacher. (OP5) Some students are lazy and lack writing skills. So they choose this way (plagiarizing) to complete their assignments. (OP35) Copying assignments from the Internet is very easy and comfortable. (OP51) 37

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Pressure Some participants reported that their peer or their classmates have influenced their plagiaristic behaviors such as copying information from the website or copying from their friends to get high scores or better grades. Some of them also believed that their teachers will not take it serious if students are caught plagiarism. For example: Peers pressure could be one of many factors that lead students to copy others’ work. Some students feel proud when they copy and they get high marks. When others see it, they want to do like that too. (OP1) Some students saw their friends cheating, and then they followed. (OP5) Students got pressure from their classmates to get good grades, so students have to copy the work of others, so that they get good scores. (OP54) Ignorance The findings also showed that most students thought that plagiarism is not serious in their society or community because nobody mentions plagiarism even their teachers For example: I think that plagiarism is not serious because nobody pays attention on it. (OP39) Teachers were not taken plagiarism serious in their class, so we know that we won’t be punished if we plagiarize. (OP43) We just think that we can search for a topic from the Internet, and it’s easy to copy and paste, and no one cares. (OP51) To conclude, according to the findings, the students have limited understanding of plagiarism, especially sham paraphrasing (copying information or stealing words from original sources with citation), ghost writing (hiring someone to write an assignment), using quotation marks with citation, and recycling (reusing a part of their own work to submit in another journal). Also, many of them did not fully understand verbatim copying (copying word-by-word), which is a primary concept of plagiarism. Regarding the qualitative findings, having poor summarizing and paraphrasing skills is a primary issue. The findings also showed that the students were not aware of the seriousness of plagiarism. Providing explicit teaching on plagiarism avoidance together with teaching them how to cite sources and use quotation marks are necessary to reduce students’ plagiarism, and this may help raise students’ awareness of plagiarism. Therefore, teachers need to pay more attention to students’ plagiaristic behaviors and take it seriously to make students realize that plagiarism is unethical in academia.

Discussion Regarding the results of the study, it could be concluded that students did not fully understand the concept of plagiarism. They misunderstood that some unacceptable behavior could be accepted such as copying one page from an original source without appropriate citation or asking or hiring someone to do their assignments. Walker [10] called it ‘Ghost writing’. He asserted that this case is complicated and difficult to trace. Therefore, it can suggest that this situation can be reduced if the university can increase motivation of learning of students to avoid their ignorance of this issue [14], [26]. Mustafa [27] also indicated that the problems usually happen when students have a limited range of vocabulary to write, and they have a lack of writing skills [4]. According to these problems, the students may need more training in academic writing. This comprises paraphrasing, summarizing and citation. As Marsh and Campion [21] and Palmer et al. [22] asserted, to avoid plagiarism, advanced reading and writing skills are needed. It has been understood that these skills take long time to learn and improve. However, teachers should educate students on 38

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why plagiarism is undesirable and teach them to show respect to owners of the sources, according to Hrasky and Kronenberg [28]. Moreover, the program and the university should manage and apply policies or regulations on plagiarism more precisely to deter plagiarism of students more proactively and to create an environment of academic integrity at the university. According to Craig and Dalton [29], “academic integrity is the duty and concern of all members of the community”. Not only should the university deal with plagiarism problems, but also teachers and students should take action to enhance an academic integrity environment at the university, so plagiarism problems could be deterred and reduced.

Conclusion The findings revealed that most students did not understand the exact meaning of plagiarism, and they lacked paraphrasing and summarizing skills including knowledge of and citing sources and using quotation marks. There have also been some limitations in this study. First, the study was conducted with a small amount of students, which cannot be generalized to the whole university or other universities in Thailand. It can be said that the further study could be conducted with a larger numbers of students from various programs by integrating both quantitative data and qualitative data to find effective ways to deal with plagiaristic behavior of students more effectively. All in all, plagiarism deterrence can be managed by cooperation of all members in the institutions. The program and the university can raise students’ awareness of plagiarism by designing a policy or a guideline for students and staff. Teachers should equip students in the classroom about the importance of plagiarism avoidance and teach them to properly paraphrase and summarize with correct citation. These can be effective ways to reduce plagiarism problems at the university.

References [1] K. McDonough, W. J. Crawford, and J. D. Vleeschauwer, “Summary writing in a Thai EFL university context,” Journal of Second Language Writing, vol. 24, pp. 20–32, 2014. [2] D. Young, “Perspective on cheating at a Thai university,” Language testing in Asia, vol. 3, no. 6, pp. 1-15, 2013. [3] B. Pinjaroenpan and U. Danvivath, “Paraphrasing in English academic writing by Thai graduate students.” Global Journal of Business and Social Science Review, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 47-53, 2017. [4] P. Khathayut, C. Walker-Gleaves, and S. Humble, “Using the theory of planned behaviour to understand Thai students’ conceptions of plagiarism within their undergraduate programmes in higher education.” Studies in Higher Education, pp. 1-18, 2020. [5] H. Cadigan, “Copy, paste, enter Thailand’s plagiarism problem.” www.chiangmaicitylife.com /citylife-articles/copy-paste-enter-thailands-plagiarism-problem/, 2015 [Accessed Dec. 15, 2019]. [6] A. Flint, S. Clegg, and R. Macdonald, “Exploring staff perceptions of student plagiarism.” Journal of Further and Higher Education, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 145-156, 2006. [7] W. Sutherland-Smith, Plagiarism, the Internet, and student learning: Improving academic integrity. NY: Routledge, 2008. [8] Collins COBUILD Advanced English Dictionary, Collins COBUILD advanced learner’s English dictionary. TH: JST Publishing, 2018. [9] D. Pecorari, “Can plagiarism be defined?, in Student plagiarism in higher education: Reflections on teaching practice, D. Pecorari and P. Shaw, Eds. UK: Routledge, 2019. [10] J. Walker, “Student plagiarism in universities: What are we doing about it?,’. Higher Education Research & Development, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 89-106, 1998. [11] Plagiarism.org, “What is plagiarism.” https://plagiarism.org/article/what-is-plagiarism, 2017 [Accessed Jan. 22, 2020]. [12] B. Joob and V. Wiwanitkit, “Scientific misconduct in publication among medical students: Education and role model.” Education for Health, pp. 31-56, 2018. [13] M. Butler, “Avoid plagiarism.” http://www.uq.edu.au/student- services/sites/uq.edu.au.student- services/files/imported/Avoid_Plagiarism.pdf, 2019 [Accessed Dec. 25, 2019]. 39

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[14] G. W. Orluwene and A. E. Magnus-Arewa, “Attitude of Postgraduate students towards plagiarism in university of Port Harcourt.” Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 28-38, 2020. [15] H. H. Hue, T. N. Thom, and T. T. N. Le, Factors that influence on students’ attitudes towards plagiarism: The case of Vietnam. Paper presented at the ninth NEU-KKU (2018, May). International Conference on Socio-Economic and Environmental Issues in Development at National Economics University, Hanoi, Viet Nam. [16] Kavita and M. K. Joshi, “Plagiarism awareness among post graduate students of selected universities of Haryana.” Journal of Advancements in Library Sciences, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 80- 84, 2018. [17] A. R. du Rocher, “Active learning strategies and academic self-efficacy relate to both attentional control and attitudes towards plagiarism.” Active Learning in Higher Education, pp. 1-14, 2018. [18] A. Fatima, A. Abbas, W. Ming, S. Hosseini, and D. Zhu, “Internal and external factors of plagiarism: Evidence from Chinese public sector universities.” Accountability in Research, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 1-16, 2019. [19] L. Powell, “Understanding plagiarism: developing a model of plagiarising behavior”, Paper presented at iParadigms 5th International Plagiarism Conference, The Sage Gateshead, UK, 16- 18 July 2012. citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.259. 7745&rep=rep1&type=pdf [Accessed Feb. 5, 2020]. [20] I. Ajzen, “The theory of planned behaviour. Organisational behaviour and human decision processes”, https://ac.els-cdn.com/0749597 89190020T/1-s2.0-074959789190020T- main.pdf?_tid=9b2749e6-f70f-4552-b5e5-24744d3d1c99&acdnat=1544898175_ 6e154732dd69cadf1e6e6f6a196d87f, 1991, vol. 50, pp. 179-211. [Accessed Feb 10, 2020]. [21] J. D. Marsh and J. Campion, “Academic integrity and referencing: Whose responsibility is it?,” Journal of Academic Language & Learning, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. A213-A226., 2018. [22] A. Palmer, M. Pegrum, and G. Oakley, “A wake-up call? Issues with plagiarism in transnational higher education,” Ethics & Behaviour, vol. 29, no.1, pp. 23-50, 2019. [23] A. M. Razali and Y. B. Wah, “Power comparisons of shapiro-wilk, kolmogorov-smirnov, lilliefors and anderson-darling tests.”Journal of Statistical Modeling and Analytics, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 21-33, 2011. [24] A. Maxwell, G. J. Curtis, and L. Vardanega, “Does culture influence understanding and perceived seriousness of plagiarism?,” International Journal for Educational Integrity, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 25-40, 2008. [25] V. Braun and V. Clarke, “Using thematic analysis in psychology.” Qualitative Research in Psychology, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 77-101, 2006. [26] S. Charubusp, “Plagiarism in the perception of Thai students and teachers.” Asian EFL Journal Professional Teaching Articles, vol.87, pp. 61-81, 2015. [27] F. Mustafa, “Undergraduate students’ understanding on plagiarism in academic writing.” In Proceedings of the First Reciprocal Graduate Research Symposium between University Pendidikan Sultan Idris and Syiah Kuala University, Malaysia, 2016, pp. 113-117. [28] S. Hrasky and D. Kronenburg, “Curriculum redesign as a faculty-centred approach to plagiarism reduction.” International Journal for Educational Integrity, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 23-36, 2011. [29] R. Craig and D. Dalton, “Understanding first year undergraduate student perceptions of copying and plagiarism: Developing a platform for a culture of honest inquiry and the academic construction of knowledge.” In Proceedings of Plagiarism across Europe and Beyond at IPPHEAE 2013, pp.103-114.

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The Development of an ESP Instructional Material for Electrical Engineering Students of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya

Jittima Choopun1, Arkhom Luksanasakul 2, Patcharin Kangkha3

1 College of Industrial Technology and Management, RUTS, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand 2 College of Industrial Technology and Management, RUTS, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand 3 Faculty of Liberal Arts, RUTS, Songkhla, Thailand

Abstract. In the global job market, English communication ability has become a crucial qualification for job applicants and engineers. In the tertiary education, engineering students need mastery in English for academic needs and for professional purposes or to upsurge their employability skills. To cultivate English proficiency and skills, English courses regarding professional communication and contents are essential. This paper reports the results of the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instructional material for electrical engineering students. There were 5 stages in designing and developing the instructional material included 1) needs identification and analysis, 2) content design, 3) instructional material production, 4) teaching, and 5) assessment and evaluation. The researcher compared the students‟ English abilities before and after using the developed instructional material and studied their opinion toward the instructional material. The data were collected from 16 second year electrical engineering students of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya (RUTS), Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand in the academic year 2019. The instruments used in this study were 1) 7 lessons of instructional material developed by the researcher, and the content of each lesson based on a needs analysis, 2) English ability test, and 3) questionnaire was used to survey the students‟ opinion toward the effectiveness the constructed material. The data were analyzed by using a descriptive statistic, frequency, percentage, means, and standard deviation. The findings revealed that the students‟ English abilities after using the developed instructional material was significantly higher than before using them at the 0.05 level. The students‟ opinion toward the material were highly positive.

Keywords: English instructional material designing, need-based material, English for electrical engineering, English for Specific Purposes

Background and Statement of the problem English language is a principal medium of science, technology, and engineering field [16]. Mastering English communication skills are required in every field of work, including engineering field [19]. As explained by Benesch [17], engineering students need mastery in English for academic needs and for professional purposes or to upsurge their employability skills. In the similar vein, Chetsadanuwat [14] mentions that English communication skills become a crucial qualification for a successful engineering job seeker to be hired in Thailand or abroad as the language is used in most international organizations and publications in engineering field. Significantly, to develop engineering students‟ English competence and to enable them to use English communicatively, they have to be motivated and guided in the wide range of task. They can be helped to enhance their English skills by carefully selecting material and designing tasks based on real-world workplace situations [15]. An important trend in the teaching of language has been that the teacher, especially English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers create their own material and devise tasks based on the needs of the learners [6]. A course in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is considered a good way to enhance engineering students‟ English communication skills. As Maria [7] states that the teaching of ESP for engineering students is designed to meet the specific needs of the learners and centred not only on the language (grammar, lexis, and register) but also on the skills and discourses. It indicates that the concept of ESP achieves more in the education of engineering students is by focusing the learner‟s

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attention on particular terminology and communication skills required in the particular professional field. Apparently, every profession has its own professional terminology, which is used frequently in that particular profession. So, it would be more efficient to teach them the specific kinds of language and communicative skills needed for particular roles, (For example, certain terms used by the doctors, lawyers, engineer, flight attendant, pilot, biologist, etc.) rather than just to concentrate on more general English. From these mentioned reasons, it is necessary for the researcher who takes the role of English language lecturer and it also provides a lesson to electrical engineering students to find the means to enhance students‟ English proficiency and encourages them to become ready to be effective in the workforce after completing their degree. To develop methods, approaches, and strategies that enhance engineering students' English skills, firstly, the researcher needs to study fundamental and existing data from a specific group of participants and use the gained information to develop the most appropriate language input and instructional material in the class. Importantly, the material should provide the students with opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative purposes in the real-life context.

Objectives This study aimed to 1) develop English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instructional material for electrical engineering students, 2) study the students‟ English abilities before and after using the developed instructional material, and 3) study students‟ opinion toward the instructional material.

Expected Benefits The researcher strongly hopes that the findings from this study will be useful for both language and content teachers who take responsibility in providing knowledge and experience for electrical engineering students. Furthermore, the study may present some preliminary findings for further studies in the future.

Literature Review English for Specific Purposes (ESP) There are varied definitions of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Hutchinson and Waters [6] viewed ESP as an approach, not a product. They defined that ESP is not a particular kind of language, methodology, or teaching materials. The critical point for Hutchinson & Waters is that all decisions about the content and method of an ESP course are based on learners‟ needs or learners‟ reasons for learning. These needs or reasons can be discovered by conducting a needs analysis from them. Richards and Schmidt [1] defined ESP as the role of English in a language course or programme of instruction in which the content and aims of the course are fixed by the specific needs of a particular group of learners. The definition itself can be claimed that ESP is closely linked to the learners‟ needs. Exploring the specific needs of a specific group of learners is the job of needs analysis. According to Brown [2], if there is no needs analysis, there is no ESP. Needs analysis plays a crucial role in ESP as it functions as the starting point of any ESP programme or course.

Instructional Material Development To accomplish the goal of teaching-learning process, instructional material is considered as one of the important components. Tomlinson [9] defined material as anything which can be used in the language learning, including textbooks, videos, graded readers, flashcards, games, websites, and mobile phone interactions. It is supported by Limberg [12], he explained that in a foreign language classroom instructional materials are created through the variety of input sources, ranging from the participants themselves (such as teacher talk and classroom discourse) to the use of audio-visual 42

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devices (such as CDs, DVDs, and internet), and also printed materials (such as textbooks, workbooks, and activity books). Material development is defined as all processes made used by the practitioners to produce or use material for the learning of language, including material evaluation, adaptation, design, production, exploitation, and research. Ideally, all of those processes should be considered and should interact in the development of material [9]. Furthermore, Spratt et al. [5] revealed that while English textbooks continued to play a significant role in the teaching-learning process, teachers also acknowledged needs of constructing instructional material in many reasons including (a) to replace unsuitable material in the textbook; (b) to provide material missing from the textbook; (c) to provide suitable material for students‟ particular needs and interests; (d) to give extra language or skills practice; and (e) to add variety to teaching.

Research Methodology Samples In this study, samples were 16 second-year electrical engineering students of College of Industrial Technology and Management, RUTS, Nakhon Si Thammarat who enrolled English for Work course in the second semester during the academic year 2019. This study was conducted in the real context of class English for Work taught by the researcher. The researcher employed the purposive sampling method to select the second year electrical engineering students as the research sample. At RUTS, regarding the prescribed syllabus, the second year students are required to enrol English for Work course. In this course, enrolled students will learn about job advertisements, writing a resume and an application letter, job interview, organization chart, vocabulary and expressions used for working and communicating in offices. Also, students are prepared to learn how a professional workplace operate. The course provided knowledge and theory with practical application and skills developed in professional settings and also experience for their future internship or undergraduate project.

Research Instruments In an attempt to answer the research questions, this study used a quantitative study for data collection and analysis. Three research instruments were used for data collection. 1) 7 lessons of instructional materials developed by the researcher and the content of each lesson based on a needs analysis. Prior to the instructional materials development, the researcher conducted a needs analysis and presented the results in the 6th Symposium of International Languages and Knowledge: SiLK 2019 Conference [13]. The researcher used obtained findings from the previous study as a starting point and framework for this ESP instructional materials development. In the approach of a needs analysis, the researcher used a questionnaire and collected data from 2 sets of research participants included 63 electrical engineering students of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya (RUTS) in the academic year of 2018 and 18 professional electrical engineers. The students evaluated their needs of English for electrical engineering topics. The responses of the research participants were given in Figure 1 and 2.

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Job responsibility

Giving instructions and safety rules

Email inquiry for internship

Reading job advertisements

Signs and notices

Email inquiry for job application

Resume or CV

Common interview questions and answers

Preparing for a job interview

Tool safety

3.9 3.95 4 4.05 4.1 4.15 4.2 4.25 4.3 4.35 4.4

Figure 1 RUTS engineering students‟ needs on English topics

The results from professional electrical engineers are presented in Figure 2.

Describing functions of electrical engineering tools

First-aid administration

Tools installation

Describing electrical engineering tools

Describing general tools

Giving instructions and safety rules

Signs and notices

Explaining operation

How to use tools

Tools safety

4 4.05 4.1 4.15 4.2 4.25 4.3 4.35 4.4 4.45 4.5

Figure 2 professional electrical engineers‟ needs on English topics

The researcher continued to the next stage of material development procedure by designing the contents of the material. In this stage, the researcher considered the language content (function, structures, and vocabulary) to be used into the materials. Overall, the ESP instructional material covered 7 lessons. The following table 1 presented the detail of the contents.

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Table 1 Lessons and language contents in the ESP instructional material

Lesson Language contents

Lesson 1 : Job hunting -Writing a resume -Reading a job advertisement -Preparing for a job interview

Lesson 2: Tool safety and how to use tools -Telling names and describing functions of tools -Describing problems of using tools Lesson 3 : Signs and notice -Giving warning, advices, and safety rules -Getting information from signs and notices

Lesson 4: Explaining operation -Describing operating procedure or process - Describing the tool installation and uninstallation

Lesson 5: First aid administration -Giving the instruction

Lesson 6: Describing technical problems -Describing technical problems -Describing the causes of problems -Suggesting the solution of problems

Lesson 7: Explaining job responsibility -Presenting organization structure

In the stage of instructional material production, the researcher submitted the materials to three experts to check the content validity and the appropriateness of the content. After revising, the researcher used the instructional material to teach sample electrical engineering students who enrolled in English for Work course. The duration of the teaching covered seven weeks. The final step was the assessment and evaluation of instructional material. To gain the feedback and reflection, the researcher asked the students to express their opinion toward the effectiveness the constructed instructional material and analysed the data. To summarize the stages of the development of ESP instructional material for electrical engineering students, the researcher followed these 5 stages 1) needs identification and analysis, 2) content design, 3) instructional material production, 4) teaching, and 5) assessment and evaluation. The procedure of the ESP instructional material development is presented in Figure 3.

Needs Instructional Assessment and identification and Content design material Teaching evaluation data analysis production

Figure 3 The procedure of the ESP instructional material development

2) English ability test was employed evaluate students‟ English ability before and after studying from the developed instructional material. The test was developed by the researcher and consisted of 30 multiple choice questions. The students spent 60 minutes to answer the test. 3) Questionnaire was used to study the students‟ opinion toward the effectiveness the constructed instructional material. 45

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The questionnaire was all based on 5-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 (the lowest agreement values) to 5 (the highest agreement values). To avoid any misinterpretations, all questionnaire rendered into Thai. The questionnaire was distributed to the students after the completion of the course and they spent around five minutes to complete the questionnaire.

Data Analysis The researcher analysed the results of English ability test by using a descriptive statistic, frequency and percentage. For students‟ opinion toward the material, the results of the questionnaires were analysed through a descriptive and inferential statistics including means (x ) and standard deviation (S.D.).

Research Results As can be seen from the analysed English ability test score, obviously, there was a statistically significant difference between the pre-test and post-test. After studying from the ESP instructional material, students‟ English ability test was higher than before using such materials. As a result, it could be proposed that the implementation of the designed and developed instructional material can promote students‟ English ability. Pre-test and post-test results were given in Table 2. Table 2 Descriptive statistics of students‟pre-test and post-test score

n (x ) S.D. Min Max Pre-test score 16 12.86 5.26 7 24 Post-test score 16 22 3.79 16 28

After the completion of the course, students were asked to answer their opinion by responding the questionnaire. In the questionnaire, students are asked to evaluate the instructional material in terms of (a) contents (b) activity format, and (c) usefulness. The gained data is presented in the following table. Table 3 Students‟ opinion toward the ESP instructional material in terms of (a) contents (b) activity format, and (c) usefulness.

Content (x ) S.D. Opinion level Contents 1. The font sizes are easy-to read and clear. 4.38 0.72 high 2. The pictures or graphic in the material are appropriate and related to the contents. 4.56 0.63 highest 3.The contents meet the need of the students. 4.81 0.40 highest 4. The contents are interesting. 4.69 0.48 highest 5. The difficulty level of the contents is appropriate to the students. 4.69 0.60 highest Content (Continued) 6. The quantity of the contents are adequate to learning 4.63 0.62 highest time. Activity format 7. The explanation of the contents is clear and easy to understand. 4.69 0.48 highest 8. The activity / exercises are able to activate students‟ prior knowledge and can help in their comprehension. 4.63 0.50 highest 9. The activity / exercises are interesting and able to enhance students to learn. 4.69 0.48 highest 10.The activity / exercises are able to enhance students‟ vocabulary. 4.69 0.48 highest

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Content (x ) S.D. Opinion level Activity format 11. The activity / exercises are able to enhance students‟ reading skills. 4.69 0.48 highest Usefulness 12. The content is useful and allowing students to apply what they had learned in real-life situations. 4.69 0.48 highest 13. The content is useful and allowing students to apply what they had learned in their future career. 4.63 0.50 highest 14. Students have positive attitude toward studying English. 4.63 0.50 highest 15. Students have ability to apply knowledge and skills in working settings. 4.63 0.50 highest 16. Students want to study the content and activity in the similar pattern. 4.69 0.48 highest

Results of students’ opinion toward the ESP instructional material The results of the student's evaluation questionnaire showed that, on average, most students indicated a positive attitude toward the ESP instructional material. They accepted the instructional material in the highest level in terms of contents, activity format, and usefulness. Specifically, most students agreed that the ESP instructional material provided them to apply what they had learned in real-life situations and their future career.

Discussion The importance of English for electrical engineering students From the questionnaire responses, it demonstrated that after students studied from the ESP instructional material, they accepted the importance of English and the need for mastery in English in their specific profession. In the study conducted by Ahyar and Sari [20], it provided other lens to confirm the importance of English for engineering field. They argued that in order to support the graduates to win the competition in the world of work, the language teachers should equip them with sufficient English language skills. Also, improving the English competency can be done with emphasis on the development of material that related to students learning context. Apparently, language teachers needed to have a special vision and understanding toward the requirements of their students‟ future profession and they should make a specific group of students to prepare themselves differently from those learning general English, because they need English for Specific Purposes rather than using it in general. With such awareness, language teachers needed to plan the course, select, and prepare the material based on students‟ needs [8].

The power of a needs analysis To this point, the discussion has considered the language in the real world of workplace from the needs analysis perspectives provided through the lens of ESP. Currently, there is a significant gap between language education and actual workplaces in the real world [11,21]. Researchers, English lecturers as well as curriculum planners should consider and employ needs analysis to gain in-depth information. Moreover, we should consider the requirements of a particular group of students. In developing instructional material, a needs analysis is crucial to both English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and General English (GE) courses. As explained by Hutchinson and Waters [11], any English courses should be based on an analysis of learners‟ needs. Needs analysis has been also considered a prerequisite for planning and developing courses and the development of syllabi and materials [4,9, 21]. Materials development in ESP courses is very crucial and it showed the effort and creativity of the course designers as well as the language teachers. Authentic materials that are used in the real

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world are the best materials that should be used in any English courses. This would give the students a look on the real world that they will be entering once they have graduated. As suggested by Hardings [3], instructional materials should benefit students or learners so that when they go out to the real world they will be not only able to function well in the real world but also they should be able to use English in their working life. Harding furthered suggested that language teachers should use context, texts, and situations from the students‟ learning contexts, they will naturally involve the language they need. In addition, the contents in the instructional material focused on the technical English and provided knowledge of English in the particular context of electrical engineering field. Thus, knowing technical English can be regarded as one of the occupational or vocational skills and it can contribute to the employability chance of workforce [8]. This can be one reasons that students viewed and accepted the usefulness of this ESP instructional material. However, the developed instructional material has been found to be effective because before designing the material, the researcher considered electrical engineering students‟ needs. The reason might be probably that the material is based on the needs analysis. Before designing technical English or ESP programs whose main purposes are to prepare students for the challenges and necessities of higher education and workplace, it is highly emphasized to conduct a comprehensive needs analysis of different groups of stakeholders.

Conclusion This paper reports the results of the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instructional material for electrical engineering students. There were 5 stages in designing and developing the instructional material included 1) needs identification and analysis, 2) content design, 3) instructional material production, 4) teaching, and 5) assessment and evaluation. The researcher compared the students‟ English abilities before and after using the developed instructional material and studied their opinion toward the instructional material. The findings revealed that the students‟ English abilities after using the developed instructional material was significantly higher than before using them at the 0.05 level. The students‟ opinion toward the material were highly positive. As revealed from the study, the researcher strongly agreed that ESP instructional material is one of the important components of English instruction. Based on the needs assessment, it can lead to the effectiveness of material. Teachers can be considered as the best tailor who know well what students‟ needs, level of competence, and learning style. Teachers can choose and design the most appropriate material for their students.

Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the results were unique for particular group of students. The researcher obtained the data from only 16 electrical engineering students. It is recommended that a larger sample size and different major field of students should be further studied to increase the degree of generalization of the study and may provide significantly different results.

Acknowledgments The researcher would like to express gratitude to College of Industrial Technology and Management, RUTS for the grant of this research. Also, the researcher would like to thank all electrical engineering students who generously participated in this study.

References Book [1] J.C.Richards and R.,Schmidt, Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (4th ed.). Harlow: Longman, 2010. [2] J.D.Brown. Introducing needs analysis and English for specific purposes. New York: Routledge, 2016. [3] K.Harding, English for specific purposes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

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[4] M.H.Long, Overview: A rationale for needs analysis and needs analysis research. In M. H. Long (Ed.), Second language needs analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. [5] M.Spratt, A.Pulverness, and M.Williams. The Teaching Knowledge Test Course. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. [6] T.Hutchinson and A.Waters, English for specific purposes: A learning-centred approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1987.

Electronic Document [7] P.O.Maria, “Techniques of Teaching English for Engineer”, 12 February 2009. Online available: http://www.wseas.us/eibrary/conferences/2009/budapest/DIWEB/DIWEB06. pdf =309&VName=PQD.

Journal Articles [8] A. Rezaee, and S. Kazempourian, “A Triangulated Study of Workplace English Needs of Electrical Engineering Students.” Journal of Modern Research in English Language Studies, vol.4, no.4, pp. 1-25, 2017. [9] B. Tomlinson, “Materials Development for Language Learning and Teaching.” Language Teaching, vol.45, no.2, pp.143–179,2012. [10] C. Kaewpet,“A framework for investigating learner needs: Needs analysis extended to curriculum development.” Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, vol.6, no.2, pp. 209-220, 2009. [11] H. Bouzid, “Between the ESP classroom and the workplace: Bridging the gap.” English Teaching Forum, vol.47, no 3, pp. 10-17,2009. [12] H. Limberg, “Teaching How to Apologize: EFL Textbooks and Pragmatic Input.” Language Teaching Research, vol. 20, no.6, pp.700-718, 2016. [13] J. Choopun, D. Kumteang, A. Luksanasakul and P. Kangkha, “Exploring Current Needs of English for Electrical Engineering: Students and Professionals‟ Voices to English Instructional in Tertiary Education. Journal of Communication in Scientific Inquiry, vol.2, no.1, pp.39-44, 2020. [14] K. Chetsadanuwat, “The Development of Self-Instructional Materials to Enhance English Listening Skills for Engineering Students.” Journal of Liberal Arts, vol.16, pp. 122-155, 2016. [15] K. Rajprasit and S.Hemchua, “The English language & communication in the international workplace: An examination of Thai computer engineering professionals.” 3L: The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies, vol. 21,no. 3,pp.109-124,2015. [16] R. Pritchard and A. Nasr, “Improving reading performance among Egyptian engineering students: principles and practice.” English for Specific Purposes, vol.23, pp. 425-445, 2004. [17] S. Benesch, “Rights analysis: Studying power in an academic setting.” English for Specific Purposes, vol.18, no.4, pp.313-327, 1999. [18] S. Sultana, “Design of Materials and Tasks for Making ESP Classes Interactive.” English for Specific Purposes World, vol.37, no.13, pp.1-7, 2013.

Paper Published in Conference Proceedings [19] D. Hadiani and N. N. Permata, “Developing Instructional Materials for Engineering Students: Focus on the Students‟ Communication Skills Needs,” In Proc. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research (ASSEHR), 82, 2017, pp.255-259. [20] J. R. Ahyar and K. D. Sari, “Challenges in Designing ESP Course for First Year Students of Engineering Faculty at Malikussaleh University,” In Proc. Emerald Reach Proceedings Series, 2017,pp.563-568. [21] K. Rajprasit and P. Pratoomrat, “Instructional management of Business English courses at the Thai university level prior to the upcoming ASEAN Economic Community,” In Proc. CD proceedings of “2012 Hong Kong International Conference on Education, Psychology and Society International Conference,” 2012, pp.14-16.

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Self-Generated Website: Enhancing Academic Verb Acquisition of Thai EFL Learners

Mitchelle R. Juaban1, Somporn Maneechote2, Peeraya Saraviroj3, Kusumaiyah Dunkhade4, Chatchawan Nuprasong5

1,2,3,4,5Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla, 90000, Thailand

Abstract. Since the invention of the worldwide web, it has been explored and tested as a potential platform for language acquisition. And through these years a myriad of improvements and modifications have been made in all aspects of it to reach the status where it is now. This action research examined the efficacy of using a customized website to develop academic verb vocabulary. The website was designed using a free application called Google Sites. The lessons and games on high frequency academic verbs constitute as key elements of the tailor-made website together with pre-test, post-test, and satisfaction survey. Pre-and post-test results revealed that 50 participants (41=female, 9=male) from the English for International Communication weekend program of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya were able to gain a statistically significant growth in terms of academic verb knowledge at 0.05 level. Further, the participants expressed high satisfaction level towards the content and overall usefulness of the website. Based on the findings of this study, customizing a website, given the ease and affordability of having one nowadays is promising on the pedagogical stand view. The affinity of language learners of this generation with technology is immense, and to use technology as a means for them to acquire a second language is a nudge towards the direction educators are aiming for.

Keywords: teacher-designed website; language learning website, academic verb vocabulary, academic verb acquisition

Introduction Tailor-made lessons and activities can address second language learners‟ (L2) needs better as they have “educational purposes as a priority” [1]. Over the years, technology-aided methodologies like computer-based language learning (CALL), Web-based language learning (WALL), and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) have gained popularity. As a result, various platforms – educational websites, learning software, and social networking and collaborations were created and taken advantage of. The employment of website in education is apparent not only in the field of languages but in other educational field as well. Empirical studies show that educators adapt available resources to fit their teaching context. Accordingly, researches show that foreign language teachers are increasingly incorporating the web as instructional tool [2]. Its attractively dynamic features coupled by the ease to publish content or incorporate other online resources, and its user-friendly navigation interface are just a few of the attributes that draw language teachers and learners. Moreover, utilizing online resources in foreign language studies is also helpful and a good source of updated, authentic, and real-time materials that may be lacking in most language textbooks. Also, web was used among science educators to design online activities like science projects, online homework, and science lessons. They made use of Google Docs, online videos, software, applications, and online science resources. They observed that their science students were more engaged and motivated to learn with technology [3]. Designing a website allows specialization of content, thus, giving educators a leeway to create lessons and activities that suit their L2 learners‟ needs. Although there are diverse views on the use of technology in the classroom, the benefits that websites may bring are undeniable. In recent years, with the advent and popularity of smartphones, websites have improved to become mobile-friendly; hence, giving students and teachers the best of both worlds. 50

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This current action research takes the premise that teachers can create an online instruction and personalized it to fit the students‟ needs and skills as well as their teaching context. In this light, this current study seeks to find out the efficacy of a website in promoting academic verbs vocabulary development among English for foreign language (EFL) students. Academic verbs are chosen as participants of this present study are taking up preparatory writing course for academic writing, which they will take on the following semester. The findings of this present study may have significant pedagogical implications on educators, curriculum developers, and the whole academe in general. This time and era can be arguably characterized by two prominent things: fast, constant change, and an existence imbued and heavily digitized. Despite the conflicting ideas on the use of technology, it is still a better to delve into it, after all, technology is here to stay. Hence, it is our responsibility to adapt and equip ourselves as we face the newly perceived normal.

Related Literature Website and Google Sites Technology is the need of the moment; the times necessitate it. If we are unwilling to move along with it, then we lose the opportunity of what could be an effective tool for language development [4]. The role of websites in foreign language learning has undeniably increased through the years, and has been viewed by many as useful and valuable.

Websites, as a publicly accessible collection of interlinked web pages that share one single domain name, have been utilized in education since the conception of the worldwide web. Although, website creation from 1993 to 2008 were tech-savvy exclusive, the explosion of website templates in 2009 and web page builders in 2013 have paved way to website content creation and designing even by individuals without knowledge of computer programming [5]. Google Sites, a free website builder developed by Google, only requires a Google account to open one. With this, users are allowed to open as many Google Sites as they can. Images, documents, and other information needed for the website can be stored and accessed via the Google Drive. However, the features offered are limited. But for teachers whose main purpose is to personalize their courses, its features are ample enough. There are other free choices as well like Wordpress, Weebly, Wix, and Squarespace.

A study claimed that Google Apps for Education (GAFE) with which Google sites, docs, Google classroom, Google meet, and Gmail are all a part of, has a transformational effects on the educational system. The collaborative online tools offered by GAFE pave the way for easy facilitation, sharing, creation, and designing of materials in class and in the administrative level. Furthermore, all of the research participants preferred learning using GAFE than the traditional methods of instruction specifically 91% very satisfied and 9% moderately satisfied [6].

Related Study In a similar study, it was found that there is a statistically significant relationship between studying via the web in the classroom and the level of learning and academic performance of female participants in higher education [7]. Here, the author proposed a learning environment framework involving the teacher, students, and the web - Google sites and google documents. Ease and usefulness of both web applications were specifically mentioned.

An action research explored the effectiveness of classroom website on teacher-parent communication. Results revealed that, it has not only been an effective means of communication; and that, it has also gotten the student involved in the process. Further, both parents and students regarded the classroom website as exciting and a good additional resource [8].

An evaluative study made on websites used by students for foreign language learning revealed that most of the participants like learning language online and were generally satisfied with

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the websites they used. Students further suggested that language skills, other useful information, explanation, and games be included in the teaching websites [9].

Research Design and Methodology Research questions This study specifically sought to answer the following questions: 1) Did the self-designed website promote academic verb vocabulary development? 2) Were the participants satisfied by the quality of the self-designed website?

Participants A total of 50 students participated. Convenience sampling was used in this study. The participants were the researcher‟s writing course students taking up Advanced Writing during the time of the conduction of the study. They would be taking up Academic Writing and would subsequently write a research report the following semester.

Procedure The research started out with the creation of the list of 20 high frequency academic verb, which were collated from websites like Scribbr, Quizlet, Typely, English for Study, and the University of Western Australia. Next, the creation and designing of the website. The academic verb website was created and designed using a well-known platform, the Google Sites. Figure 1 shows the homepage, a welcome page at the same time that has the following: the website name, the different pages such as the pre- test, lesson, activities, and post-test on the header, and a reminder note at the footer. Students can navigate through these pages, or to simply click next as they go through the activities one by one. The lessons are divided into three. First, the lessons began with a definition of academic verb, the difference between phrasal verbs and academic verbs, and an explanation on the appropriateness of academic verb usage in academic writing. Followed by an introduction of 20 phrasal verbs together with their academic verb counterparts. Finally, each of the 20 academic verbs are defined individually. Figures 2 and 3 show the visual presentation of phrasal verbs and academic verbs, and definition of each academic verb respectively. There are 5 different prepared activities to supplement and reinforce the lessons in a form of online computer games. The first two games, are called “Match Up” and “Balloon Pop” respectively (as shown in Figure 4). These are played in a drag and drop manner to match the academic verbs with their corresponding meanings. “True False” is game 3 where students decide if the academic verb and definition pairing is correct or not by clicking true or false. Game 4 (Gameshow Quiz) is a multiple choice quiz with time pressure, lifelines, and a bonus round. Game 5 (Missing Word) is a cloze activity where an academic word is dragged and dropped on a blank space within a text. Followed by the administration of pre-test using Google form. After which, the participants were instructed to study the academic verbs on the website for a week; thereafter the post test was given, and the satisfaction survey conducted. Participants were told that the result of the post-test would be part and parcel of the class participation for the Advanced Writing course. They were informed that the satisfaction survey does not require them to fill in their name, and were also encouraged to truthfully fill in the survey as it would not affect their academic status in whatever form or capacity.

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Figure 1. Website homepage

Figure 2. Phrasal verb vs Academic verb

Figure 3. Definition of academic verb

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Figure 4. Sample Game

Research Instruments and Data Analysis Pre-test and Post test The instruments employed in this study were pre-test, post-test, and satisfaction survey. The pretest and post-test were used to investigate the improvement of the participants‟ academic verb skills, and they were the same sets of 30 questions consisting of 3 parts:

Part 1: 10-item multiple choice: Identifying the correct academic verb for a given phrasal verb. Part 2: 10-item multiple choice: Choosing the correct academic verb to match its corresponding meaning. Part 3: 10-item fill in the blanks: Selecting the correct academic verb that fits the sentence.

Satisfaction survey Further, a 5-point Likert scale survey was utilized to evaluate the participants‟ satisfaction on the website after learning the academic verbs. It was divided into 3 parts namely: personal information; participants‟ satisfaction on the lessons, activities and games, and the overall content of the website; and finally, suggestion.

SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for statistical analysis. Data were analyzed using percentage, mean (x̅), standard deviation (S.D.), and paired t-Test.

Results and Discussion This section presents the results and discussion with respect to the research questions. To answer the first research question: Did the self-designed website promote academic verb vocabulary development? Table 1 shows the students‟ mean scores from their pre- and post-test results. The average score of the participants increased by almost 7 points from the pre-test to the post-test, demonstrating a high gain. These results were then subjected to a paired t-Test for analysis. It revealed a highly significant difference between the pre-test and post-test at a 0.05 level. Considering the t-Test and p- value, it can be deduced that the participants‟ academic verb vocabulary scores have significantly improved due to the self-designed website treatment.

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Table 1 Results of the pre- and post-tests Standard Significance Tests Mean (x̅) Deviation T-Test Probability (S.D.) (Sig.) Pre-test 20.30 5.3309 9.008 .000 Post-test 27.28 3.5745

These findings indicate that using a tailor-made website support L2 vocabulary enhancement. As most online resources are standardized to fit-all ESL or EFL learners; educators, given the accessibility and user-friendly nature of today‟s technology, can employ and customized technology in the classroom. By doing so, stress on learners‟ problem area(s) can be given attention. Also, mastery will be given emphasis together with flexibility in terms of when and where learners learn [10]. Further, as websites have become mobile-friendly and most learners have their own smartphones with internet, using a customized website as a teaching tool makes blended learning and self-learning possible. Pedagogically, it is promising, and can be a powerful teaching tool for teachers. A web- based vocabulary learning that combines custom-made lessons and game-based learning has high potential to make vocabulary learning effective, attractive, and fun [11].

To answer the second research question: Were the respondents satisfied by the quality of the self-designed website?

Table 2 presents the satisfaction level of participants on three distinct items regarding the website. The 5-point Likert scale revealed a 4.66, 4.68, and 4.67 mean scores for the items lessons, games, and usefulness of the website respectively. These values are all equivalent to very satisfied level of satisfaction.

Table 2 Participants Satisfaction Level

Lessons Games Website Usefulness

N 50 50 50 Missing value 0 0 0

ean x ) 4.66 4.68 4.67

Standard Deviation 0.5397 0.5254 0.5768 (S.D.)

Level very satisfied very satisfied very satisfied

The satisfaction levels across the three categories are indicative of a positive attitude by the participants towards the website. They particularly enjoyed the games, as a few of them had explicitly expressed. Games have played immense role in learning, may it be at home or specially-organized games for the classroom. It can be said that games have positive effects on learners, whether they are used for motivation, instructional, or evaluative purposes. Games have huge and worthwhile impacts

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on learners. Results of studies on the effects of games on learners are unanimous on their stand of its undeniable benefits [12], [13], [14], and [15]. Moreover, having a single topic may have positively impacted the participants in a way that the task at hand is not overpowering; thus, affecting focus and emphasis. In effect, this may have led to them finishing the task from beginning until the end; hence, they felt satisfied. It was found that students get overwhelm by excessive information, lengthy pages, and wordy websites [16]. These do not only negatively affect website navigation but most importantly, these have adverse impact on students‟ zest to finish a task, or begin a new learning task. On the same spectrum, students found the website useful, though, it is important to mention that the study did not take into account the participants‟ characteristics like academic and cognitive skills [17]. However, in contrast, the participants‟ of this study expressed level of satisfaction were not only on the website as a learning tool, but on the content of the course as well. Having said that, to attain a clear-cut result on the usefulness of a website as instructional tool, a conscious effort of bringing into account students‟ characteristics and other intervening factors is important. The participants also expressed some of their views to better the website. While they were satisfied by the overall presentation of the lesson, they indicated that additional information regarding the academic verbs, and more sample sentences where the academic verbs are used would be good to give the vocabulary further context.

Conclusion This action research have two objectives. One of these is to determine the efficiency of a self- generated academic verb website. To achieve this, a list of high frequency academic verbs were created, followed by the creation of the website, and then the administration of the pre-test. Through the website, participants were able to learn the different academic verbs via audio-visual lessons and several online games for a period of one week. After which, a post-test was administered. Results revealed that, the website is effective in so far as the pre-test to post-test academic verb knowledge improvement is concern. Moreover, the participants expressed high level satisfaction towards the lessons, the online games, and the quality of the website.

Recommendations For educators Based on the findings of this action research, it is recommended for educators to undertake and apply this concept of customizing technology and use it as an instructional tool for the following reasons:  to enrich face to face learning  as supplement or reinforcement in a blended learning classroom  to make learning experience more personal especially for asynchronous learning environment

For future research This study is not without limitations, the number of academic verb is small. In hindsight, increasing the number of academic verbs and having numerous sources including but not limited to websites, prints, and perhaps from academic-related corpus may it be self-collated or readily-available online would make the list more comprehensive. This sample website has plenty of room for improvement. Features like forum page where students could interact and collaborate, academic verbs with varying levels (easy, intermediate, and advanced), and download options and other resources for asynchronous eLearning, a page dedicated for reading and writing to put the vocabulary in meaningful context would be great addition to contemplate on. Finally, delayed post-test was not administered. Employing this would be beneficial to determine if students were able to retain knowledge of academic verbs.

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References [1] A, Pritchard. Effective Teaching with Internet Technologies. Pedagogy and Practice. London. Paul Chapman Publishing, 2007. [2] A. Gilmore, “Authentic materials and authenticity in foreign language learning”, Language Teaching, 40(02), 97 – 118, April, 2007. [Online serial]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444807004144. [Accessed June 16, 2020]. [3] M. Recker, L. Sellers, and L. Yei, “Teacher Design Using Online Learning Resources: A Comparative Case Study of Science and Mathematics Teachers,” Education Research International, 2013, 1-11, March 2013. [Online serial]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/243248. [Accessed July 1, 2013]. [4] P. Saranya, “Incorporating Technology in the Language Classrooms,” Journal of Technology for ELT, 7(2), ISSN (Online): 2231-4431, Apr. 2017. [Online serial]. Available: https://sites.google.com/site/journaloftechnologyforelt/archive/v7-n2/2. [Accessed June 29, 2020]. [5] R. Shelley, “The History of Website Design: 28 Years of Building the Web [2019 Update],” smamarketing.net, July 30, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.smamarketing.net/blog/the- history-of-website-design. [Accessed June 29, 2020] [6] L. Awuah, “Supporting 21st-Century Teaching and Learning: The Role of Google Apps for Education (GAFE),” Journal of Instructional Research, 4, 12-22, Aug. 2015. [Online serial]. Available: https://cirt.gcu.edu/jir/documents/2014_v3/volume_4_2015/jir2015awuahpdf. [Accessed June 29, 2020]. [7] S. Aljraiwi, “The Effect of Classroom Web Applications on Teaching, Learning and Academic Performance among College of Education Female Students”, Journal of Education and Learning, 6(2), 132-145, January, 2017. [Online serial]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jel.v6n2p132. [Accessed July 4, 2020]. [8] M. Golding, “Exploring the Effectiveness of a Classroom Website,” presented at the 2007-2008 SCASD-PSU Teacher Inquiry Conference, Penn State, USA, 2008. [9] E. Kir, and S. Kayak, “The evaluation of websites teaching English as foreign language,” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 106 (2013), 2788 – 2795, Dec. 2013. [Online serial]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.320. [Accessed June 28, 2020] [10] S. Patrick, K. Kennedy, and A. Powell, “Mean what you say: Defining and integrating personalized, blended and competency education,” presented at the International Association for K-12 Online Learning, Vienna, VA, 2013. [11] J. Jung, and S Graf, “An Approach for Personalized Web-based Vocabulary Learning through Word Association Games,” presented at the 2008 International Symposium on Applications and the Internet, Turku, Finland, 2008. [12] N. Zaric, and S. Scepanovic, “Gamification of e-learning based on learning styles –design model and implementation,” presented at the E-Learn 2018 -- World Conference on E- Learning, Las Vegas, NV, USA, 2018. [13] S. Grey, “Games, Learning and Engagement: What Teachers might learn from Games Designers,” New Directions in the Teaching of Physical Sciences, 11(1), 1-4, Dec. 2016. [Online serial]. Available: https://doi.org/10.29311/ndtps.v0i11.576. [Accessed June 30, 2020]. [14] P. Turner, M. Kebritchi, S. Evans, and D. Heflich, “Influence of online computer games on the academic achievement of nontraditional undergraduate students,” Cogent Education, 5(1), 1-16, Feb. 2018. [Online serial]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1437671. [Accessed June 29, 2020]. [15] E. Gozcu, and C.K. Caganaga, “The Importance of Games in EFL Classroom,” Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 11(3), 126-135, Sept. 2016. [Online serial]. Available: http://sproc.org/ojs/index.php/cjes/. [Accessed June 19, 2020]. [16] M. Liu, T. Traphagan, J. Huh, Y. Ihn koh, G. Choi, and A. McGregor, “Designing Websites for ESL Learners: A Usability Testing Study,” CALICO Journal, 25(2), 207-240, Jan. 2008. [Online serial]. Available: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ809384. [Accessed July 1, 2020].

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[17] V. Thurmond, K. Wambach, H. Connors, and B. Frey, B. “Evaluation of Student Satisfaction: Determining the Impact of a Web-Based Environment by Controlling for Student Characteristics,” American Journal of Distance Education, 16(3), 169-190, June 2010. [Online serial]. Available: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15389286AJDE1603_4. [Accessed June 29, 2020].

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The Impact of Self-Generated YouTube Pronunciation Video on Improving Thai EFL Learners’ Pronunciation Ability

Ryan Rommel M. Dominguez¹, Kittima Tantihachai², Chananat Chuvilai³ Worapan Jinda4, Jenjira Thainthong5

1,2,3,4,5Department of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla, 90000, Thailand

Abstract. The versatility of YouTube application allows customization of content which could translate to streamlining lessons to better suit the needs of second language (L2) learners. This feature makes this application a powerful addition to any educator‟s instructional arsenal. The purpose of this action research study was to investigate the effect of self-made YouTube pronunciation video on improving English for foreign language (EFL) learners‟ pronunciation ability particularly 20 students (18=female, 2=male) of the English for International Communication weekend program of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya who were observed to have weak English pronunciation. Pre-test and post-test results showed a statistically significant improvement on the participants‟ pronunciation as revealed by the paired t-Test at 0.05 level of significance (p-value, 0.000). Moreover, a questionnaire administered by the researchers indicated that students were satisfied towards the pronunciation video as evident by the Likert scale mean results of 3.95, 3.88, and 3.98 for pronunciation content, usefulness of the video, and video quality respectively. Results of this present study are significantly indicative of the effectiveness and usefulness of YouTube application as an instructional tool to ameliorate EFL learners‟ pronunciation. Considering that this application is free; it is easy to use; and is accessible even on mobile device, has a huge pedagogical use for second language acquisition.

Keywords: English pronunciation, YouTube pronunciation video, mobile-assisted language learning

Introduction Exposure to the target language is one of the best ways to acquire it. Nowadays, “exposure” need not be expensive, in fact, it may only costs a few hundred Baht because it is just a click away. This may not be the case thirty years ago, but it is now. Since the invention of the World Wide Web in 1989, technology has exponentially improved. Today, people have access to everything in the internet at any place at any time if they so desire. As of January 2020 there are over 50 million internet users, almost 95 million internet connections in mobile, and that YouTube is the second most popular application in the country [1]. If these figures can be taken advantage of, we may see improvement in L2 pronunciation by leaps and bounds. Pronunciation as a segment of speaking skills, and altogether an integral part of communication is without a doubt significant and crucial. No amount of good grammar and vocabularies could make one convey a message in an oral discourse if s/he is not understood. Having an accent is beautiful, it tells a whole lot about the person. But most importantly, a speech perceived as heavily accented may remain highly intelligible [2]. Prior, native-like pronunciation may have been the aim but this is not the case anymore. It is not only impractical, but it may also be discouraging for some or perhaps utterly infeasible for others. In this time and era where English is considered as lingua franca, but there are a number of “Englishes” considered acceptable; we can say that there can be no single English pronunciation considered correct over the others. The best option is to make pronunciation intelligible for all. Intelligibility of pronunciation is and should be the aim of pronunciation instructors. Following the International Phonetic Alphabet can tremendously aid this goal [3]. This current study contend that English pronunciation need not be native-like, it is the correct production of sounds following the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) standards.

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This goal can be further made fun and attainable with the employment of technology. As mentioned earlier, YouTube as a popular audio-visual online platform, which is user-friendly for both users and content creators, versatile, and free, can be a powerful teaching-learning tool. This action research study aims to find out the efficacy of using YouTube in developing the pronunciation skills of participants. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions: 1. Did the YouTube pronunciation video enhance the participants‟ pronunciation skill? 2. Were the participants‟ satisfied by the video in terms of content, usefulness, and video quality? The results of this study may be a valuable additional data on how educators could make use of YouTube as a viably powerful instructional tool.

Related Literature YouTube as an instructional tool YouTube is a sharing and viewing content platform that is a powerful instructional tool and has several pedagogical implications to education including enhancing reading and writing, conversation, listening and speaking, and pronunciation [4]. In their paper, they describe how YouTube can be used in each of the language skills mentioned. As for pronunciation, they suggested choosing movie trailers whereby students are tasked to mimic narrations taking into consideration native-like cadence, intonation, and pronunciation. While this is a great way to enhance pronunciation, it may not work well for everyone. Based from experience and observations, the mother tongue exerts tremendous influence resulting to an awkward and incomprehensible pronunciation. In this regard, this current study emphasizes intelligibility over native-like pronunciation. Likewise, YouTube was employed in a university classroom to promote proper pronunciation of problem sounds of Thai learners specifically [v], [z], [ð], [θ]. In this study, students were asked to listen to songs or short stories, and upload a video of themselves singing or narrating a story once a week for a month. Results revealed that students had a positive attitude towards YouTube, and that students‟ pronunciation of [z] and [ð] had significantly improved. As for [v] and [θ] a minimal improvement was seen [5]. On a slightly different perspective, YouTube was employed as venue to submit assignments to boost pronunciation skills. Here, students aspiring to become English teachers were asked to upload their assigned tasks related to English for everyday usage and English for academic conversation on YouTube as replacements for written mid-term and final tests. One of the criteria of the tasks is language performance in particular the students‟ English pronunciation. Descriptive analysis approach was used, and an overall positive result on the effect of YouTube on students‟ pronunciation skills was given [6]. However, it is noted that pronunciation practice with an instructor/lecturer was missing. Knowing if pronunciation of words were correct or not was left on to the students, and it was up to them to seek for advices. This present study, on the other hand, stresses the important role pronunciation-instructors play in the process. It is crucial to correct problem sounds the soonest possible rather than to let them go on practicing the wrong one. Hundreds of pronunciation videos are readily-available in YouTube. A review made to examine these found that most of them can be categorized into 5 groups namely, word stress, sentence stress, rhythm, intonation and connected speech, and utilized tools like whiteboards as opposed to animations. Also there is the emphasis on native-like speech as opposed to intelligibility and comprehensibility. Reliability and correctness of information were other issues found. As a whole though, the study points that YouTube videos should not be used as a stand-alone material but as a supplemental instructional aid. And that the platform can be used to present topics in an easy and creative manner [3]. From these literature, the following are deduced and found relevant for this current study. YouTube as an instructional tool needs to be explored more for all of its possibilities. It is an aid that pronunciation instructors could employ vis-à-vis face-to-face instructions. And that deciding on 60

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readily available pronunciation videos in YouTube is critical with matters concerning native-like vs intelligibility and availability vs suitability of content.

English problem sounds of Thai learners Studies made have unanimous results regarding the English problem sounds of Thai learners [7], [8], [5], [9]. Evidently, /ʃ / in such words as “catch”, “fish”, and “delicious”; /v/ in words like “vine”, “vault”, and “veer”; /ϴ/ and /ð/ sounds lack counterpart sounds in the Thai phonological system. Furthermore, the following final sounds were also found problematic: /ʒ /, /ʤ/, /d/, /k/, /n/ and /s/. Another set of consonants that gives pronunciation problems to Thai learners are /r/, /l/, /g/, /ʧ /, and /z/. In an intelligibility study, it is revealed that /v, θ, ð, and r/ are the most problematic in the initial position, and /g, ð, b, d, θ, v, s, f, and z/ are the most problematic in the final position [10].

Research Design and Methodology Research questions This study specifically sought to answer the following questions: 3.1.2. Did the self-generated YouTube pronunciation video enhance the participants‟ pronunciation skill? 3.1.3. Were the participants‟ satisfied by the video in terms of content, usefulness, and video quality?

Participants Through purposive sampling method, twenty were chosen as participants during the academic year 2019. Although, they have already taken pronunciation course a semester ago, they were still observed to be weak in English pronunciation. This was seen as an auspicious situation to investigate the effects of the self-generated YouTube pronunciation video.

Table 1 Number of participants and their genders

Gender Population Percentage

Male 2 10.0 Female 18 90.0 Total 20 100.0

Table 1 shows the total number of students who participated in the study, 20. Accordingly, majority of the participants were female (about 90% of participants) and there were only 2 males (about 10% of participants).

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Table 2 Number of participants’ ages

Age Population Percentage

20 4 20.0 21 3 15.0 22 9 45.0 23 4 20.0 Total 20 100.0

Table 2 reveals that all of the participants were already in their 20‟s. Almost half of these (45%) were 22 years of age, while 20% of them were 20 and 23 year olds respectively. The youngest were 3, 21 year olds, comprising 15% of the total sample.

The self-generated YouTube Pronunciation video Figure 1 shows details about the self-generated YouTube pronunciation video. It presents how vocabularies are introduced. Each vocabulary is presented in a simple animation where the vocabulary appears, together with the IPA pronunciation of the word. Simultaneously, an audio demonstrates the pronunciation twice. Additional information regarding the vocabulary is also provided.

Figure 1 Pronunciation Video Content

Research Procedure The research started out with the creation of an 88-word list that depicts problem sounds of Thai learners of English enumerated on studies made [7], [5], [9]. Participants were asked to read each word. This session was recorded with the participants‟ permission. The recorded audio was analyzed for mispronounced words, scores were tallied and these became the participants‟ pre-test scores; after which, the video was created and uploaded in YouTube for easy access. Participants were then 62

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instructed to listen to the video and to practice pronouncing each word for as many times as they can. After a week, a post-test was administered.

Data Instrument and Analysis Pre-test, post-test, and satisfaction survey were employed as research instruments. Specifically, pre-test and post-test results were used to determine the improvement on the participants‟ pronunciation skill, and a 5-point Likert scale was utilized to evaluate the participants‟ satisfaction on the pronunciation video in terms of content, usefulness, and video quality. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for statistical analysis. Data were analyzed using mean (x ), standard deviation (S.D.), and paired t-Test.

Results and Discussion This section presents the results and discussions with respect to the study‟s research questions.

To answer the first research question: Did the YouTube pronunciation video enhance the participants’ pronunciation skill? Table 3 displays the students‟ pre- and post-test results mean scores. The average score of the participants increased by almost 25 points from the pre-test to the post-test, demonstrating a high gain. These results were then subjected to a paired t-Test for analysis. It revealed a highly significant difference between the pre-test and post-test at a 0.05 level. In light of the t-Test and p-value, it can be said that the self-generated pronunciation video has enhanced the participants‟ pronunciation skills.

Table 3 Results of the Pre-test and Post-test

Standard Significance Tests ean x ) Deviation t-Test Probability (Sig.) (S.D.)

Pre-test 31.0000 13.77259 -6.519 0.000 Post-test 55.6000 18.20758

These findings are indicative of the effectiveness of the self-generated YouTube pronunciation video, and its versatility in terms of adapting lessons for ESL or EFL learners. YouTube, as the second most used application in Thailand can be an immensely important teaching tool for language acquisition. As a possible answer to the need for exposure to the target language, one need not spend exorbitantly for overseas camps, vacations, or stay-ins because learners could immerse themselves to the target language anytime, anywhere through videos in YouTube and other applications. Moreover, as today‟s generations are called “digital natives”, using technology as an instructional tool is preferred and totally welcomed. This is consistent with a study that found out that “ Net Generations‟” classroom participation are positively affected by the employment of YouTube in terms of their over-all engagement as well as behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively [11]. Aside from this, being able to model the pronunciation for the participants any time of the day through the video may have contributed to the huge improvement in their pronunciation as revealed by their post-test scores. Listening to it repeatedly over a period of time enabled them to familiarize the sounds, and aided them in uttering the words and producing the sounds. Pronunciation involves movements of muscles, thus training these muscles and having them “memorize” the movement are significant. Consequently repetition is crucial as it promotes memory. This is strongly 63

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backed up by a scientific study [12], that revealed a positive connection between verbal repetition and regions in the brain responsible for speech. Thus having a handy pronunciation video increases the probable times that participants can practice pronouncing the words as oppose to a scheduled practice in the classroom only, which could be limiting. More verbal repetitions, the more trained the vocal muscles are, the higher the probability that students can produce the correct sound, hence correct pronunciation. Constant practice of uttering correct pronunciation is crucial in attaining good pronunciation [13].

Were the participants’ satisfied by the video in terms of content, usefulness, and video quality? Table 2 shows the satisfaction level of participants on the pronunciation video. The 5-point Likert scale revealed a 3.95, 3.88, and 3.98 mean scores for the items, content, usefulness of the video, and video quality respectively. These values are all equivalent to satisfied level of satisfaction.

Table 2 Participants Satisfaction Level

Content Usefulness Video

(Pronunciation) Of the video Quality Valid 20 20 20 N Missing 0 0 0

ean x ) 3.95 3.88 3.98

Standard Deviation (S.D.) 0.8112 0.7014 0.7612

Level satisfied satisfied satisfied

The participants expressed a positive attitude towards the pronunciation video as evident by a satisfied level rating across the three categories: pronunciation content, usefulness of the video, and video quality. This satisfied rating may have come from two factors. First, the independence of practicing on their own pace and being given the responsibility over their own learning. Second, the video content and quality may have reached their level of expectation. This is consistent with the finding that there is a positive correlation between student expectation and satisfaction [14]. Third, students nowadays have a positive perception towards the use of technology in learning. This is supported by another study, which found out that students perceive the incorporation of YouTube as efficient and engaging [15]. However, the optimum length for educational videos is 6 minutes or less [16]. They found out that students‟ engagement is high with shorter videos, and decreases as video duration lengthens. Having said this, the video length of this study is almost thrice longer than their recommended duration. The participants‟ satisfaction with the video length may have been due to the minimal engagement they need to do. It only involves repetition of the vocabularies, which they can do while doing something else.

Conclusion This action research had two objectives. In order to achieve the objectives, a list of English vocabularies depicting English problem sounds of the participants was made [7], [5], and [9]. The first of these objectives was to determine the efficiency of the self-generated YouTube video on the pronunciation skills of the participants. In order to achieve this, a pre-test was 64

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administered and a post-test was also given after the treatment. The self-generated YouTube pronunciation video was used by participants to listen to and imitate for a week. The research found out that the self-generated YouTube pronunciation video had positively improved the participants‟ pronunciation skills. Furthermore, the survey questionnaire revealed that the participants of this study were satisfied towards the pronunciation content of the video, the total usefulness of the video, and its over-all quality.

Limitations and Recommendations This study is without shortcomings, the small sample size restricts the generalizations that could be drawn about the efficacy of YouTube and the satisfaction of students towards it as an instructional tool. A delayed post pronunciation test was not administered to identify the extent of the efficiency of the pronunciation video, and it is recommended to do so, for it would reveal students‟ extent of usage and satisfaction. Lastly, a control group was not carried out. It would be valuable for future research to delve into this for a fuller, richer research findings.

References [1] Hootsuite of Are the Social & .we. “For the Digital Thailand 2020: 30 Summary statistics of Thailand to digital by 2020,” Documentation of D-Court2020, 2020. [Online] http://www.library.coj.go.th/Info/53795. [Accessed June 8, 2020] [2] A. Loukina, M. Lopez, K. Evanini, D. Suendermann-Oeft, A. Ivanov, K. Zechner, “Pronunciation accuracy and intelligibility of non-native speech,” In Interspeech 2015, 2015, pp. 1917-1921. [3] A. Siidoroff, and J. Sundberg, “A critical review of English pronunciation teaching on YouTube and in mobile applications,” Bachelor‟s thesis, University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylän yliopisto, Finland 2018. [4] J. Watkins, and M. Wilkins, “Using YouTube in the EFL Classroom,” Language Education in Asia, 2(1), 113-119, August 2011. [Online serial]. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.5746/LEiA/11/V2/I1/A09/Watkins_Wilkins. [Accessed June 8, 2020]. [5] P. Imsri, “Using YouTube to Engage Learners in Pronunciation Practice,” In 2015 Symposium of International Languages and Knowledge, Nakhon Sri Thammarat, Thailand, 2015, pp. 206- 209. [6] S. Rahayu, and W. Putri, “Uploading speaking assignment to YouTube channel as an effort in increasing student‟s pronunciation skill,” EnJourMe (English Journal of Merdeka): Culture, Language, and Teaching of English, 3(2), 35-45, April 2019. [Online serial]. Available: 10.26905/enjourme.v3i2.2741. [Accessed June 10, 2020]. [7] S. Sahatsathatsana, “Pronunciation Problems of Thai Students Learning English Phonetics: A Case Study at Kalasin University,” Journal of Education, 11(4), 67-84, 2017. [Online serial]. Available: https://edu.msu.ac.th/journal/home/journal_file/383.pdf. [Accessed June 10, 2020]. [8] T. Niamthet, “A survey of awareness towards English pronunciation among Thai international workers in exhibition services,” Master‟s Thesis, Thammasat University, Thailand, 2016. [9] M. Kanokpermpoon, “Thai and English Consonantal Sounds: A Problem or a Potential for Learning,” The ABAC Journal, 27(1), 57-66, January 2007. [Online serial]. Available: http://www.assumptionjournal.au.edu/index.php/abacjournal/article/view/583. [Accessed June 10, 2020]. [10] A. Lahdae, “Phonological features affecting intelligibility of Thai learners as evaluated by native and non-native listeners,” Master‟s Thesis, Thammasat University, Thailand, 2015. [11] S. Roodt, and D. Peier, “Youtube in the Classroom for the Net Generation of Students,” Science Issues in Informing and Information Technology, 10, 473-488, Jan. 2013. [Online serial]. Available: https://doi.org/10.28945/1823. [Accessed June 19, 2020]. [12] M. Berthier, and M. Lambon, “Dissecting the function of networks underpinning language repetition,” Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8:727, Oct. 2014. [Online serial] Available: https://doi.og/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00727. [Accessed June 18, 2020]. 65

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[13] R. Dominguez, “Intelligible Pronunciation,” In Symposium of International Languages and Knowledge 2015, Nakhorn Sri Thammarat, Thailand, 2015, pp. 238-240. [14] G. Militaru, D. Deselnicu, and M. Pollofroni, “An Exploratory Study of Student Satisfaction: The Moderating Role of Digital Technologies,” In the 9th International Management Conference, Bucharest, Romania, 2015, pp. 234-241. [15] N. More, “Student Attitudes towards the Integration of YouTube in Online, Hybrid, And Web- Assisted Courses: An Examination of the Impact of Course Modality on Perception,” MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 11(1), 55-73, March 2015. [Online serial] Available: https://jolt.merlot.org/vol11no1/Buzzetto-More_0315.pdf. [Accessed June 23, 2020]. [16] P. Guo, J. Kim J, and R. Robin, “How video production affects student engagement: an empirical study of MOOC video,” In the First ACM Conference on Learning at Scale, New York: ACM, 2014, pp. 41–50.

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The Effectiveness of an English Research Writing Manual for Students in English for Communication Program

Vikrom Chantarangkul1

1Department of General Education, Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80110, Thailand

Abstract. The development of a research writing manual is beneficial in improving ability in writing research papers of students in higher education. This study aims to develop a manual for writing research studies in English for undergraduate students in Bachelor of Arts at the Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya (RUTS) and to examine students‟ opinions toward the manual. The participants in the study were 25 third year students in English for Communication Program. The research instruments were a manual, a pretest/posttest, and a five- point, Likert-type questionnaire. The data obtained were analyzed through means, standard deviations, and a paired sample t-test. The results revealed that the mean scores for the pretest and the posttest were 15.16 and 21.96. The t-test was statistically significant (t = 10.98, p<.001). The finding from the questionnaire showed that students highly agreed toward the manual in all aspects (M = 4.21). Additional students‟ comments indicated that the manual is useful in improving students‟ ability in research paper writing as it provides examples of moves and lexical bundles in different sections of research papers. Some suggestions are proposed in the study for further research.

Keywords: manual, research papers, English program

Background and Statement of the Problem Doing research is important for developing the country since the knowledge gained from research can be distributed to the society and community. This results in better economic progress and well-being of the country. Higher education institutions therefore aim to improve undergraduates‟ knowledge in their careers. Besides studying different subjects in the classroom, graduates need to do research for creating a body of knowledge in their fields. Training undergraduates to be proficient in writing research studies will result in academic success. Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya is one of state universities that offers a Bachelor of Arts Program in English for Communication at the Faculty of Science and Technology. The new curriculum first used in 2016 includes various subjects such as English Research Paper Writing to enable students to understand how to write introductions, methods, results, discussions, and abstracts. However, in writing published research articles in English, it is found that students have problems in writing research studies due to words, and expressions used in different sections of research papers [6]. The development of educational materials such as a manual for writing research papers will enable students to understand how to write research in English as [3] stated that the manual for translating abstracts from Thai into English helped students to be proficient in translating abstracts into English. An analysis of previous studies relating to the usefulness of self-learning manual such as [2] revealed that self-learning materials improved taxi drivers‟ English language ability at Sripatum International Institute of Language and Culture. Likewise, self-learning media have also developed English communication skills of tourism operators in the community at Doi Saket District in Chiang Mai Province [7]. Similarly, learning materials have enhanced tourist police‟s real life English communication in Ayutthaya Historical Park [4]. Likewise, [5] suggested that the use of English language skill training manual to supplement teaching and learning would prepare students for their careers because students were able to apply the knowledge gained from learning materials in their workplace. Similarly, [6] agreed that the manual helped students understand moves and lexical bundles used in writing different sections of engineering research articles and it also improved their ability in writing research articles. 67

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As mentioned above, it is evident that the materials created for learning such as a manual or a handbook have developed English language skills for communication in the workplace. However, little research to date has created a manual for writing research papers in English for undergraduate students in Thailand. Therefore, the development of a manual for writing research articles in English for students in English for Communication Program will help them understand how to write different sections of research studies. Specifically, this study aims to find the answers to the following research questions. 1. Do students in English for Communication Program improve their writing after using the English research writing manual? 2. What are students‟ opinions toward the research writing manual used in the study?

Objectives 1. To improve students‟ writing by using the English research writing manual. 2. To examine students‟ opinions toward the research writing manual used in the study.

Expected benefits The manual used in the study will help students comprehend each section of research papers including introduction, methodology, result, discussion, and abstract sections. In addition, the manual will be useful for researchers who are interested in writing research papers in English for publication at the national and international levels.

Research Methodology A quantitative research method was used to answer the research questions of this study. To this end, both tests and questionnaires were employed to obtain information on the effectiveness of the English research writing manual. The participants in the study consisted of 25 third year students in English for Communication Program at the Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya (RUTS) studying in the second semester of academic year 2019. The instruments used for the present study were a research writing manual for developing their ability in writing research papers, a pretest/posttest for measuring an increase in English writing proficiency over time, and a five-point Likert scale questionnaire for examining students‟ opinions toward the research writing manual used in writing research articles in English. A manual for writing research articles was created. It consists of five chapters – introduction, methods, results, discussion, and abstract. Students used the manual 2 hours per week for 3 months. Two tests comprising 50 items each were piloted with second year students in English for Communication Program. After the trial, 50 items with appropriate difficulty levels and discrimination indices were used with 25 third year students before using the manual and the same test was retested with the same group of students after the study. Concerning the questionnaire, the items were checked for the appropriateness of the contents with the expert and were revised before collecting the data by using a purposive sampling technique with 25 students in English for Communication Program at the Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya. The data obtained from the pretest and posttest were analyzed through means, standard deviations, and t-test and those derived from the questionnaire were expressed as percentage, means, and standard deviations. Levels of opinions ranging between 4.51-5.00 were considered extremely agree; those between 3.51-4.50 highly agree; those between 2.51-3.50 moderately agree; those between 1.51-2.50 slightly agree; and those between 1.00-1.50 disagree [1]. Additional comments from students were summarized and reported descriptively.

Research Results For the first research question, the findings obtained from the pretest and posttest are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1 shows means, standard deviations, standard errors, and paired samples t-test. Statement Mean N SD Std. error df t Sig. (2-tailed) The Posttest 21.96 25 2.65 .53 24 10.98 .001 The Pretest 15.16 25 3.39 .68 **p<.001 As displayed in Table 1, the means and standard deviations for the pretest were M=15.16, SD=3.39 and those for the posttest were M=21.96, SD=2.65. A paired sample t-test indicated that this difference was statistically significant, t(24) =10.98, p<.001. Students obtained higher scores in the posttest after using the English manual weekly for 3 months. For the second research question, students‟ opinions toward the English manual are summarized in Tables 2 and 3. There are 25 participants in the study – 4 students were males (16.0%) and 21 students were females (84.0%). All of them were third year students in English for Communication Program.

Table 2 presents students‟ opinions toward the manual in each aspect. Aspects Mean Standard Deviation Level of Opinions Contents 4.10 .26 highly agree Activities 4.24 .22 highly agree Application 4.29 .28 highly agree Total 4.21 .15 highly agree

As presented in Table 2, it is clearly seen that the total mean of all aspects was M=4.21. The high level of opinions were found in application (M=4.29), followed by activities (M=4.10), and contents (M=4.09).

Table 3 displays students‟ opinions toward the manual in individual items. Statement Mean S.D. Level of Opinions Contents 1.1 The contents of the manual correspond to the usage 3.92 .57 highly agree requirements. 1.2 The contents of the manual cover all important points. 4.04 .79 highly agree 1.3 The contents of the manual can link previous 4.08 .57 highly agree knowledge to new knowledge. 1.4 The ordering of the contents of the manual is 4.36 .49 highly agree appropriate. 1.5 The contents used in the manual are accurate and 4.08 .57 highly agree consistent with the actual situation. Activities 2.1 The activities used in the manual are appropriate. 4.28 .54 highly agree 2.2 The number of activities used in the manual is 4.16 .62 highly agree appropriate. 2.3 The difficulty of activities used in the manual is 4.04 .61 highly agree appropriate. 2.4 The activities used in the manual help students 4.40 .50 highly agree practice vocabulary and expressions in writing research papers in English. 2.5 The activities help students understand how to 4.36 .64 highly agree write research articles in English.

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Statement Mean S.D. Level of Opinions Application 3.1 The manual provides an understanding of writing 4.36 .57 highly agree research papers in English.

3.2 The manual helps increase skills in writing research 4.20 .58 highly agree studies in English. 3.3 The manual is useful and can be applied to writing 4.28 .61 highly agree research articles in English. 3.4 The manual enhances expertise in writing each 4.32 .63 highly agree section of research papers. 3.5 The manual is convenient to use in all situations. 4.28 .54 highly agree

As shown in Table 3, the high levels of opinions in each aspect were perceived in the appropriate ordering of the contents of the manual (M=4.36), the activities used in the manual helping students practice vocabulary and expressions in writing research papers in English (M=4.40), and the manual providing an understanding of writing research in English (M=4.36). Students‟ additional comments in Part 3 of the questionnaire revealed that writing research papers in English was difficult for them as they lacked linguistic knowledge such as grammar, words, and expressions in writing research papers. They said that the manual was useful for them as the examples of moves and lexical bundles provided in different sections of research articles helped them write research studies in English. Some of them said that it was difficult to use their own words in writing research papers so they needed paraphrase and summary skills in order to avoid plagiarism in research paper writing.

Conclusions The main aim of this paper is to develop a manual for writing research papers in English for students in English for Communication Program at the Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya. Results of t-test indicated significant differences between the mean scores. Students‟ opinions toward the manual revealed a high agreement on the usefulness of the manual in all aspects. The findings of this research have brought to light a number of issues that future research should examine in order to develop the manual for improving students‟ English writing skills. Hopefully, the manual developed in this study will help students and other researchers write research papers in English. Discussions In this section, the results are discussed with regard to the first research question, and then with reference to the second research question. The finding for the first research question showed significant difference between pre and posttest scores (t=10.98, p<.001). This means that the manual enhances students‟ English skills in writing research papers. One plausible explanation is that students understood moves and lexical bundles used in each section of research articles. The finding is consistent with [7] that community tourism entrepreneurs increased their communicative English skills after using self-access learning packages with statistical significance at the .01 level. This result is also similar to the finding of [5] that students obtained higher mean scores in the posttest after using the guidebook as it helped them develop English skills for working in their careers. The result showed that students‟ writing skills have improved after using the manual due to sentence examples provided in different research sections. The results for the second research question indicated that students are highly satisfied with the manual in the overall aspect (M=4.21). A possible explanation is that the manual provides an understanding of writing research in English. Another reason for this could be that the activities help students practice vocabulary and expressions in writing research papers in English so they got familiar with writing research studies. This result is in keeping with the finding of [3] which indicated that the level of satisfaction of students toward the development of Thai-English abstract translation handbook was perceived at the highest level as the handbook provided language features and words for them to 70

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write abstracts in English. This interpretation fits well with [6] study which said that the knowledge of lexical and grammatical choices helped students understand how to write engineering research articles. One possible conclusion is that multiple exposures such as moves and lexical bundles do assist students in writing research papers in English. Some limitations need to be pointed out for future directions. First, no qualitative methods are used in the study. An in-depth interview should be used in future research to develop a manual suited to students‟ needs. A further limitation is the number of the participants in the study. Future research should be carried out with a large number of students for more reliable results. Finally, since the study focuses on developing the manual for writing research papers in education and applied linguistics. Further investigations should develop research manuals in other disciplines in order to help students write research papers in English.

Acknowledgement The researcher would like to thank students in English for Communication Program at the Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya for their cooperation in this research.

References [1] R. Chinatrakul, “Statistical analysis,” in Research Methods, Bangkok: Pappim Press, 1995. [2] R. Jamsai & N. Pilanthananond, “Development of English self-study material for taxi drivers of Sripatum International Institute of Languages and Cultures, Sripatum University,” in Humanities and Social Sciences Journal, Ubon Ratchathani Rajabhat, Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand, Apr. 2019, pp.104-118. [3] P. Limsiriruengrai, “The development of Thai-English abstract translation handbook for Buriram Rajabhat University Students,” in The Golden Teak: Humanity and Social Science Journal, Buriram, Thailand, Aug. 2018, pp. 12-21. [4] J. Onkao, “The development of learning media for English communication in real-life situations for the tourist police in Ayutthaya historical park,” in Humanities and Social Sciences, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya, Thailand, Sep. 2019, pp. 232-248. [5] P. Ruksuan, “Development of English innovation based on communicative approach for working preparation about hospitality industry concerning hotel and accommodation services in ASEAN community for Maehongson Community College students,” Chiang Mai Rajabhat University, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 2018. [6] D. Talanuek, S. Khansamrong, W. Chaiyasit, P. Athathep, & P. T. Chayabhinundho, “Development of self-access learning packages to enhance communicative English skills of community tourism entrepreneurship: A case study of Doi Saket District, Chiang Mai Province,” Mahachulalongkornrajvidyalaya University, Chiang Mai Campus, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 2018. [7] A. Wannaruk, “Development of a manual for writing engineering research articles,” Institute of Research and Development, Suranaree University, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand, 2018.

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The Use of an Electronic Student Portfolio to Promote the Undergraduate English Vocabulary Skills at Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya

Palachai Khaonuan1, Patcharin Kangkha2, and Suchada Buntho 2

Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya1 [email protected] Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya2 [email protected] Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya2 [email protected]

Abstract. This project aimed to investigate the quality of an electronic student portfolio in promoting the undergraduates‟ English vocabulary skills; promote the undergraduates‟ English vocabulary skills and; explore the undergraduate‟ attitude towards using their electronic student portfolios to promote their English vocabulary skills. The research tools were the electronic student portfolio, the assessment form, the pre-test and post-test, and the semi-structured interview. The seven Engineering students were samples in this study. The procedures were started from the pre-test before using electronic portfolio. After using and electronic student portfolio, the post-test was followed. The assessment form was checked the level of how useful the electronic portfolio is and the semi-structure interview was clarified the related crucial points. The collected data were analyzed two-related samples tests by Wilcoxon in means as mean, percentage, standard deviation, E1, and E2. The findings revealed that the post-achievement test result was found higher than the pre- achievement test result at statistical level of 0.05. The quality of E-Portfolio for promoting the students‟ English vocabulary skill was as (E1 / E2) equals 80.0 / 88.1. Furthermore, the effectiveness of E-Portfolio for enhancing the undergraduates‟ English vocabulary skill was as (Epost - Epre) equals 22.39. Additionally, the students‟ attitude towards the electronic student portfolio was at high level is more effective for students. In conclusion, it is practical idea by applying an electronic student portfolio in promoting the undergraduates‟ English vocabulary skill at Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla. However, it can be adapted for widely using in a largescale research and also to extend to use to improve other language skills like reading, writing, and listening because as electronic student portfolio lend itself to promote all English learning skills.

Keyword: Electronic student portfolio, English vocabulary skills, undergraduates

Introduction It obviously seen that the education world today involved in the digital and high technology atmosphere. Then, the teachers have always brought many electronic media, tools, equipment and techniques even more modern methods used in their classrooms to teach their learners for a better understanding of the lessons and for the best learning effectiveness. For example, the smart phones can be used as a popular technology to design any leaning applications that can be combined a computer system together with the telephone system. These devices are easily to carry because they are lightweight with a touch screen, and practical duration of battery. Furthermore, they can enable to connect to the internet wirelessly or use with the phone system. The electronic student portfolio can always collect both teacher‟s/ learners‟ teaching and learning documents, tasks, assignments respectively which can discuss, assess, evaluate, and predict the teaching and learning tracks efficiently in order to make a better progress in teaching and learning dimensions (Treerayapiwat, 2009, Arpawet, et al., 2011; Putchong., 2013). Focusing on the government policy, it has stated the concepts of using of information, communication and the technology for Thai education into the master plan. Thus, the Ministry of 72

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Education has been promoting the instructors, educational personnel and educational institutions on how to develop and used e-Contents for continuous learning management in accordance with specified standards including e-Book, e-Library, Courseware, LMS as well. Both the electronic media center (e-Content Center) and the development of learning systems with ICT (e-Learning System) have contributed in a variety of formats (Information and Communication Technology Master Plan 2007 – 2011: 3). By using an Electronic Student Portfolio (ESP) as a learning tool for enhancing the English vocabulary skills for undergraduate students in Faculty of Engineering, RUTS, the researchers as a teachers have raised their awareness based on the government policy needs and to truly solve the problems that learning nowadays can be every time and every places or immediately at the learners‟ readiness (Kangkha, 2012) with the ideas of using information technology and the patterns of learning media to help the students in learning development in means of increasing English vocabulary skills. Apart from that the researchers will proceed to develop the electronic portfolio system (E- Portfolio) for students to learn vocabulary through portfolios and to assess the development of English vocabulary knowledge. So, the researchers had designed the electronic student portfolios (ESP) about English vocabulary and stored in multimedia, images, documents, which the data that the researchers have collected and evaluated in the ESP for those who use it to learn and to develop English vocabulary in English courses in the media both online and offline (Sayamphun, 2007). Therefore, the researchers have realized the importance of English vocabulary produced into electronic media by using the ESP as a learning tool for promoting the English vocabulary skills for undergraduate students in Faculty of Engineering, RUTS and to study the attitudes of using the ESP like learning media as quality media for future studies.

2. Review Literature This section provides the literature reviews into three sections including the Electronic Portfolio; Electronic Student Portfolio (ESP); and English Vocabulary Skills. Those interrelated theoretical frameworks are as follows: 2.1 Electronic Portfolio An electronic portfolio plays a crucial role as the medium of instruction due to the evolution of computer and information technology. Currently, the electronic portfolios can be also applied for both teachers and learners for expanding their educational opportunities and developing their knowledges and understandings their learning experiences underpinning the ideas of learning taking places every time and every places (Jearnai, 2013). Additionally, a source of knowledge is widely opened to those who wish to study in various subjects continuously and constantly needed. Furthermore, the electronic portfolio is useful for the storage and use of data on the network whereas it is a useful tool for both teachers and students used for setting their teaching and learning goals following with their learning products (Runnaphongsa, 2010; Tuwasattakul, 2006). Many scholar define the definition of e-Portfolio as learning the technology base (Technology-Based Learning), a comprehensive approach to learning in various forms, such as learning on a computer (Computer Based Learning) Learning on the Web (Web-Based Learning) and virtual classrooms (Virtural Classrooms), and by. Students can learn all kinds of application of modern electronic media (Barrett, 2010; Intharasakul; Prajuknet, 2015; Wongwanit, 2002) It can be said that the e-Portfolio is the teaching and learning devices for persons who involve in the educational system used to collect, present, assess, connect and reflect the learning and teaching track. 2.2 Electronic Student Portfolio (ESP) An Electronic Student Portfolio (ESP) is known as a portfolio collection or evidence that teachers, parents and students always used to assess the knowledge and skills of students who can be assessed many features. Portfolio refers to the collection of samples (Samples) or proof (Evideness) represents the achievement, ability, aptitude efforts of individuals or issues that need to prepare a portfolio system (Sayamphun, 2007). ESP system is helping to create and publish their own portfolios. In the form of an online system via the Internet by ESP is a collection of the works of their own philosophy, goals, skills, abilities, contributions through the electronic media. Information and

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content from the portfolio. To keep the data for presentation. Check the learning or work to be successful at any level using the techniques presented in the form of a website.

An ESP can be provided both summative and formative evaluation. The former aims to have the students participating in defining the content and selecting the learning criteria including the opportunity to express their feelings towards their work. The latter can be divided into three types; tool for learning as reviewers of the work research; tools for performance the specialized knowledge, perceptions and attitudes of the portfolio owner in their work; and tools for assessing and evaluating progress. Evaluation process and outcome evaluation. Evaluation as a result of the operation (Thunhikorn, 2004). The assessment will need to demonstrate both their strengths and weaknesses. Planning for the development of future performance. However, the elements of ESP consisted of six parts; purpose; content; development; self-assessment; electronic management system; and evaluation. 2.2.1 ESP applied in education systems. The students can use the ESP for their successful showcase on the webpage; collecting and reflecting their assignments; exchanging educational and working experience; creating dynamic tasks; and creating a plan of online education and working with student advisors. The teachers can use the Electronic Teacher Portfolio (ETP) for creating projects / projects with scoring criteria; creating a project with teachers of other courses; working online by allowing students to comment and rate; creating portfolio that supports teaching and learning for students; and presenting the showcase of success. As the university or institutions can use both ESP and ETP for keeping students‟ and teachers‟ work for evaluation; choosing to work randomly and anonymously; using the performance criteria; creating reports for learning and teaching management more conveniently and easily; exporting raw data for further analysis. 2.2.2 Benefits of the ESP The ESP puts various benefits involved in educational systems, Firstly, it can reduce the use of office resources such as paper, printing ink, etc. Secondly, the ESP is convenient for management can send data that is image, sound and animation anywhere and anytime. Thirdly, it is convenient for executives to consider the results of the competency evaluation of the personnel in the chain of command. Forth, it is used to present the work which can display the work exactly in the presentation. Fifth, the ESP is convenient to access to work and organization of work resulting in saving storage space. Sixth, it is used to collection of works in many formats including images, audio, video, text, multimedia. Seventh, the ESP is easily to edit and update portfolios. Lastly, it is linking work data by citing work references together. 2.2.3 Limitations of ESP Although the ESP seems positive and practical, there are some limits. For example, the ESP needs the Internet as every time for editing an E-Portfolio, it must be edited on an internet connected website. The viewers without knowledge of the internet and computers unable to use or view the ESP. Next, the students and teachers have gained knowledge in computer and internet usage. Moreover, some students are unable to create an ESP by themselves. Currently the ESP or electronics has come to play a very important role in the teaching and learning management. Because it is regarded as something that helps the teaching and learning more effective. 2.3 English vocabulary skill Learning English language, the vocabulary of a new language is a very important issue to predict whether the learners will success in learning a foreign language or not. As the think tanks of the vocabulary is ability to recall the words to use in communication patterns. When the learners know a plenty of words that mean they can understand the meanings of key words in the message delivery. This can avoid the breakdown communication (Malithong, 2005). Ghadessy (1998: 24) states that words are more than grammatical structures. The vocabulary is the basis of language. If the student has the knowledge of vocabulary. It can be used to create vocabulary larger units such as phrases, sentences, essays, but if you do not understand the 74

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terminology. I cannot understand the language, the bigger it. So all of those elements, the language of “words” are what we are most familiar. Language is bringing together the (A; language is a collection of word.) Silakaow (1992: 15) defines that the terminology is the basic unit of language. The lesson to be learned first. The vocabulary is an essential component of learning. And practice listening, speaking, reading and writing, concluded that vocabulary is the basic unit of language. The students will have to learn first, because words are important elements in the learning skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, vocabulary, so it is important to learn more. Therefore, to promote the vocabulary skill through the media like ESP it is practical as the students can lead it to construct the language messages in the bigger chunk s because the ESP designed with the rich of information like pictures sound animation and so on.

3. Research Methodology In order to succeed in conducting the research, the research methodology can be described as the following: 3.1 Research samples The samples used in this study were specifically selected seven out of thirty four Engineering students at the Faculty of Engineering in RUTS with the results of the RMUTSV Test of the academic year 2019; 2 students at a high level, 3 students at middle level, and 2 students at low level. 3.2 Research instruments The research instruments include: 3.2.1 Electronic Student Portfolio (ESP) of English vocabulary that has been evaluated for quality and content from 3 experts in each field. 3.2.2 Pretest - Posttest using ESP to increase knowledge of English vocabulary that has passed the IOC assessment from 3 experts at the level of 1.0. 3.2.3 Sample evaluation form about attitude after using electronic portfolios to increase knowledge of English vocabulary 3.2.4 Semi-structured interview 3.2.5 Use PSPP to analyze the data. 3.3 Research procedures and Data collection In this research, the researchers have specified the steps in conducting the research as following: 3.3.1 Research preparation by creating and designing media, tests, assessments, semi- structured interview and sending it to experts then editing as the experts‟ recommendation and suggestion. 3.3.2 Research process by having the sample group taking the Pretest of the ESP as a learning tool for promoting the English vocabulary skills. Then, having the samples using the media while taking the tests during the study. After that, having the samples taking the Posttest of the ESP. Next, having the samples responding some question from semi-structured interview to assess the attitude towards using the media called ESP. After that, the data were analyzed for efficiency, effectiveness, comparison of achievement before and after school. Last, have the samples assessing the attitude towards the media as a whole picture. 3.3.3 Research data analysis by collecting the data from all mentioned research tools, the researchers selected each statistic matched to data patterns. For instance, the PSPP used for analyzed the data 3.3.4 Research report by drafting all collected and analyzed data into the format of research report.

4. Results and discussion The findings revealed that the ESP was higher than standard criterion. These following details were described the students learning process through this learning patterns. The English vocabulary skill through the ESP, the overall mean score of the dependent sample of t-test taken after the students 75

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having learnt from the ESP was 70.25 compared to the standard criterion 65.5. It was obviously seen that it was higher than the standard criterion. Context evaluation was appropriate and higher efficiency than standard criterion 80/80. The process evaluation data collected from teachers and students opinion questionnaire, including the observation the students‟ performance during studying found that the teacher could follow the lesson plan designed and indicated that this ESP could strongly develop the students‟ learning English vocabulary skill. For more details can be described as follows: 4.1 The ESP as a learning tool for promoting the English vocabulary skills. The researchers designed the ESP as an online medium for learners who can access and learn easily. The method of using media and access is quite easy via the internet and they can learn anywhere, anytime and the researchers had designed the media being more attractive, and can create electronic portfolios, including pictures, sounds, videos, and vocabulary, suited for all ages. Furthermore, an interesting vocabulary items are close to the learners‟ everyday life. The sample e-Portfolio was shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The Sample of ESP

4.2. Testing of the effective of ESP in promoting the English vocabulary skill

Based on the data collected from seven Engineering students by doing the pre-test and post -test studying, the results are shown in Figure 2. and Table 1.

30

20

Score Pre-test 10

Post-test 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sample Group

Figure 2. Comparison of test scores from pre-test and post-test

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Based on the data shown in figure 2, after learning from electronic portfolio to promote

P Value Test Number of people Full score X̅ S.D. Sig. (2-tailed) Pre-test 7 30 19.71 2.69 0.017 Post-test 7 30 26.43 2.70 the English vocabulary. The sample group have scores of post-test higher than the scores of pre-test and when compared an average by Wilcoxon pairs. Table 1. Average, standard deviation and the comparison of Wilcoxon pairs

As the data shown in Table 1, there are statistically significant differences at the level to 0.05 by the mean scores of the post-test of the samples group were higher than pre-test. When taking the scores from test of the sample group to calculate efficiency and effectiveness (E1/E2) was at 80.0/88.1 and effectiveness (E-post and E-pre) was at 22.39 so that, the lessons in the ESP on vocabulary, music, movies, and social media as they are easily to understand. The researchers designed the ESP being the interesting format with rich of images, sounds, videos. Therefore, the students felt interested in learning and enabled to understand the lessons more. Furthermore, the ESP been evaluated by media quality by experts. As Prawit Olom (2014) investigated the electronic portfolio development with higher achievement when the peer act as the facilitators in learning system.

4.3. The attitude towards the use of the ESP as a learning tool for promoting the English vocabulary. The results of the attitude of using the ESP as a learning tool for promoting the English vocabulary shown in table 2.

Table 2. The attitude towards the use of the ESP as a learning tool for promoting the English vocabulary.

List X̅ S.D. Interpret 1. Be able to promote the English vocabulary skills. 4.57 0.53 very good quality 2. Be interesting and interested in learning. 4.71 0.49 very good quality 3. Be able to sort the lessons. 4.57 0.53 very good quality 4. Be applied a variety of vocabulary skills. 4.47 0.53 very good quality 5. Be appropriate for learners. 5.00 0.00 very good quality 6. Be familiar with each lesson. 4.43 0.79 good quality 7. The sequence of lessons and exercises appropriately. 4.57 0.79 very good quality 8. Exercises are practical and understandable for learners. 5.00 0.00 very good quality

9. Easily access to lessons, and uncomplicated. 5.00 0.00 very good quality

10. The quality of using images and videos for 4.14 0.69 good quality vocabulary learning that is appropriate, clearly, interesting. Total 4.66 0.44 very good quality

From table 2, it revealed that most of the sample groups reached the highest level of attitude after using the media because the researchers designed the ESP, vocabulary, music, movies, and social media matched to the learners‟ interesting. Therefore, the students became more satisfied and gained more positive attitudes towards learning through the ESP. Furthermore the ESP related to vocabulary, music, movies and social media hints them increased more interesting. Like, Jantira Jearnai (2013) investigated the electronic learning portfolio for studying basic concepts in nursing 77

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science. The result of the research found that overall, the sample group was satisfied with the use of e- Portfolio at a high level.

5. Conclusion It can be concluded that the achievement before and after learning was different, which was higher than before learning at the statistical significance level to 0.05. The efficiency (E1 / E2) and the effectiveness (Epost - Epre) of electronic student portfolio as a learning tool for enhancing the English vocabulary be equal to 80.0/88.1 and 22.39. The sample group has a high level of attitude towards using electronic portfolios. However, the use of ESP can be more practical and effective as following suggestions:

5.1 Suggestions for applying research results. Teaching and learning by using the ESP for self-learning and enhancing vocabulary which showed that the results of learning and increased vocabulary. Since the learners can access the lessons anytime, anywhere. Having freedom to choose according to interests, aptitudes. Therefore, this type of teaching can also be used for teaching in other subjects as well. At the same time, it also helps both teacher and students to monitor their learning language towards increasingly self-directed, negotiated language learning and self-assessment. This involves knowledge about learning strategies. At a higher level of abstraction, the meta-cognitive knowledge of learning helps students to improve their ways of planning and monitoring their learning processes (Kohonen 200b; 2001a). The ESP as a learning tool for promoting the English vocabulary has more effective. When applied to supplementary learning in English in media course. As it is to learn more from the classroom or to enhance experience. However, it can improve the process using the manual which observed from the Pre-test and Post-test for the students taking to the test such as when watching the movie clips and answer the questions once the student has chosen the answer. Then, go to do the next test. The sound in the previous clip should be set to stop automatically without having to go back and stop the previous clip again.

5.3 Suggestions for conducting further research. General implication and suggestions through daily, weekly and finally reflection, about using e-teacher portfolios effectively for teacher development and lifelong learner, including;-form and features, context, ensuring quality and enhancing awareness and access. Individuals are aware of them, consider them to be of value and are able to access them without unnecessary restriction. This means that consideration needs to be given to appropriate mechanisms for raising awareness of recognition systems and their potential value to individuals and to society.

References [1] Arpawet, W., Cheewasat, S., and Acha-audsawanong, C., (2011). A Study of Behaviors in Using Social Media for 3D subject of the University Lecturers in Bangkok. Faculty of Mass Communication Technology. Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon. [2] Barrett, M.H. (2010). Balancing the Two Faces of e-Portfolios. Available at: http://eft.educom.pt/index.php/eft/article/viewFile/161/102 (accessed at 23.11.2019). [3] Chaiyayan. (2007). Applying English Song Activities to Develop Connected Speech in English. Faculty of Liberal Arts. Rajamangala University of Technology Suvarnabhumi. [4] Intharasakul, W., and Prajuknet, P., (2015). Innovation in Communication Arts and Management. Influence of Celebrities‟ Instagram account on consumer purchasing behavior toward online fashion shopping. (25-45). Master of Communication Arts and Management innovation. National Institute of Development Administration. [5] Jearnai, J., (2013). Electronic Learning Portfolio for Studying Basic Concepts in Nursing Science. Suranaree University of Technology

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[6] Knowledge Management Center, Rajamangala University of Technology Phra Nakhon. (2010: 2). Electronic Portfolio Development in Conjunction with Peer Assist Learning System in Visual Art of Mathayumsuksa 4 student. Program in Educational Informatics. Graduate School, Silpakorn University. [7] Koraneekit, P., (2007). Development of electronic portfolio model using self-assessment to enhance student teacher's critical thinking. Doctor of Philosophy Program in Educational Technology and Communications. Faculty of Education. Chulalongkorn University. [8] Learning Innovation Center, Chulalongkorn University. (2012). Electronic Portfolio Development in Conjunction with Peer Assist Learning System in Visual Art of Mathayumsuksa 4 student. Program in Educational Informatics. Graduate School, Silpakorn University.pp. 5-6. [9] Limmanee, P., (2004). Use of Film Media to Stimulate English Learning of Grade 9. independent study. Educational Administration. M.Ed. Mahasarakham University. pp. 122-124 [10] Malithong, K., (2005). Use of Film Media to Stimulate English Learning of Grade 9. independent study. Educational Administration. M.Ed. Mahasarakham University. p. 103. [11] Maneesri, K., and Maneesri, K., (2003). Electronic Portfolio Development in Conjunction with Peer Assist Learning System in Visual Art of Mathayumsuksa 4 student. Program in Educational Informatics. Graduate School, Silpakorn University.p. 22 [12] Numbunjit, P., Maneekoson, C., and Poowiphadawat, P., (n.d.). Effect of Using Games in English Vocabulary Teaching on Vocabulary Learning, Retention and Satisfaction of Prathomsuksa 3 Students of Chiang Mai Rajabhat University Demonstration School. Lampang Rajabhat University Journal. 3(2). 120-128. Retrieved November 10, 2019. From https://www.tcithaijo.org/index.php/JLPRU/article/download/33217/28233 [13] Olom, P., (2014). Electronic Portfolio Development in Conjunction with Peer Assist Learning System in Visual Art of Mathayumsuksa 4 student. Program in Educational Informatics. Graduate School, Silpakorn University. [14] Putchong, W., (2013). Exploring Lifestyle on Instagram. Independent research. Master of Communication Arts. Strategic Communications. Bangkok University. [15] Royal Institute Dictionary. (1997). Study of the Effect of using Vocabulary games on the Retention in Learning Vocabulary of Prathom Suksa Five Students. Master of Arts degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Srinakharinwirot University.p. 853. [16] Runnaphongsa, K., (2010). Study of Social Media Use Behavior of Students of Latthippharodphittayakhom School, Takhli District, Nakhon Sawan Province. Independent Study. M.Ed. Program in Educational Technology and Communications. Naresuan University. [17] Sangthanoo, S., and Phongphat, K., (1998). Study of the Effect of using Vocabulary games on the Retention in Learning Vocabulary of Prathom Suksa Five Students. Master of Arts degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Srinakharinwirot University. pp. 9-44. [18] Sayamphun, T., (2007). The 3rd National Research Conference and Presentation for the 2nd Century: Research integration Use of knowledge towards sustainability. Nakhon Ratchasima College. Muang, Nakhon Ratchasima Province. [19] Sirakhao, W., (1996). Study of the Effect of using Vocabulary games on the Retention in Learning Vocabulary of Prathom Suksa Five Students. Master of Arts degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Srinakharinwirot University.p.15. [20] Srisa-ard, B., (2003). Statistical methods for research 1. Bangkok: Suwiriyasan.p.115 [21] Sriwongkol, D., (2007). Electronic Portfolio Development in Conjunction with Peer Assist Learning System in Visual Art of Mathayumsuksa 4 student. Program in Educational Informatics. Graduate School, Silpakorn University.p. 7. [22] Taireuakum, S., (2008). Research methodology for social sciences and humanities. Kalasin: Prasankanpim. [23] Teetanathanakul, P., Kriatkomol, P., and Yampinit, S., (2003). Design and production of computer teaching lessons for e-Learning. Bangkok: Optional Media Center Bangkok.

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[24] Thantongpittayakom School. (n.d.). What is Facebook?. Retrieved November 15, 2019. From https://sites.google.com/a/thantong.ac.th/porkaerm-facebook128/facebook-khux-xari [25] ThianThong, M., (2002). Courseware design and development for CAI. Retrieved December 7, 2019. From http://home.dsd.go.th/kamphaengphet/km/information/WBI/

[26] Thunhikorn, B., (2004). The Development of Model Learning with e-Learning media of Among Youth in Topic Local Wisdom by Community Participation Case Study Nakhon Pathom Province. Rajamangala University of Technology Rattanakosin. [27] Treerayapiwat. M., (2009). Study of Social Media Use Behavior of Students of Latthippharodphittayakhom School, Takhli District, Nakhon Sawan Province. Independent Study M.Ed. Program in Educational Technology and Communications. Naresuan University. [28] Tuwasattakul, C., (2006). The Devolopment of Model Learning with e-Learning media of Among Youth in Topic Local Wisdom by Community Participation:Case Study Nakhonpathom Province. Rajamangala University of Technology Rattanakosin. [29] Vaughan and Jim. (2001). The Devolopment of Model Learning with e-Learning media of Among Youth in Topic Local Wisdom by Community Participation:Case Study Nakhonpathom Province. Rajamangala University of Technology Rattanakosin. [30] Wanthana, P., (2017A). What is e-Portfolio?.Retrieved November 10, 2019. http://mrpeeblog.blogspot.com/2017/03/e-portfolio.html [31] Warawitthayasri, S., (1998). Study of the Effect of using Vocabulary games on the Retention in Learning Vocabulary of Prathom Suksa Five Students. Master of Arts degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Srinakharinwirot University.

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The Strategy of Language Learning Used in EFL Industrial Students at Rattaphum College, RUTS

Taksuriya Madsa,1 Aree Tehlah,2 Chakrit Wangsa3

1Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla, Thailand 2Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla, Thailand 3Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla, Thailand

Abstract. This study aimed 1) to investigate the English language proficiency of industrial students at Rattaphum College, RUTS, and 2) to compare the relationship between language learning strategy use and English language proficiency of industrial students, RUTS. The population of the study were 126 students who studied in diploma and bachelor degree at RUTS. The instruments used in the study were the English proficiency test to collect the English language proficiency of the students, and the questionnaire to find out the most language leaning strategy used among students. The study found that the majority of students have a moderate level of English language proficiency. The results show that students in the moderate level reported more use of learning strategies. The students preferred to use metacognitive strategies most, whereas they showed the least use of affective and memory strategies.

Keywords: The Strategy of Language Learning, EFL Industrial Students

Background and Statement of Problem

As learners shift from the skills emphasis of elementary levels to the content emphasis of higher levels, they face greater demands to acquire information many sources independently, and express understanding in their own learning strategies (Schumaker & Deshler, 1984). For learners who have not acquired such important academic skills, the task of mastering content often comes with failure. In response to this challenge, many learners with learning problems have acquired and use specific learning strategies to become successful despite their knowledge and skill deficits. Generally, a learning strategy is an individual approach to complete a task. More specifically, a learning strategy is an individual way of organizing and using a particular set of skills in order to learn content or accomplish other tasks more effectively and efficiently in school as well as in nonacademic settings. Strategies are also important for language learning because they are devices for active, self- responsible learning. It is the processes and actions that are consciously deployed by language learners to help them to learn or use a language more effectively. Students take more control of their own learning, which is necessary for developing academic competence. Learners who use appropriate language learning strategies gain improve proficiency and self-confidence (Oxford, 1990). Language learning strategies have been defined by many researchers who engage in the field of language learning and attempt to study why are important and what strategies help learners acquire the knowledge. According to Wenden (1987), learning strategies are behaviors which learners actually use to learn and regulate the learning of second language. Similarly, Ellis (1997) claimed that language learning strategies are taken as typical problem-solving method in learning. For example, learners encounter a problem in remembering meaning of a new word, they use strategies and they know what strategies they do use, and the steps they use them can also be explained. In Oxford’s (1990) view, he pointed out that learning strategies are the operations employed by learners to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of information. Learners used the strategies to make their learning easier,

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faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations for their effective language acquisition. There are a number of researches about language learning strategies that mostly concerned with investigating what language learning strategies learners used. One aim of investigating such strategies is to gain insights into the cognitive, social and affective processes involved in language learning and through this help student who are having difficulties become better language learners (Chamot, 2001). In the study of Mullins (1992), found high use of compensation, cognitive and metacognitive strategies and medium use of the social, memory and affective strategies among 110 Thai university EFL students. She reports a positive association between the use of compensation and metacognitive strategies and proficiency. Rong (1999) investigated language learning strategy use among tertiary-level students in China and reports that compensation and metacognitive strategies were the most frequently used; memory and cognitive were used least. Frequency of strategy use was higher among more proficient learners. The results of those studies propose that high proficiency language learners use learning strategies more frequently than low proficiency ones. In Thailand, where English is a foreign language, students have learned English for at least 12 years. However, they differ significantly in their English language learning achievements some are successful while others are not. One important factor contributing to successful language learning is language learning strategies. A number of studies in Thailand have focused on identifying language learning strategies employed by language learners. Others have investigated the use of language learning strategies by students with different language proficiency levels. Recent research has also focused on determining the connections between strategy use and language proficiency. Although the data appeared in various researches reveal the significant results that high proficiency language learners use learning strategies more frequently than low proficiency ones, those studies have investigated language learning strategies employed by general students of various contents and levels of education. In the context of diploma and bachelor education, accordingly, it is interesting to investigate language learning strategies employed by EFL industrial students at Rattaphum College, RUTS to see the relationship between langue age learning strategies and language proficiency

Research Methodology

Population The population of the study were 126 students who studied in industrial program from 4 majors: Agricultural Machinery Engineering, Computer Engineering, Mechanic Power and Electrical Technology at Rattaphum College, RUTS. The population consisted of 94 females and 32 males. They were enrolled in the course ‚English Conversation‛ and finished it in the first semester of academic year 2019.

Instruments The instruments used in the study were 1). a 60-items with 4 alternatives English proficiency test, and 2). a 50-items with 5-point Likert scale questionnaire of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) adopted from Oxford’s (1990). There were 6 categories for assessment: 1). Memory strategies for storing and retrieving information, 2). Cognitive strategies for understanding and producing the language, 3). Compensation strategies for overcoming limitations in language learning, 4). Metacognitive strategies for planning and monitoring learning, 5). Affective strategies for controlling emotions, motivation, and 6). Social strategies for cooperating with others in language learning.

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Data Collection and Data Analysis The data was gathered after students finished the course of English Conversation in the first semester of the academic year 2019. Students were examined their English proficiency during the final test. Then, the researcher introduced the SILL questionnaire. The questionnaires were distributed to the population to complete the questionnaires. They were asked for answering the questionnaire about their strategies used in language learning. The data collected from the questionnaire in this study were computed and analyzed.

Findings and Discussion The population in this study were the diploma and bachelor students at Rattaphum College, RUTS who finished their course of English Conversation in the first semester of academic year 2019. There were totally 126 students from 4 majors: Agricultural Machinery Engineering, Computer Engineering, Mechanic Power and Electrical Technology. They were examined for the final test of the course. As well, they were asked for doing the English proficiency test after the finale examination. The test consisted of 60 items with 4 alternatives. To see what level of English proficiency they have, the results of the test were shown in the Table 1.

Table 1 Description of Students’ English Proficiency

Students Range of Scores Percentage Level of English Proficiency

(N=126) 41-60 10 7.94 high

21-40 64 50.79 moderate

1-20 52 41.27 low

The result in Table 1 showed that there were totally 126 students in the experiment. Majority of students gained the score of the English proficiency test at 21-40 scores. There were 64 students (50.79%) who were placed at the moderate level of English proficiency. 52 students (41.27%) were at the low level of English proficiency. There were only 10 students (7.94%) who were at the range of scores at 41-60 which showed in a high level of English proficiency. The study found that the majority of students have a moderate level of English language proficiency.

From the results in Table 1 can be classified students into 3 groups: high, moderate and low level of English proficiency. Each group had different kind of learning strategies. Interestingly, to see what language learning strategies they use most in their learning, the data was presented in Table 2.

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Table 2 Language Learning Strategies Used by Learners with Different English Proficiency

High Moderate Low Proficiency Proficiency Proficiency Strategies (N=10) (N=64) (N=52) mean SD mean SD mean SD 1. Memory Strategies 2.96 0.67 2.99 0.76 2.06 0.62 2. Cognitive Strategies 3.10 0.70 3.10 0.76 3.05 0.56 3. Compensation Strategies 3.07 0.75 3.08 0.74 3.08 0.56 4. Metacognitive Strategies 3.22 0.83 3.56 0.82 3.20 0.69 5. Affective Strategies 2.92 0.70 2.92 0.73 2.65 0.66 6. Social Strategies 3.08 0.62 3.27 0.71 3.15 0.70 Total Average 3.10 0.64 3.13 0.71 3.04 0.57

The mean scores of strategies use for high, moderate and low proficiency level of subjects have been displayed in Table 2. Results indicated that the moderate proficiency learners reported higher mean scores in all of the six strategy categories than high and low proficiency learners. To be more precise, learners with moderate proficiency levels used all types of strategies more frequently than those other levels of proficiency. The most preferred strategy types for moderate proficiency level learners were metacognitive strategies (M=3.56) and social strategies (M=3.27) respectively, while for learners with other proficiency levels were most preferred strategy types of metacognitive strategies as well (M=3.22, M=3.20). Also, the least preferred category for moderate proficiency group was affective strategies (M=2.92), and for high proficiency subjects was also the affective strategies (M=2.42). But, memory strategies (M=2.06) was the least preferred category for the low proficiency level. Therefore, the results from Table 2 revealed that students in the moderate level reported more use of learning strategies.

Table 3 Language Learning Strategies Used by Learners with Different Gender

Males Females Strategies (N=32) (N=94) mean SD mean SD 1. Memory Strategies 3.02 0.62 2.97 0.67 2. Cognitive Strategies 2.96 0.56 3.11 0.70 3. Compensation Strategies 3.12 0.56 3.22 0.75 4. Metacognitive Strategies 3.18 0.69 3.19 0.82 5. Affective Strategies 2.98 0.66 3.00 0.73 6. Social Strategies 3.07 0.70 3.07 0.71 Total Average 3.05 0.57 3.09 0.71

According to Table 3, it pointed out that the metacognitive strategies were the most frequently used by male students followed by compensation, social, memory, affective and cognitive strategies respectively. Meanwhile, the most often used strategies among female students are compensation

Strategies followed by metacognitive, cognitive, social, affective and memory strategies respectively. In summary, it indicated that female students applied learning strategies more than male 84

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students. This finding correlated with Oxford and Nyikos (1989), Green and Oxford (1995) and Chang (2003) study which found that both ESL and EFL female students used overall strategies frequently more than male students. According to the research result, it can be seen that female students use language learning strategies more than male students. From this difference between male and female, Oxford and Nykios (1989) assumed that it may cause from the dominant feature of female in sociability, using of spoken language and language rules abidance.

Conclusions This study aimed to investigate language learning strategies employed by industrial students from Rattaphum College, RUTS compare to their English proficiency. To categorize the level of English proficiency of students, the study found that the majority of students have a moderate level of English language proficiency. There were 64 students (50.79%) who were place at the moderate level of English proficiency, 52 students (41.27%) were at low level of English proficiency, and only10 students (7.94%) were at the rage of 41-60 score which showed at s high level of English proficiency. It could be assumed that majority of students could do the test and have an English skill at an intermediate level. Moreover, there was a revealing that students in the moderate level reported more use of learning strategies. To be more precise, learners with moderate proficiency levels used all types of strategies more frequently than those other levels of proficiency (X = 3.13, SD = 0.71). The most preferred strategy types for moderate proficiency level learners were metacognitive strategies (X =3.56) and social strategies (X =3.27) respectively. Also, the strategy of metacognitive learning was mostly employed by the high-proficiency English level learners (X = 3.22) and the low-proficiency English level learners (X = 3.20). It can be assumed that students preferred to use metacognitive strategies most when learning English because they could arrange higher-order thinking that enables understanding, analysis, and control of their cognitive processes themselves, especially when engaged in a difficult learning topic to know how to make understanding.

Reference [1] A.U. Chamot, (2001). The role of learning strategies in second language acquisition. In M.P. Breen, Learner contributions to language learning. Harlow, England: Longman. 25–43. [2] Y. P. Chang, (2003). Factors Affecting Learning Strategy Choice: A Study of EFL Senior High School Students in Taiwan. Texas: A&M University. [3] R. Ellis, (1 997a). SLA and language pedagojg. An educational perspective. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20.69-92. [4] J. M. Green, and R. L. Oxford, (1995) A Closer Look at Learning Strategies: L2 Proficiency and Gender. TESOL Quarterly 29(2): 261-297. [5] P. Mullins, (1992) Successful English language learning strategies of students enrolled in the Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, United States International University, San Diego, CA. [6] R. L. Oxford, (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. USA: HEINLE & HEINLE. [7] R. L. Oxford, and M. Nyikos, (1989) Variables Affective Choice of Language Learning Strategies by University Students. The Modern Language Journal 73(3): 291-299. [8] M. Rong, (1999) Language learning strategies of a sample of tertiary-level students in the P.R. China. Guidelines 21.1: 1–11. [9] J. B. Schumaker, P. H. Denton, & D. D. Deshler, (1984). Learning strategies curriculum: The paraphrasing strategy. Lawrence: University of Kansas. [10] A. Wenden, (1987). Conceptual background and unity. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds), Learner strategies in language learning (pp.3-13). London: Prentice Hall International.

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EFL Learners’ Views on English Idioms Learning through Netflix

Umapan Nunsong, Passada Thandee, Awatif Che-awae, Patimoh Yuso

Department of English, Faculty of Education Phuket Rajabhat University

Abstract. When EFL learners have an internet connectivity, many opportunities of English learning are discovered. Netflix is one of many non- language- teaching apps/ websites which various EFL students used in developing their English proficiency. This research collected quantitative and qualitative data to examine Thai Netflix users‟ views of using Netflix in their learning English idioms. Two instruments were used in the research were a semi- structured interview and an attitude questionnaire. Six Netflix users from Faculty of Education, English major had been interviewed to obtain their opinions towards learning English through Netflix. Four themes of Hubbard‟s (2009) criteria were used in identifying the qualitative data including (1) learning effectiveness, (2) motivation, (3) access, and (4) convenience. The results from the interviews shows that Netflix really offers many benefits for Netflix users. For instance, subtitles in Netflix help them catch important idioms and vocabularies. Furthermore, watching Netflix also helps them become familiar with different accents of native speakers. In terms of quantitative data which were obtained from 20 students, it indicated that the participants agreed of the usefulness of using Netflix in learning English idioms. The implications of the study suggested that Thai English language practitioners should focus more on self- access learning of students, as well as educational institutions should invest more on digital or technological learning resources.

Keywords: English as a Foreign Language, English Idiom, Netflix, Attitude

Introduction Learning English through media and movies is considered as an influential tool of learning among EFL learners as they are easy to access and available online. Watching movies is a useful tool that the learners can reach their target English language to acquiring languages such as accent, idiom, vocabulary, or expression. Dinçay (2004) found that using this innovative technology of movies in learning could increase students‟ listening comprehension and enhancing their intercultural capability, and images in the video could be used as a vital tool to understand situations through the actions. Moreover, Chiang (2006) stated that the use of caption in several languages in DVD movies leads to rising students‟ language skills and encouraging the students to learn. Likely, Gibbs (1980) indicated that a strong knowledge of idioms will help the students to be better speakers and negotiators. However, in learning idiom of Thai students, it is difficult for them to acquire the meanings because they lack of the opportunities in learning language within authentic situations and quite hard to understand figurative meaning. Thus, integration of watching movies in English might provide students‟ opportunities in their English learning as understanding idiomatic expressions used in movies could affect their successful communication including their skills of listening, speaking, writing, and reading.

Literature review Several studies identified that positive attitude could offer successful learning in acquiring the target language. For example, Gardner (1985) and Benremouga (1995) revealed that the learners‟ attitudes influence their success in learning a foreign language. Wenden (1991) explains that the attitude concept can be divided into three elements: cognitive, affective and behavioral. The cognitive component involves a person's beliefs and knowledge about an attitude object. The affective component is a person's feelings and emotions regarding an attitude object and the behavioral component is the way the attitude influences how we act. The attitude would control the way we think and act. The significant factor influencing language learning is a positive attitude. Attitude is believed 86

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to be essential factor and plays an important role in academic success. So, it cannot be denied that having a positive attitude would help language learners approach their target languages without forcing their mind. According to Gardner (1985) and Benremouga (1995), attitudes influence learners' success in learning a foreign language. A learner's attitude is an important factor in studying a foreign language. It can influence the behaviors of learners such as reading English books, watching foreign movies. Learners can success on particularly area if they have a positive attitude toward it. Similarly, Hammerly (1982); Hakuta (1985); and Mian (1998), assert that having a positive attitude towards language study is a major component influencing how successful a learner is in language learning. In addition, Brown (1987) also adds that negative attitudes can negatively influence language study. According to the research of Wlodkowski (1978), a positive attitude can lead learners to succeed in learning because motivation will stimulate behavior and lead to selection of behavior. So, it can be concluded that having a positive attitude can lead learners to succeed in learning a foreign language. Moreover, having a positive would affect learners‟ behaviors in acquiring foreign language such as reading English books, or watching foreign movies. One important component of successful language learning is the mastery of idiomatic forms of expressions including idioms, collocation, and sentence phrases, collectively referred to as formulaic sequence (Wray, 2000). By extension, learning idiom in a study of Trujo (1986) states that in a second language learning classroom all the learners must be prepared to meet the challenge of idioms occurring frequently in spoken and written English. Therefore, in acquiring idiom, learners have to find some useful ways that would encourage idiomatic learning. Secles, Herron and Tomasello (1922) explained that watching videos and movie clips could increase vocabulary and idiomatic structures learning as the contextualized presentation enabled students to expose some experiences. Furthermore, the communications in the movies possibly engage the students to understand the links of classroom environments and different social contexts. Movies or films also can help students to explore the cultural contexts, EFL teachers, therefore, might integrate into the course design and allow the flexibility of materials and teaching techniques in English classes (Wood, 1995). Netflix is one of the most popular streaming services nowadays. It allows learners to watch movies, TV shows and documentaries on various devices, and it is available worldwide. Learning a language by using Netflix is worthy because watching can support the students to acquire a new language, and it can increase students' comprehension such as vocabulary, idiom, intonation or stress. In other words, authentic video in the form of TV programs, films, and online videos offer students numerous benefits including exposure to authentic input, improve speaking and listening skills, as well as contextualized vocabulary acquisition (Chapple & Curtis, 2000; King, 2002; Lin& Siyanova-Chanturia, 2014; Qiang et al., 2007). In sum, movies or films are motivating for EFL/ESL teaching because embody the notion that allowed learners engage naturally without needs to be taught (Ward & Lepeintre, 1996). Moreover, films are such valuable and rich resources for teaching because they present colloquial English in real life contexts rather than artificial situation; an opportunity of being exposed to different native speaker voices, slangs, reduced speeches, stress, accents, and dialects, (Stempleski, 2000). Finally, we can assume that this innovative technology really plays an important role for language learners to reach target language, and having a good positive attitude leads the language learners to approach their success in learning as well.

Research objective The main objective of this study is to examine the Thai Netflix users' attitudes/ perceptions towards using Netflix in learning English idioms. Research question This study aims to answer the research question that what are Thai Netflix users‟ views of using Netflix in learning English idioms?

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Research Methodology The study utilized the mixed method research which were qualitative and quantitative paradigms to examine Thai Netflix users‟ views of using Netflix in learning English idioms. The present study utilizes two instruments in collecting data which were a semi- structured interview and an attitude questionnaire.

Participants There were six students willingly participated in the study. Five participants were second-year students and another one was a fourth-year student. They all were from department of English of Faculty of Education. Moreover, there were twenty students participated in responding an attitudinal questionnaire. Ten students were in second-year from the Faculty of Education, and the other ten students were in second-year studying in Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences.

Data collection and analysis A. Semi-structured interviews Six willingly Netflix users were filled in semi-structured interviews after announcing the interview. They were asked through semi-structured interviews where the following question was asked:  What do you think are the advantages/disadvantages of using Netflix in learning English idioms? The interview data were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed according to six criteria developed by Hubbard (2009) including (1) learner efficiency, (2) learning effectiveness, (3) motivation, (4) access, and (5) convenience, and (6) institutional efficiency. However, only the four themes were emerged from the findings by excluding convenience and institutional efficiency themes. The table below shows the description of each theme:

Table 1 Interview themes based on Hubbard’s (2009) criteria Theme Description Learning effectiveness Learners retain language knowledge or skill longer, make deeper associations and/or learn more of what they need. Learners enjoy the language learning process more and thus engage more Motivation fully. Learners can get materials or experience interaction that would otherwise Access be difficult or impossible to get or do. Learners can study and practice with equal effectiveness across a wider Convenience range of times and places.

B. Attitudinal questionnaire The attitudinal questionnaire used in the study was Gardner‟s (2005), Attitude/ Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) including 15 items. The questionnaire was designed to respond to the Likert scale which was divided into five categories. The scale of each item was coded as (Strongly Disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Neutral = 3, Agree = 4, Strongly Agree = 5). The questionnaire administration was conducted online and analyzed by using Microsoft Office Excel. The overall mean score was indicated the attitude levels regarding the views of using Netflix in learning English idioms following Wiersma‟s (1995) interpretation. Attitude level according to mean interpretation by Wiersma (1995)

Mean Range Attitude Level 1.00-2.33 Weak 2.34-3.67 Moderate 3.68 to 5.00 High

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To access level of attitude, this study was conducted using the mean interests by Wiersma (1995) where values 1.00-2.33 represent weak level, 2.34-3.67 are moderate while 3.68 to 5.00 are high.

Results

Qualitative results The learners‟ views of using Netflix in learning English idioms were categorized into four themes according Hubbard (2009) as followed:

A. Learning effectiveness In terms of the learning effectiveness, the learners identified the influences of subtitles, quality, and barriers of films in their English language learning. Subtitle: subtitles help to associate with language. For instance, they can read or see subtitles while watching so that they can associate language with subtitles. -Sam said that I can read subtitles while watching. -Sue told us that subtitles help me catch important information. -Jim stated that subtitles in Netflix help me clearly to understand. Quality: the high quality of sound would help to clearly catch important information. Furthermore, clearly image can retain what movies are presenting. -Ken indicated that sound and image in Netflix are clearly to listen and watch in term of high quality. Barrier: without advertisements, they really associate with content and can learn language without barrier. So, they can watch Netflix smoothly without interrupting while watching. -Tom said that there is no obstacle to interrupt me in learning idioms like advertisements.

B. Motivation The learners indicated that feelings and interactions in the films or movies affected them as followed:

Feelings: positive feeling encourages students to engage language learning more fully. It encourages to learn without knowing that they are learning. So, watching Netflix is really enjoyable because there are many programs for language learners to watch as well as containing interesting programs. -Ken said that watching Netflix is fun and enjoyable. -Sue stated that it‟s a fun way for practicing. -Sam said watching Netflix contains interesting movies. Interaction: how we engage and interact with learning process without forcing ourselves to react. If someone watches Netflix alone, I bet they are many interactions that they react to themselves. -Sara told that I interact with those characters as well if I am watching alone. -Tom said that I like to repeat words after characters saying.

C. Learning access The learners commented that learning through films in Netflix were beneficial in terms of acquiring idioms as well as other aspects. Acquiring idioms: many respondents told what they have got from Netflix in case of idioms. Watching Netflix provide opportunities to learn idioms in various situation, and idioms in Netflix are useful to apply in daily life. -Jim said that I get a lot of idioms from Netflix and use it with friends. -Sue indicated that I got many newly idioms that the teenagers currently use at that time. -Ken told that I learned idioms from various situation.

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Other acquiring: It looks like Netflix really offers other benefits except for idioms. The students can expose themselves to different language and culture as well as familiar with varieties of accents. -Tom said I get to know other cultures and languages. -Sam stated that I am familiar with various native accents.

D. Students comments related to learning convenience. Expense: costs are restrictions for convenience to access Netflix. Without spending money on Netflix, surely, they cannot access to movies, series, cartoon, TV shows. -Jim told us that I have to spend money on Netflix. -Sara stated that there is expense for each month. Access: if there are many ways to access, it is truly convenient, especially for Netflix users. -Tom said it‟s comfortable to learn idioms both laptop and smartphone.

Quantitative results The responses of attitudinal questionnaire were analyzed by using a program software of Microsoft Office Excel by considering the values of means and S.D. to indicate the attitude level of Thai EFL Netflix users following Wiersma (1995).

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of the Students‟ Attitudes of using Netflix in learning English idioms (N = 20)

Items Mean S.D. Attitude level

#1 Watching movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from Netflix 3.85 1.18 High including the idioms can be important to the students to raise their awareness of idioms. #2 Using movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from Netflix including 4.10 0.97 High the idioms is highly important to the students because the students can use idioms better when keeping in touch with foreign friends and acquaintances. #3 Applying movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from Netflix 4.05 1.05 High including the idioms can be important to the students because it will make the students understand and become more knowledgeable. #4 Learning the idioms using movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from 4.25 0.91 High Netflix can be important to the students because it leads to long retention of idioms. #5 Watching movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from Netflix 4.15 0.93 High including the idioms can be important to the students for comprehension of idiomatic meaning. #6 Learning the idioms via movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from 4.10 0.85 High Netflix is important to the students because it helps a well-educated person to use the idioms more efficiently. #7 Learning the idioms through movies, series, cartoons, TV shows 4.05 0.83 High from Netflix is not a waste of time. #8 Learning the idioms used in movies, series, cartoons, TV shows 4.05 0.76 High from Netflix is important to a person because he can understand English-speaking films, videos, including the idioms better.

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Items Mean S.D. Attitude level

#9 Watching movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from Netflix 4.05 0.76 High including the idioms can stimulate the students to figure out the meaning of newly encountered idioms by drawing from movie information. #10 Watching movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from Netflix 3.90 0.79 High including the idioms is important to the students so they can understand more English texts and books, including the idioms. #11 It doesn't bother the students to use the idioms used in movies, 3.70 0.98 High series, cartoons, TV shows from Netflix when speaking. #12 Watching movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from Netflix 3.85 0.93 High including the idioms make the students infer the meaning of unfamiliar idioms from the new situation. #13 Watching movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from Netflix 3.90 0.79 High including the idioms can be important because the students can interpret the figurative meaning of the idioms by using visualizers. #14 The students can use movies, series, cartoons, TV shows from 3.75 0.79 High Netflix including the idioms as a channel for their comprehension of the informal nature of certain idioms. #15 Learning the idioms using movies, series, cartoons, TV shows 3.70 0.98 High from Netflix is important to the students because without learning them masterly, the students feel something is missed.

Overall Mean Score/ Standard Deviation: 3.90/0.90

The overall mean score showed that the students‟ attitude level is at the high level in using Netflix in learning English idioms (mean=3.90). It was found that the highest mean score fell in no.4 (mean=4.25). The lowest mean score were no.11 and no.15 (mean=3.70). However, all of the items no.1-no.15 was at high level.

Discussion The main purpose of this study was to explore Thai Netflix users‟ views of using Netflix in learning English idioms. The study found that the learners viewed Netflix in positive ways which was at a high level. The four themes as followed are identified student‟s views in details.

1. Learning effectiveness - L2 video might be difficult for students to understand, but subtitle is truly help effectively in learning. The data showed that most of students agreed that subtitles in Netflix play an important role for them in learning idioms, vocabulary because they can catch important content in story whether L1/L2 subtitles. The findings were corresponding with Sydorenko (2010) that L1/L2 subtitles can ease this burden and make unfamiliar vocabulary more understandable for learners.

2. Learning motivation - Most students stated that watching Netflix was fun and interesting for practicing English. This finding supported Ward and Lepeintre (1996) and Sylvia (2008) that a film is entertaining and could increase interests in the topic, as well as enhancing learner‟s motivation in achieving their language learning goals. 3. Learning access – The learners get to know a lot of cultures of different nations as well as enable them to get familiar with different accents of native speakers as well as to response in real situation with foreigners. Wood (1995) mentioned that film communication offers link between classroom, society, and films can help explore cultural context, and they can also allow flexibility of materials and teaching techniques.

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4. Learning convenience - The major restriction for learners to learn English through watching films in Netflix is that the cost. However, the learners still emphasized its convenience in accessing using alternative devices.

Conclusion This study presented the quantitative and qualitative results which were corresponding to each other. The interview data was analyzed into themes according to Hubbard (2009), and they showed that Netflix offered many benefits for Netflix users. Nevertheless, the convenience may be restricted due to the expense for each month. The quantitative data indicated that the participants agreed of the usefulness of using Netflix in learning English idioms. The result showed the overall mean score was at high level (mean=3.90). This study suggested that Thai English language practitioners should focus more on self- access learning of students, as well as educational institutions should invest more on digital or technological learning resources. Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations are made for further research. 1. For more reliable results, future research should be extended to various groups of participants. 2. Due to the limited time, the data collecting from interview should be collected more than once so that the findings can reveal various insights.

References [1] Benremouga, K. (1995). ESL students' perspectives on computer-assisted language learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, Lawrence. [2] Brown, H.D. (1987). Principles of language teaching and learning (2d ed.).Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. [3] Chapple, L. & Curtis, A. (2000). Content- based instruction in Hong Kong: Student responses to film. System, 28(3), 419-433. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251x(00) 00021-x. [4] Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold. [5] Gibbs, R.W. (1980). Spilling the beans on understanding and memory for idioms in conversation. Memory and cognition 8, 449-456. [6] Hakuta, K. (1985). Mirror of language: The debate on bilingualism. New York: Harper Collins. [7] Hammerly, H. (1982). Synthesis in second language learning: An introduction to linguistic. Blain, WA: Second Language Publications. [8] Hubbard, P. (2009). Computer assisted language learning: Critical concepts in linguistics (Vol. I-IV). London; New York: Routledge. [9] Irujo, S. (1986). “A Piece of Cake: learning and teching idioms.” ELT Journal 40,3,236-242. [10] King, J. (2002). Using DVD feature films in the EFL classroom. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15(5), 509-523. https:// doi.org/10.1076/call.15.5.509.13468. [11] Köksal, D. (2004). To kill the blackboard?Technology in language teaching and learning. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 3(3). [12] Lin, P.M.S. & Siyanova- Chanturia, A. (2014). Internet television for L2 vocabulary learning. In D. Nunan & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Language learning beyond the classroom (pp.149-158). London: Routledge. [13] Mian, A. H. (1998). Motivation and attitudes of beginning and intermediate level Panjabi students learning English as a second language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana. PA. [14] Qiang, N., Hai, T. & Wolff, M. (2007). China EFL: Teaching with movies. English Today, 23(2), 39-46. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266078407002076. [15] Quiang, N., Hai, T. & Wolff, M. (2007). China EFL: Teaching with Movies. English Today,23,2,39-46 92

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[16] Secules, T., Herron, T. & Tomassello, M. (1992). The Effects of Video Context on Language Learning. The Modern Language Journal, 76, 4,480-490. [17] Sherman, J. (2002). Using video in the language classroom, Cambridge University Press. [18] Stempleski, S. (2000). “Video in the ESL classroom: Making the most of the movies”. ESL Magazine, March/ Aprill, 2000. pp. 10-12. [19] Sydorenko, T. (2010). Modality of input and vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 50-73. http://dx.doi.org/10125/44216. [20] Sylvia,P.J.(2008). Interest-the curious emotion. Current Direction in Psychological Science,17,57-60. [21] Ward, J.& Lepeintre. (1996). “The creative connection in movies and TV: What Degrassi High teachers”. The journal in Language Learning and Teaching. 1995-1996. [22] Wenden, A. (1991). Learner strategies for learner autonomy. London: Prentice Hall. [23] Wlodkowski, R. J. (1978). Motivation and teaching: A practical guide. Washington, DC: National Education Association. [24] Wray, A. (2000). “Holistic utterances in protolanguage: The link From Primates to human” in c. knight, M. Studdert-kennedy, and J. Hurford (Eds.), The Evaluationary Emergence of Language. Cambridge University Press.285-302.

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Hidden English Learning Obstacles in English Classroom: A Case Study of Public Administration Students of Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University

Siriporn Tichachart1, Sirinan Nuypukiaw2

Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University1 Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University2

[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract. The purposes of this mixed-methods study were: 1) to investigate problems and difficulties in English language learning among public administration students in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University); and 2) to explore the public administration students‟ perceptions toward their current English course studying. The participants of this study included 40 volunteer public administration students enrolled in “Reading English in Everyday Life” course. Two data collection tools, including a questionnaire and semi-structured interview, were employed. The study results illustrated that the students‟ problems and difficulties in learning English stemmed from: 1) their attitudes towards the English course and 2) the learning environment of their English classroom. The results also revealed students‟ dissatisfaction with the English course by comparing themselves to others with higher English proficiency.

Keywords: problems and difficulties in learning English, cooperative learning, EFL learners, English proficiency

Introduction In the era of globalization, the English language has become an essential tool in the field of education. The influx of information and knowledge profoundly helps to expand sources of learning which in turn benefits a number of education system. For instance, researchers, scholars, and teachers can utilize a wide range of research to expand and improve their knowledge and work. Students can apply English in their studies by learning from different sources of knowledge outside their textbooks and classrooms. It is undeniable that English is essential because the knowledge that it makes available is valued for being “better citizens of the world” (Evan, 2016; Richard, 1995). Given the significance of English, the language has become the core part of the curriculum in Thailand (MOE of Thailand, 2008; Nunan, 2003; Richards, 1995). With the aim to promote students‟ English proficiency, Thai students are required to study English as one of the compulsory subjects for 12 years (Akbari, 2017; MOE of Thailand, 2008; OEC of Thailand, 2017). Since 2014, Thailand has adopted six English levels of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) to set English language proficiency targets for Thai students (OEC of Thailand, 2014). That is to say of six English levels defined by CEFR, Grade 12 students should have reached B1 proficiency level (Threshold), and undergraduate students should have B2 level (Vantage). The CEFR levels have been challenging a number of Thai educational institutes to revise their policies of English teaching. The clear English proficiency targets in Thai education have been incompatible with the national capacity. While the EF English Proficiency Index in 2019 indicated that the English proficiency of Thailand is aligned with B1 level (41-50), many Thai universities including Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University require B2 level for students‟ graduation. This brings the researchers a question of what actually obstructs students‟ English learning within their classrooms. While the research on such the issue were conducted in many tertiary contexts in Thailand (Benjarattananon, 2017; Photitheeratot, 2007; Rattanawaropas, 2012; Udomkiatsakul; 2016), in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University, little is known about students‟ problems and 94

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difficulties in learning English language in classrooms and their perceptions toward the English course they were studying in this context. Thus, the issue calls for the researchers‟ attention to explore problems and difficulties of a group of non-English major students‟ English learning in their current English course studying. The results of this current study will offer more insight into students‟ problems and difficulties in learning English their classrooms and their perceptions toward English teaching and learning within the actual classrooms. This will contribute to the development and improvement of English teaching within the University.

Objectives of the Study 1) To investigate the problems and difficulties English language learning of the public administration students in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University. 2) To explore the public administration students‟ perceptions toward their current English course studying

Related Literature The main problems and difficulties in foreign language learning derived from three main factors: (1) the factors related to learning environment; (2) the factors related to students; and (3) the factors related to teachers (Arunsuksawang & Sungrugsa, 2015; Cummins, 1980; Han & Bridglall, 2009; Nishino & Watanabe, 2008; Pongpanich, 2011; Ritthirat & Chiramanee, 2014; Udomkiatsakul; 2016).

Factors generating problems and difficulties in language learning 1) The factors related to learning environment The key factors relate to crowded classroom space, insufficient educational resources, an unresponsive or unsupportive climate, and diverse students (Han & Bridglall, 2009; Photitheeratot, 2007). Nishino and Watanabe (2008) added that unsupportive language learning environment generates language learning problems. When English teaching took place in the foreign contexts, it was difficult for students to sustain their efforts to improve their English communicative competence. 2) The factors related to students Other factors relate to student‟ attitudes, self-confidence, and motivation. Students‟ lack of vocabulary, English language knowledge, and regular practice could result in student anxiety, which becomes a major obstacle to develop their English language ability (Benjarattananon, 2017; Pongpanich, 2011; Ritthirat & Chiramanee, 2014). 3) The factor related to teachers These factors are related to teachers‟ competence, teachers‟ relationships with students, and teachers‟ teaching skills which significantly influence students‟ success in learning language in classrooms. If language teachers lack the skills in facilitating and teaching in classrooms, they might fail to enhance students‟ interaction in language classrooms (Photitheeratot, 2007). More seriously, they may misdiagnose their students‟ English proficiency (Cummins, 1980; Udomkiatsakul; 2016). Arunsuksawang and Sungrugsa (2015) and Rattanawaropas (2012) emphasized that supportive relationships between teachers and students could contribute to students‟ language achievement. According to literature reviews, these interplay of these factors mentioned above highlighted what can cause students‟ English language problems and difficulties in classrooms. On the one hand, students can learn best when learning environment support their learning, but on the other hand, the learning environment itself can demotivate students in English learning. Teachers also play important role in creating supportive learning environment within classrooms because they could either enhance or obstruct their students‟ language learning. All the factors discussed bring about the question of how to minimize them and create language classroom environment that facilitates to support foreign language learning. In order to create more effective language classrooms, teachers can borrow the concept of cooperative learning proposed by Johnson and Johnson (1983) to diagnose problems and difficulties in their classrooms and enhance social support classroom environment.

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Cooperative learning Johnson and Johnson (1983) described cooperative learning situations as the situations where students work cooperatively in groups to facilitate each other‟s efforts to achieve academic and social goals in classrooms. The cooperative learning environment relies on the following 13 factors. The first factor is cooperative learning which is involves interest and positive attitudes toward working cooperatively with other students. The second, positive goal, interdependence, is defined as perceptions of joint outcomes and ensures that all group members learn the assigned materials. Third, resource interdependence deals with perceptions of sharing materials, having division of labor, and job-sawing materials. The fourth factor is competitive learning which relates to preference for and positive attitudes toward competition with other students. Individualistic learning, the fifth factor, relates to the preference for and positive attitudes toward working alone. Next, teacher academic support is concerned with a belief that the teacher cares about how much one learns and wishes to help one learn. The seventh factor, teacher personal support, means teacher personal support which is a belief that the teacher cares about and likes one as a person. Eighth, student academic support signifies a belief that the other students care about how much one learns and wishes to help one learn. The ninth factor, student personal support is a belief that other students care about and likes one as a person. The next factor is class cohesion. It indicates a belief that students in the class are friends and like one another. The eleventh factor, working with heterogeneous peers, is working with heterogeneous peers which involve a belief that working with diverse students is interesting and beneficial. Twelfth, fairness of grading is a belief that students get the grades they deserve and if one works hard on success. The last factor, achievement for social approval, the factor highlights a belief that one achieves to please teachers, parents, and peers (pp.79). The 13 factors mentioned help enhance more supportive classroom environment in language classrooms. Therefore, students are more confident and motivated to learn a language. This could lead to their language achievement.

Research Methodology This study adopted a mixed-methods paradigm to unveil the problems and difficulties in learning English among 40 non-English major students majoring in public administration in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University and their perceptions toward those problems and difficulties. During January - May, 2019, the participants enrolled in Reading English in Everyday Life course. The course was purposively chosen because it was the common course taken by all participants.

Data Collection Tools This research employed two data collection tools including a questionnaire and semi- structured interview. The questionnaire is divided into two parts: 1) background information and 2) students‟ problems and difficulties in their English language classroom. The first part requires participants to give their background information including gender, age, and their levels of English proficiency based on six English levels defined by CEFR. The second part consists of 20 items requiring the participants to reflect their problems and difficulties in the particular English language classroom. The items in this part were adapted and modified from the Classroom Life Measure scale developed by Johnson and Johnson (1983). The Likert scale ranged from 5 as strongly agree to 1 as strongly disagree. To examine the participants‟ perspectives toward their English class and problems and difficulties in learning the language, a semi-structure interview was also conducted. A set of open- ended and less structured questions was developed as an interview guide (Burn, 2000; Merriam, 2009). Of 40 participants, two students volunteered to participate in the interview. To record interview data, the researchers asked for the participants‟ permission to take note and use an unobtrusive digital recorder during the interviews (Merriam, 2009).

Data Analysis To analyze data, the completed and returned questionnaires were calculated for their percentage (%), mean (x̅), and standard deviation (SD) (Descriptive Statistical Analysis) using 96

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commercially-available Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The data analyzed offered overall picture of the public administration students‟ problems and difficulties in their English learning within the classroom. All interview records were transcribed and analyzed with Strauss and Corbin‟s (1990) open coding and axial coding techniques. The data was broken down, compared, and categorized in the process of open coding. In axial coding, the data was put back in new ways and made connection between each category. The data helped portray students‟ individual perceptions toward the English course they were studying.

Results Part 1: The Students’ English Proficiency Table 1: English Proficiency of Public Administration Students Current English Proficiency (CEFR) N % C2 Mastery 0 0 Proficiency User C1 Effective Operational Proficiency 1 2.5 B2 Vantage 2 5.0 Independent User B1 Thresholds 9 22.5 A2 Waystage 21 52.5 Basic User A1 Breakthrough 7 17.5 Council of Europe (2001) Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment.

Two students out of a class of 40 achieved B2 and one student achieved C1 level (N = 2, 5.0%) and C1 (N = 1, 2.5%). The majority of the participants obtained the levels below the graduation requirement of the university. The largest number of the participants was at A2 level (N = 21, 52.5%), and some of them were at A1 level (N = 7, 17.5%) and B1 (N = 9, 22.5%) respectively.

Part 2: The Students’ Problems and Difficulties in Learning English in Classroom Table 2: The Students‟ Problems and Difficulties in Learning English in Classroom

Questionnaire items N xˉ SD 1. My classroom is overcrowded. 40 3.23 1.17 2. I have difficulty in collaborating with my classmates due to our 40 3.15 1.12 different levels of English proficiency. 3. I don‟t have a friend who can help me with English lessons. 40 3.10 1.10 4. English lessons are too much and too difficult for me. 40 3.33 1.14 5. The teaching materials in my English class are not interesting. 40 3.23 1.12 6. I feel embarrassed to communicate in English with my teacher 40 2.88 1.22 and my classmates. 7. I don‟t like working with other classmates in English class. 40 2.83 1.40 8. Learning environment in English class is not suitable for 40 2.78 1.10 studying. 9. The facilities, such as lecture chairs, a whiteboard, a projector 40 3.25 1.13 etc., are not suitable for studying. 10. I‟m not confident in studying English. 40 3.23 1.17 12. I have some basic English knowledge. 40 3.30 .76 13. I have difficulty in listening and speaking English. 40 3.05 .96 14. I have difficulty in reading English texts. 40 2.95 1.15 15. I have difficulty in English writing. 40 3.22 1.02 16. I don‟t have a chance to use English in my daily life. 40 3.65 1.10 17. I can‟t answer questions asked in English class. 40 3.33 1.05 18. I feel bored to study English. 40 2.93 1.21 97

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Questionnaire items N xˉ SD 19. I think English language is not important for studying in my 40 2.70 1.36 class. 20. I think English language is not important for my future job. 40 2.43 1.40

Table 2 shows the results of the questionnaire items, specifying the students‟ responses in terms of the average mean (xˉ ) and standard deviation (SD). Although the students rated every item in average level, obviously, there is a relatively high variation in students‟ responses for each questionnaire item based on the standard deviation values. This variation indicates that these students have somewhat different levels of agreement towards the particular problems and difficulties in learning English. However, from table 2, the majority of respondents agreed English language is important for their future careers. However, they did not have a chance to use English in their daily life (xˉ = 3.65). Even though some of the students thought that they had some basic English knowledge, they relatively agreed that English lessons were too intense and too difficult for them (xˉ = 3.33). Therefore, they could not answer questions asked in English class sometimes (xˉ = 3.33), and some of the students lacked confidence in studying English language (xˉ = 3.23). Moreover, some students noted the unsuitable facilities, such as lecture chairs, a whiteboard, a projector etc. (xˉ = 3.25), uninterested teaching materials, and the number of students in the class (xˉ = 3.23). The overall scores of the questionnaire items reported that students‟ problems and difficulties in their English classrooms are on average. Nevertheless, the questionnaire cannot reflect the individual thought about the particular issue.

Part 3: The Students’ Perceptions towards English Language Teaching in their classroom The interview offers a more complete picture of what actually happened in the classroom. In this current study, two voluntary students, Sunny and Evan1, volunteered to participate in the interview. Their feelings towards their English class in this semester were rather negative. Both of them felt that the English class was boring. The lessons seemed to be difficult for students who had insufficient vocabulary and grammar knowledge. With few chances to use or practice English, they lacked confidence to speak English and response to the teacher‟s questions. Sunny expressed her feeling:

“I‟m not confident to study English, and the class isn‟t fun. My problem is that I don‟t understand English vocabulary and I can‟t remember those 12 tenses. That‟s why I‟m worried to speak English and afraid to respond to the teacher‟s questions.”

Agreeing with Sunny, Evan talked about the similar problems in his English class:

“I think English is boring and the lessons are way more difficult for me. I don‟t have enough basic English knowledge, so I can‟t understand what the teacher was teaching. Plus, I don‟t have any chances to practice English in my daily life.”

The problems mentioned earlier affected Sunny and Evan for different reasons. While Evan thought the problems affected his grade in the University, Sunny thought it would impact her future career. Evan explained his point of view:

“When I can‟t do well in my English class, my grade is getting worse. I can‟t do exercises in the class, nor can I communicate with foreigners”

In contrast to Evan, Sunny went on to talk about her worry about her future job due to the higher demand of English in Thai job market.

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“I‟m worried about my future. Nowadays, English language is required in every single field of work. I‟m sure that I will have trouble finding a job if I don‟t have any English skills.” As they recognized the importance of English, these two students suggested threes ways to improve the English course they were studying and English courses at the University. First, there should be a greater variety of English courses. Second, students in their classroom should be at the same level of English proficiency. Third, English lessons should focus on communication in everyday life. Sunny said:

“I need more English courses in the university. Most of the courses I have studied in the university are being taught in Thai. I‟m required to take only two English courses for graduation. Right now, I‟m studying English reading with English major students. The teacher seems to pay more attention to those students rather than students from my major.”

Likewise, Evan added that the course should emphasize English for authentic communication.

“I need English for speaking and communication in my everyday life more than other skills. I have a rare chance to practice my English in the classroom, so what I can do is learning it through movies and songs. By doing that, it could help me to improve my English to some extent.”

In conclusion, these two students realized the significance of English. However, they were relatively unsatisfied with the English courses offered by the university. What they needed was practical English which would be necessary and useful for their lives. Furthermore, these students requested more attention from their teacher because basically, they were not competent in English.

Discussion Part 1: Problems and Difficulties in Learning English of the Public Administration Students It was found out that the public administration students‟ problems and difficulties in learning English can be grouped into two main categories according to the result of the questionnaire: 1) problems related to lessons in the English course and 2) problems related to the learning environment in their English classroom. Upon a closer examination of the result, the students agreed that, due to their insufficient English knowledge, they perceived the English lessons as being too difficult for them. Moreover, when studying in the same class with English major students, they inevitably compared themselves with those students (Pongpanich, 2011; Ritthirat & Chiramanee, 2014). Obviously, these students lacked positive attitudes toward competitive learning and working with diverse students. Therefore, the students were anxious about their English proficiency and self- confidence (Benjarattananon, 2017; Johnson & Johnson, 1983). Also, the learning environment in the language classroom made it more difficult to sustain the students‟ efforts to learn English (Nishino & Watanabe, 2008). From the students‟ responses, knowledge and learning resource exchange among students in this diverse class was little. These students did not have sufficient resources to learn, and they lacked academic and personal support from the teachers and classmates. Clearly, the unsupportive classroom environment obstructed their language learning within the English class (Han & Bridglall, 2009; Johnson & Johnson, 1983).

Part 2: The Public Administration Students’ Perceptions toward their Current English Course studying The interview findings reveal the two students‟ negative attitudes and dissatisfaction with the English teaching in their current English course studying. Apart from difficult lessons and boring classroom environment, these students also spoke about the teaching style in the class. That is, in this course, the teacher appeared to pay more attention to a group of English major students who had high language proficiency. This imbalance of teacher‟s personal and academic support within the class resulted in classroom domination by English major students. Moreover, due to teacher‟s ignorance and the students‟ insufficient English background knowledge, these public administration students 99

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were discouraged to participate in the English teaching and learning activities in this course. For instance, they were afraid of responding to the teacher‟s questions. The findings were similar to Benjarattananon‟s (2017) study on reflection of students toward General English Instruction at Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus. Without the teacher‟s care and encouragement, these students were not confident to practice English language with other classmates and sustain their effort to use English in their daily life. Obviously, English teaching within this classroom seemed to demotivate these students in learning the language and achieving their academic goal. Agreeing with Arunsuksawang and Sungrugsa (2015), Han and Bridglall (2009), Rattanawaropas (2012), and Udomkiatsakul (2016), the negative relationships between teachers and students in the same class adversely influence student‟s satisfaction with the particular course. This helps confirm the quantitative findings that teacher academic and personal support or how much the teacher care about students is significant for students‟ learning (Cummins, 1980; Johnson & Johnson, 1983). In addition, due to the lack of opportunity for students to use English in their daily lives, these two students expected to study more communicative English and have more chances to practice it the classroom. However, they remarked that even though the course they were studying was named as an English course, Thai language was mainly used for classroom interaction. With restricted chances to practice English language both outside and inside their class, these students felt worried about their low English proficiency and its impact on their future jobs. This is similar to the findings of Udomkiatsakul‟s (2016) study focusing on English instructional problems of undergraduate students in private universities, Pathumthani province. According to Johnson and Johnson (1983), in order to promote communicative English within the classroom, the teacher could actually make use of diverse classroom to develop interpersonal skill to work effectively with their diverse classmates. By fostering social support among students in the class, students could rely their learning on both the teacher and the classmates with higher English proficiency. This would help encourage them to be more engaged in their learning and participate in the teacher‟s teaching. Thus, students were provided with more opportunities to practice communicative English in classrooms. When the teacher and students learned to work cooperatively, they would facilitate one another effort to achieve their academic goals within the classroom. Importantly, students would be motivated and continue to seek more opportunities to improve their English proficiency outside the classroom, which is what students participating in this study agreed that they needed in both the questionnaire and the interviews.

Recommendations According to the results of this study, the researchers urge all educational stakeholders to heed students‟ individual needs and the important of classroom organization. For educational institutes, in order to minimize students‟ problems and difficulties in English learning in classroom, students should be grouped together in the same class based on their similar language proficiency. This could help teachers manage classroom and deal with problems and difficulties in English classrooms more effectively. Furthermore, when students‟ English language proficiency is similar, it helps avoid class domination by any particular group of students. This could make students feel more comfortable and confident to participate in the class. For teachers, the results of this current study help teachers gain more insight into students‟ attitudes toward English classrooms and their needs. When teachers realize students‟ attitudes toward English classrooms and their needs, they will learn to adjust their teaching and enhance classroom environment to better students‟ English learning within their classrooms by adapting the concept of cooperative learning proposed by Johnson and Johnson (1983). By applying the results of this study into the actual English learning situations, it can contribute to the development of students‟ English proficiency. For further study, the researchers have the following suggestions. Due to the very limited time, this study only presents the problems and difficulties in learning English in one particular context. Therefore, more research is needed to examine problems and difficulties in various contexts with a larger number of participants. Additionally, it would be sensible to borrow the concept of „triangulation‟ to enhance the validity of research findings (Mathison, 1988, pp.13).

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Notes 1 pseudonyms were used by the researchers to replace the participants‟ real names to keep the participants anonymous

References [1] Akbari, Z. (2015). Current Challenges in Teaching/Learning English for EFL Learners: The Case of Junior High School and High School. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences.199, 394-401. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283165642_Current_ Challenges_in_TeachingLearning_English_for_EFL_Learners_The_Case_of_Junior_High_Sch ool_and_High_School [2] Arunsuksawang, T., & Sungrugsa, N. (2015). The Factors that have an Affect on Ability of English Usage Following the Learning Skills in the 21st Century of the Mattayom 6 Students of Schools in the Bangkok Secondary Educational Area Office 2 to Support the Entrance into the ASEAN Economic Community. International Humanities, Social Sciences and arts, 8(2), 493- 505. [3] Benjarattananon, A. (2017). General English Instruction at Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus: Reflection of Students and Instructors, Journal of Education, 18(2). 293-315. [4] Burns, R.B. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods (4th ed). London: Sage [5] Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. [6] Cummins, J. (1980). Psychological assessment of immigrant children: Logic or institution? Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1(2), 97-111. [7] Education First. (2019). English proficiency Index. Retrieved November, 14, 2019, from https://www.ef.com/wwen/epi/regions/asia/thailand/ [8] Evans, H. (2016, February). What does it mean to be a citizen of the world? [Video file]. Retrieved October, 4, 2019, from https://www. ted.com /talks/hugh_evans_what_does_it_ |mean_to_ be_a_citizen_of_the_world#t-40325. [9] Han, W. and Bridglall, B. (2009). Assessing school supports for ELL students using the ecls-k. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24, 445-462. [10] Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R., (1983). Social interdependence and perceived academic and personal support in the classroom. Journal of Social Psychology, 120, 77–82. [11] Mathison, S. (1988). Why Triangulate? Educational Researcher, 17(2), 13-17. [12] Merriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. [13] Nishino, T., & Watanabe, M. (2008). Communication-oriented policies versus classroom realities in Japan, TESOL Quarterly, 24(1), 133-138. [14] Nunan, D. (2003). Practical English language teaching. USA: McGraw-Hill Company. [15] Office of the Basic Education Commission Ministry of Education. (2014) นโยบายการปฏิรูปการเรียนการ สอนภาษาอังกฤษ [English Teaching and Learning Reformation Policy]. Retrieved October, 23, 2019, from http://english.obec.go.th/english/2013/index.php/th/component/attachments/download/68 [16] Office of the Education Council. (2017). Education in Thailand. Bangkok: OEC. [17] Pongpanich, N. (2011). A Study of Problems in English Speaking in Speech Communication of Management Sciences Students, Kasetsart University, Sriracha Campus: October 2007 to September 2008. Journal of Humanities, 18(1), 86-97. [18] Photitheeratot, M. (2007). A Study of the Problems of Learning Teaching English in Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Journal of Yanasangvorn Research Institutes, 5(1), 47-56.

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Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity between First-Year and Second-Year English Major Students at a State University in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya

Sirinan Nuypukiaw1, Siriporn Tichachart2

Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University 1 Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University 2

[email protected] [email protected] 2

Abstract. The purposes of this study were: 1) to study factors affecting English reading capacity of first year students, 2) to study factors affecting English reading capacity of second year students and 3) to compare the factors affecting English reading between first year and second year English major students. The volunteer participants were 12 people including six first year students and six second year English major students at a state university in Phanakorn Si Ayutthaya. This research employed semi-structured interviews. The data collection tool was adapted and modified from Thinnawong (2011)‟s study to investigate factors affecting English reading capacity of first and second year English major students. The interview questions measured the quality and were piloted prior to adopting. Data analysis tools were content analysis and data triangulation. The findings were: 1) factors affecting English reading capacity of first year students included background knowledge of English, attitude, English reading comprehension lesson content, background knowledge of lesson content, the levels of difficulty of the lessons and anxiety. 2) Factors affecting English reading of second year students were background knowledge of English, attitude, English reading comprehension and background knowledge of lesson content, the levels of difficulty of the lessons, anxiety and teacher‟s characteristics. 3) The similarities of factors affecting English reading capacity of both first- and second-year students included background knowledge of English, attitude, English reading comprehension lesson content, the levels of difficulty of the lessons and anxiety while the differences of the factors covered background knowledge of lesson content and teacher‟s characteristics.

Keywords: Factors, English Reading Capacity, English Major Students

Introduction English language is recognized as and plays a significant role as the global lingua franca of the 21st century. A number of people around the world use English language as a common means of international communication (Richards, 1995) through various communicative channels, such as internet, websites, e-mail, cell phones, and so forth (Lai, Lin, & Kersten, 2010). As English language serves as the global language, the language enables knowledge sharing and learning among people with different linguistic backgrounds (Arunsuksawang & Sungrugsa, 2015). Therefore, many non- English speaking countries worldwide has recognized the necessity to promote communicative English learning in schools. They mutually agree that English language is crucial for students‟ learning and career benefits as well as international economic negotiations (Suanson, 2016). In Thailand, English language has been regarded as the most essential foreign language for a long time. Thai students, at all levels in primary and secondary schools, are required to study English as a foreign language (EFL) with the aim of promoting students‟ English language proficiency in the four language skills, listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills, necessary for their education (Chaiparn, Promkaew & Seenak, 2013; MOE, 2008). Although English language is one of the compulsory subjects in Thai basic education, the educational system of the country itself makes

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English teaching in the country ineffective. Not only do students lack analytic processes and creativity for language production and negotiation, but it is also found that students are also unable to use English to learn new things and gain information through reading (Samarnmitr & Chattiwat, 2017).

English Reading

Reading skill is one of the important skills for English language learning. In other words, to read is to open the door of knowledge. Readers could gain and search more knowledge from a variety of sources around them. As a result, it can be said that reading helps improve an individual‟s general knowledge. Furthermore, if a person is equipped with English reading skills, he/she will have more opportunities to expose him/herself to different points of view and learn things going on around the world. More important, such a skill also provides further educational benefits for a person (Kreishan & Saidat, 2011), which is considered to be crucial for personal development. It opens the window to the world of new experiences and stories of the world around the readers, and it contributes to personal career growth. Therefore, as a guide for self-development of students in the future, it is necessary for English language teachers to promote and strengthen students‟ reading skill (Khaosaard, 2006, p.11). Goodman (1995) defined reading as a process of language perception and a sophisticated process of psycholinguistics beginning with writers presenting and expressing ideas in their work and ending with readers‟ interpretation (p.12). In other words, writers have responsibilities to encode data by using language as a medium for communication. Porcaro (2001) also explained that reading comprehension consisted of three components: (1) reading methods; (2) a reader‟s background knowledge; and (3) the appropriateness and interest of reading. Nonetheless, in EFL context, reading English is still difficult for students. There are a number of factors affecting students‟ reading abilities. These factors will be discussed in the section below.

Factors Affecting Students’ English Language Reading

According to a review of related literature, the factors affecting students‟ English language reading can be divided into three factors. They are: 1) students; 2) instructors; and 3) teaching materials and learning facilities. With regards to the students, Bloom (1976) pointed out that there were three domains affecting students‟ learning achievement. They are: 1) cognitive domain; 2) affective domain; and 3) psychomotor domain. The cognitive domain relates to knowledge and intellectual skills, such as students‟ abilities to recall data or information, to understand the meaning and interpretation, and to apply what they learned in a variety of situations. The domain also involves students‟ abilities to analyze and synthesize what they learned and the ability to evaluate and make judgments about the value of ideas. Affective domain deals with values, feelings, appreciation, beliefs, interests, motivations, attitudes, and self-esteem. For example, the domain is involved with awareness, feelings, and interpretation of a specific phenomenon, and students‟ responding which depicts active participation, reaction, and satisfaction in responding of students to a particular phenomenon. The concept of affective domain is consistent with the ideas of Bowornwattanaset (2014), McClelland (1953), and Tinnawong (2011). They agreed that students‟ achievement motive, interests, attitudes, anxiety, and background knowledge were important factors contributing to students‟ learning success. The last domain, Psychomotor, indicates students‟ ability to practice, which can be measured in terms of speed, precision, procedures, or techniques in their practices. Aside from the student factor, instructor factor also indicates the success in students‟ English language. Sunmud (2009) stated that inappropriate teaching methods of English language instructors led to students‟ reading failure. For instance, some instructors emphasized translation, rote memorization, and grammar which did not promote students‟ thinking skills. Therefore, students were unable to develop effective reading skills. They could not understand and conclude what they read through speaking and writing. The idea of Sunmud (2009) is similar to what was reported in Bowornwattanaset‟s (2014) study of the causal factors influencing English reading comprehension ability of lower secondary school students. Arunsuksawang and Sungrugsa (2015) also highlighted 103

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that the relationship between teachers or instructors and students‟ ability of English usage following the learning skills in the 21st century. In addition, it is obvious that teaching materials and learning facilities also affect students‟ reading. Thongpradit‟s (2017) study of needs in English reading skills practice and the development of reading materials with southern contexts revealed that the relevance of reading contents and lessons to local culture and context of students could help develop reading comprehension skills. Moreover, levels of difficulty of reading contents, sequence of the contents, and updated and interesting contents relevant to students‟ needs are evident to affect students studying reading courses (Tinnawong, 2011). Agreeing with Thongpradit (2017) and Tinnawong (2011), Suwanno, Tesdkum, Srimai, and Teanteng (2017) underscored that the selection of teaching materials was also crucial to English reading courses. Mahawongtong‟s (2010) study of reading behaviors of undergraduate monks in Mahachulalongkornrajvidyalaya University, Lamphun Sangha College added that apart from teaching materials, learning facilities, such as libraries and bookstores, impacted undergraduate monks‟ reading as well. With regards to the students‟ reading problems, causes, and effects mentioned above, the researchers were drawn into investigating factors affecting first and second-year English major students‟ English language reading in the context of a state university in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya. The reason to conduct the study with these groups of students is that they are relatively new in the university comparing to other senior students. Thus, they need to adjust themselves in the new learning environment and focus on reading textbooks in English. More importantly, the issue addressing factors affecting English major students‟ reading at state Universities is still in its infancy. This current study will be beneficial to instructors, students, administrators, and other stakeholders involved in English reading courses in the tertiary context. In addition, the results of this study can be used for improving and developing English teaching in order to increase the English achievement of students.

Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study were to: 1) investigate factors affecting English reading capacity of first-year English major students 2) examine factors affecting English reading capacity of second-year English major students 3) compare and contrast factors affecting English reading capacity between both groups of English major students

Research Methodology

Conceptual Framework In order to investigate factors affecting English reading of first-year and second-year English major students, the conceptual framework, as shown in figure 1, for this particular study was developed based on the review of literature. Figure 1 Conceptual Framework

 Basic knowledge of English language  Feelings while reading in English.

 Understanding while reading in English  Basic knowledge of the lesson

 The level of difficulty of the lesson English Language Reading  Anxiety while studying English Qualitativelanguage Research

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This qualitative study employed purposive sampling. The participants of the study were 12 volunteers from first and second-year English major students at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences at a state university in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya. Each group of the students consisted of six students. To collect the data, a semi-structured interview with six open-ended questions adapted from Tinnawong‟s (2011) study was utilized to explore factors affecting students‟ reading. Before being put into action, the interview questions were piloted with four first- and second-year English major students studying in English reading courses. After piloting phase, the interview questions were adjusted and modified for their appropriateness of the questions. To analyze the qualitative data, cause and effect analysis was adopted to reveal factors affecting students‟ reading capacity.

Results

Following the three objectives of this qualitative study, the results of the study can be divided into three sections: 1) factors affecting first-year students‟ English reading capacity; 2) factors affecting second-year students‟ English reading capacity; and 3) the similarities and differences of factors affecting both first and second-year students‟ English reading capacity. The results can be further discussed based on six key factors affecting both groups of students‟ English reading. These six factors are: 1) basic knowledge of English language; 2) feelings while reading in English; 3) understanding while reading in English; 4) basic knowledge of the lesson; 5) the level of difficulty of the lesson; and 6) anxiety while studying English language.

Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity of First-Year English Major Students

According to the analyzed interview data of the first-year students, the following factors were found affecting the students‟ reading capacity. 1) Basic knowledge of English language: this includes basic English knowledge that students had gained before studying in the university. The knowledge, which helped increase students‟ English reading capacity, derived from their high schools, media and entertainment, internet, and tutoring. 2) Feelings while reading in English: students were enthusiastic to practice English reading and learn new vocabulary. They were willing to improving their reading skills consistently and eager to learn more about English reading. One student participant noted: “my affection for reading makes me want to improve my reading.” 3) Understanding while reading in English: students could be motivated to practice English reading when they were able to comprehend what they are reading. 4) Basic knowledge of the lesson: when students did not have basic knowledge about the lesson – either vocabulary knowledge or pronunciation, they had difficulties in studying English reading. 5) The levels of difficulty of the lesson: Difficult reading contents impacted students‟ understanding of the lesson. 6) Anxiety in while studying English language: students‟ anxiety, such as their embarrassment in light of incorrect pronunciation and their insufficient vocabulary, caused difficulties in understanding reading contents.

Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity of Second-Year English Major Students

The factors below were found affecting second-year English major students‟ English reading capacity. 1) Basic knowledge of English language: Basic English knowledge from high schools, tutoring schools, reading, listening to music and watching movies on YouTube could contribute to students‟ English reading capacity. For example, one student participant remarked: “I have English background because of private tutoring and watching YouTube videos. They help my reading”.

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2) Feelings while reading in English: students‟ preference while studying the reading subject, such as their preference for reading contents and positive attitudes toward English reading, motivated students to learn new words and pronunciation and to practice reading. 3) Understanding while reading in English: an appropriate level of reading contents helped students understand what they were reading better. 4) Basic knowledge of the lesson: students‟ background knowledge about the lesson, such as background knowledge about vocabulary in the lesson, helped students read effectively. 5) The levels of difficulty of the lesson: Difficult lessons, such as lessons with difficult and new vocabulary, negatively affected students‟ reading comprehension. 6) Anxiety while studying English language: students‟ anxiety, including their embarrassment of pronunciation errors and strict teachers, made the students afraid of pronouncing English words in front of their classmates and teachers.

The Similarities and Differences of Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity of First and Second-Year English Major Students

The results of this study revealed similarities and differences of factors affecting English reading capacity of first and second-year English major students, which will be discussed below.

Similar Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity of First and Second-Year Students

The study found that five factors were affecting English reading capacity of both first and second-year students. 1) Basic knowledge of English language: all students had basic English knowledge from their English classes and their free-time activities before studying in the university. This basic English knowledge contributed to students‟ reading capacity. 2) Feelings while reading in English: all students agreed that their positive attitudes toward English reading could motivate them to improve their own reading. 3) Understanding while reading in English: Both groups of students similarly accepted that they could study English reading better when they understood what they were reading. 4) The levels of difficulty of the lesson: Both groups of students agreed that difficult reading contents adversely impacted their English reading comprehension. 5) Anxiety in while studying English language: all students admitted that students‟ anxiety in vocabulary learning and pronunciation errors made them afraid of pronouncing English words in front of their classmates and teachers.

Different Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity of First and Second-year Students

The results of this study revealed three different factors affecting English reading capacity among first and second-year students. These factors will be discussed below. 1) Basic knowledge of the lesson: only first-year students did not have basic knowledge about reading lessons before. Their lack of basic knowledge about reading lessons negatively affected their English reading capacity in reading subjects. 2) Teachers‟ characteristics: only second-year students were anxious when studying with strict teachers, who had low emotional intelligence or showed dissatisfied facial expression. This made students unhappy to study English reading subjects.

Discussion

The study of factors affecting English reading capacity between first and second-year English major students at a state university in Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya aims to: 1) investigate factors affecting English reading capacity of first-year English major students; 2) examine factors affecting English reading capacity of second-year English major students; and 3) compare and contrast factors 106

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affecting English reading capacity between the two groups of students. The results of the study will be further discussed in the next section.

Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity of First-Year English Major Students

The interviews with first-year English major students uncovered six key factors affecting English reading capacity of first-year students. These factors were: 1) Basic knowledge of English language contributed to students‟ English reading capacity. 2) Feelings while reading in English, including positive attitudes toward English reading, motivated students to improve their English reading. 3) Understanding while reading in English helped students easily understand what they were learning. 4) Basic knowledge of the lesson, including insufficient knowledge of vocabulary and pronunciation, caused problems and difficulties in students‟ reading comprehension. 5) The levels of difficulty of the lesson affected students‟ ability to read and understand reading contents. 6) Anxiety while studying English language led to reading difficulties, such as students‟ difficulty to understand reading lessons. The results of this study conform to the notion of Bloom (1976) and the research finding of Arunsuksawang and Sungrugsa (2015). Bloom (1976) highlighted three domains affecting students‟ learning achievement: 1) cognitive domain (students‟ background knowledge and personal skills); 2) affective domain (students‟ attitudes, interests, motivations, and self-esteem); and 3) psychomotor domain (students‟ ability to practice the language). In addition to Bloom‟s (1967) notion, Arunsuksawang and Sungrugsa‟s (2015) study of the factors affecting ability of English usage following the learning skills in the 21st century of the mattayom 6 students of schools in the Bangkok secondary educational area office 2 indicated that students, teachers, families, and schools were factors influencing the students‟ ability of English usage following the learning skills in the 21st century.

Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity of Second-Year English Major Students

The interviews with second-year English major students revealed six main factors affecting English reading capacity of second-year students. These factors were: 1) Basic knowledge of English language contributed to students‟ English reading capacity. 2) Feelings while reading in English, including positive attitudes toward English reading, motivated students to improve their English reading. 3) Understanding while reading in English helped students easily understand what they were learning. 4) Basic knowledge of the lesson, including insufficient knowledge of vocabulary and pronunciation, caused problems and difficulties in students‟ reading comprehension. 5) The levels of difficulty of the lesson affected students‟ ability to read and understand reading contents. 6) Anxiety while studying English language, such as their embarrassment of mispronunciation and teachers with strict characteristic made students afraid of pronouncing English words in front of their classmates and teachers. The results of this study were similar to Tinnawong‟s (2011) study of factors affecting English reading ability of primary students. Tinnawong‟s (2011) study revealed that factors affecting students‟ English reading ability were the levels of difficulty of reading contents, sequence of the story, basic knowledge and experience in what they were studying, and students‟ anxiety. The reading contents that enhanced students‟ understanding should be updated, interesting, and useful. Also, it should meet the students‟ needs. Agreeing with Tinnawong‟s (2011) study, Bowornwattanaset‟s (2014) study of the causal factors influencing English reading comprehension ability of lower secondary school students stressed that factors affecting students‟ English reading comprehension 107

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ability was students‟ background knowledge. Furthermore, direct and indirect variables influencing students‟ English reading ability were teachers‟ teaching behaviors, attitudes toward English reading, and achievement motives.

The Similarities and Differences of Factors Affecting English Reading Capacity of First and Second-Year English Major Students

The results of this current study found that both groups of students similarly agreed with the following factors affecting their English reading ability: 1) Basic knowledge of English language contributed to students‟ English reading capacity. 2) Feelings while reading in English, including positive attitudes toward English reading, motivated students to improve their English reading. 3) Understanding while reading in English helped increase the students‟ understanding of what they were learning. 4) Basic knowledge of the lesson, including insufficient knowledge of vocabulary and pronunciation, caused problems and difficulties in students‟ reading comprehension. 5) The levels of difficulty of the lesson affected all students‟ ability to read and understand reading contents. 6) Anxiety while studying English language, such as their concerns about insufficient vocabulary, their embarrassment of mispronunciation, and their illegibility made students afraid of pronouncing English words in front of their classmates and teachers. However, there were two distinct factors that these two groups of students differently reported affecting their English reading ability. They were: 1) Basic knowledge of the lesson: only first-year students admitted that previously they did not have basic knowledge of the lessons. 2) Teachers‟ characteristics: only second-year students felt anxious when they studied with strict teachers with low emotional intelligence or dissatisfied facial expression. The results of this study agreed with Thongpradit‟s (2017) study of needs in English reading skills practice and the development of reading materials with southern contexts. Most students‟ difficulties in reading derived from reading contents and their lack of reading strategies. Within the same year, the study of Suwanno et al. (2017) similarly reported that family problems, reading materials, time problem, student problems, and school problems caused primary students‟ reading problems in BannakhuanLang (Ratsamake), Songkhla Province. Unlike, Thongpradit‟s (2017) and Suwanno et al‟s (2017) studies, Mahawongtong (2010) unveiled that families, friends, education institutes, libraries, and other learning sources, such as bookstores, were factors influencing reading behaviors of undergraduate monks in Mahachulalongkornrajvidyalaya University. Different from Sunmud‟s (2009) study, it was indicated that improper teaching methodologies led to students‟ reading failure and obstructed reading skill development. For instance, the inappropriate teaching methodologies were the emphasis of translation, rote memorization, and grammar. These teaching methodologies did not emphasize thinking skills; therefore, students were unable to understand and conclude what they were reading by speaking and writing.

Recommendations The findings of this present study called for the first and second-year English major students in a state university in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya attention to the significant factors affecting their English reading. The factors found in this study can positively and negatively affect students‟ reading capacity. By understanding negative factors, students will be able to seek solutions and further improve their English reading. Also, in order to enhance students‟ achievements in reading subjects, all stakeholders taking part in designing English curriculum, such as instructors and curriculum administration committee, need to be aware of factors affecting students‟ reading capacity reported. The researchers urge all the stakeholders to further investigate these two issues: other factors affecting students‟ reading capacity and effects of factors on students‟ reading capacity. 108

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References [1] Arunsuksawang, T., & Sungrugsa, N. (2015). The Factors that Affect English Usage Following the Learning Skills in the 21st century of the Mattayom 6 Students of Schools in the Bangkok Secondary Educational Area Office 2 to Support the Entrance into the ASEAN Economic Community. Veridian E-Journal, 493-505. [2] Bloom, B. (1976). Human Characteristics and School Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. [3] Bowornwattanaset, C. (2014). The Causal Factors Influencing English Reading Comprehension Ability of Lower Secondary School Students. RMUTSB Academic Journal, 183-192. [4] Goodman, K. (1995). Interactive Approach to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [5] Khaosaard, T. (2006). The Development of Communicative English Reading Exercises by Using Authentic Local Materials for Mathayomsuksa 3 Students, Banhinchang school, Rayong. Silapakorn University.: Silapakorn University. [6] Kreishan, R., & Saidat, A. (2011). The Effect of the Religious and Cultural on Jordanian Student's Comprehension of English Texts. International Journal of Academic Research, 3-4. [7] Lai, H., Lin, W., & Kersten, G. (2010). The Importance of Language Familiarity in Global Business Negotiation. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 537-548. [8] Mahawongtong, K. (2010). Reading Behaviors and Influencing Factors on Reading Behaviors of Undergraduates Monk Mahachulalongkornrajvidyalaya University. Retrieved from Chaing Mai University: http://repository.cmu.ac.th/handle/6653943832/15190 [9] McCleland, D. (1953). The Achievement Motive. New York: Appleton Century Croffs Inc. [10] Porcaro, J. (2001). Creating Informed Citizens and Integrating Language Skills. Modern English Teacher, 2-30. [11] Richards, J. (1995). The Context of Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. [12] Samarnmitr, S., & Chattiwat, W. (2017). English Reading Exercises Using WebQuest Activities. Veridian E-Journal, 1493-1505. [13] Suanson, A. (2016). The Development of English Reading Comprehension Skill Independent study, Master of Education in Education Naresuan University. Retrieved from Naresuan University: http://www.edu.nu.ac.th/th/news/docs/download/2018_04_29_11_21_21.pdf [14] Sunmud, S. (2009). Reading Problems. Retrieved from Gotoknow.org: http://www.gotoknow.org/ [15] Suwanno, P., Tesdkum, U., Srimai, W., & Teanteng, S. (2017). Primary Student‟s Reading Problem. Proceedings of the 8th Hatyai National Conference, (pp. 597-607). BannakhuanLang (Ratsamake) Songkhla. [16] The Ministry of Education of Thailand. (2008). The Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008). Retrieved from The Ministry of Education of Thailand: http://www.act.ac.th/document/1741.pdf.309/200412/4672.html [17] Thongpradit, S. (2017). Needs in English Reading Skills Practice and the Development of Reading Materials with Southern Contexts. Prince of Songkla University: Prince of Songkla University. [18] Tinnawong, N. (2011). Factors Affecting English Reading Ability of Primary Students. Retrieved from Silapakorn University: http://www.thapra.lib.su.ac.th/thesis/showthesis_ th.asp?id=0000006765

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The Creative Thinking Ability of Matthayomsuksa 6 students in AEC 4 Fun Game

Alongkorn Chantaravipak, MA students of Applied Linguistics program Songsri Soranastaporn Associate Professor of Applied linguistics program Orrathip Geerathivudhipong Doctor of Applied linguistics program

Mahidol University Faculty of Liberal Arts 999 4th Rd Monthon Phutthamonthon District, Nakhon Pathom 73170

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to design the use of AEC4Fun game-enhanced learners‟ creative thinking ability in context of English language teaching and learning. Thai students have been urged to improved their English and also learn a second or third language so they can compete with people from other Southeast Asia nations. Using AEC 4fun game in this study can support English learning in many aspects such as creativities, satisfaction, or communicative language teaching (CLT). From this article is to compare the mean score of pretest posttest before and after playing game, level of creative thinking ability and satisfaction. The Population will include 402 Matthayomsuksa 6 students from the provincial secondary school at Angthong. The subjects will include 45 Mattayomsuksa 6 students will be selected by quasi- experimental research using one-group pretest-posttest design. The research instruments will be conducted by AEC 4Fun game, test and questionnaires. Questionnaires will be used as research tools to find the students‟ creative thinking ability and satisfaction in learning via The AEC4fun game. The Cronbach‟s alpha reliability coefficient of the questionnaire will be finding during the research processing. Data will be analyzed by mean, standard deviation, and Wilcoxon sign rank test. The study will be revealed a significant impact of creative skills on academic outcomes influence on AEC 4Fun game. It will be benefitted in the actual classroom Playing AEC 4Fun games have a significant role in helping students to bring about the creative thinking ability. Moreover, the study assesses the efficiency of the AEC 4fun game as well as explores in forms of learning achievement in CLT and the students‟ satisfaction toward the AEC4 fun game-based learning.

Keywords: Creative thinking ability, AEC 4Fun Game, Communicative language teaching (CLT), divergent thinking

BACKGROUND AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Creative thinking ability is the important thing in the 21st century classroom. Creativity is a mental occurrence that results from the application of ordinary cognitive processes such as working memory, and the ability to categorize and manage objects (creative cognition approach. Importantly, the ability to think creatively can be taught and developed. Many researchers (Mcvey, 2008; Sak, 2004; Scanlon, 2006) have advocated the idea that creativity can be encouraged through learning activities, especially four language skills and achievements in communicative language teaching. According to Agustina & Noor (2016), someone who has a high level of creative thinking, their learning outcomes will be satisfying. People will have a fast way of thinking, be superior in thinking and find solutions to the problems they encounter. As the result, in classroom activities as well as in the curricula, specific attention is paid on introducing and practicing cognitive strategies proven to foster creative thinking skills. However, about creativity, teaching English nowadays has neither motivation nor real environment to improve learners‟ ability and to apply English skills to use (Soranastaporn, 2016 ; Sriwilaijaroen ,2016 ; Noppakunwijai 2016).Nanik Wijayati (2019) stated that some things that cause in chemistry learning, students' creative thinking skills are still not well developed. First, the teacher does not know the right way to increase students' creativity in the learning process in the classroom (Laius & Rannikmae, 2014; Cheng, 2010); Second, this ability is too difficult if applied to students who have limited knowledge and thinking skills (Cheng, 2010). Finally, the learning process in 110

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schools emphasizes unproductive thinking, focuses on memorization and looks for one correct answer to the questions given (Risnawati & Saadi, 2016). This will certainly result in the inhibition of students' creativity. In addition, students have learned English language in Mattayomsuksa 6 students in fundamental education. They still have difficulties in English nation. Thais EFL learning have obstacles in creative thinking ability. (Soranasathaporn, Sriwilaijaroen, & Noppakunwijai, 2016) Students also will not be approached in satisfaction and achievement in CLT. There seems to be a traditional concept that creativity belongs to the author, artist and others in the creative art area. This diminutive concept of creativity needs to be broadened and better understood (Billy Max Clark, 1968). As a result, I provide proper learning environment and interesting simulation with AEC 4Fungame in order to improve capabilities such as creative thinking ability so that students are able to learn English language in a fun environment. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to improve creative thinking ability of the learners by using English activity-based learning to acquire English comprehensive skills and to encourage them to learn English creatively.

THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY To get the results related to the research problems, the purpose of this study is to design the use of AEC4Fun game-enhanced learners‟ creative thinking ability in context of English language teaching and learning.

RESEARCH QUESTION 1. Is there any significant difference of students ‟achievement after learning with AEC 4fun game? 2. To what extend do the groups of students express the level of their creative thinking ability after learning through AEC 4fun game? 3. To what extend do the groups of students express their satisfaction after learning through AEC 4fun game?

GAME THEORY AND LEARNING THEORY Games are one of the instruments gradually applied in classrooms in order to foster students‟ learning capabilities. (Wattanakornpisarn 2020; Soranastaporn 2020). This article is aimed at explaining the games can improve students‟ creative thinking ability, satisfaction and achievement in CLT. The development of language games has been presented through the language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing) relating with Canale and Swain (1980) and Canale (1983) understood communicative competence as a synthesis of an underlying system of knowledge and skill needed for communication. A recent study (Kim, 2006) showed that the instructional theory of J.P. Guilford's work and created by Ellis Paul Torrance were also employed consisting of fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration. Findings from this study are the development and implementation of language games such as ASEAN photo game, creative drawing game, creative writing game and creative presenting game.

CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS Creative thinking (a companion to critical thinking) is an invaluable skill for students. It‟s important because it helps students look at problems and situations from a fresh perspective. These creative results are scored keeping in mind a number of different creativity criteria. The most common (common to all of the above) criteria in this article are: Flexibility, Originality, Fluency and Elaboration.

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT) CLT is an approach that understands language to be inseparable from individual identity and social behavior. Not only does language define a community but a community, in turn, defines the forms and uses of language. (Sauvignon, 2017). Based on the game activities, it is the idea that 111

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learning language successfully come through having to communicate real meaning or real communication.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH DESIGN This article is quasi-experimental research using one group pretest -posttest design. It attempted to establish a cause-and-effect for the treatment learning creative thinking ability through AEC4fun games. The effect of the AEC4Fun games will be explored and focused on student‟ creative thinking ability, achievement in CLT, and satisfaction. The flow of this research design is displayed in Figure1 Figure 1 Research Design

POPULATION The population is 180 students in Matthayomsuksa 6/1 - 6/4 students at secondary school from Science-Mathematics program. The population is at Angthong Pattamarot Witthayakhom school in Angthong province, Thailand. They are studying English For Communication (EIC 5) in the academic year 2020. They never go aboard and have no experience in abroad.

SAMPLES AND SAMPLING There are 45 Matthayomsuksa 6/4 students. The samples of this study are selected by means of nonprobability sampling technique because the researcher is assigned to teach the course of English For Communication to this group of samples. RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

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Figure 2: Research Instrument outline

EXPERIMENTAL TOOL There are two sections of experimental tools A. AEC 4Fun game consists of four section for doing the activities. 1.1 ASEAN Pic card, 1.2 Creative drawing Game, .1.3 Creative writing Game, . 1.4 Creative presenting Game. This game will support the ASEAN knowledge for players such as countries, capital city, greeting word, currency, leader, interesting places, food, national flag and flower. It also supports the learner about creativity and satisfaction in the group of the students. . The flow of research instruments outline class is displayed in Figure 2

B. Lesson Plans The AEC 4Fun Game lesson plans will be made appropriateness for Angthong Pattamarot Wittayakom school English for communication course and ASEAN studies objective which will be targeted at developing students‟ ability to communicate and think creatively and to express opinion on what they have satisfied. The gaming procedure will emphasize the utilization of general group processes and creative strategies. Azize Nilgun Canel (2015) emphasized that the enhancement of creative thinking is based on the following sub dimensions of Guilford‟s (1966) creative thinking

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model: fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration. In addition, the activity in the game will design from Guildford model to practice four skills of English language: listening, speaking, reading and writing as well as achievement in CLT. In the time given, be relevant to the stage and activities, level of students‟ proficiency, attitude, motivation material and time. DATA COLLECTION TOOLS Three data collection tools obtained the data of this study. In order to obtain students‟ achievement, creative and satisfaction questionnaires are selected to access the students‟ frequency usage of each strategy. A. Pretest-Posttest from Cambridge placement test. A Cambridge placement test was designed by the researcher to be the pretest and posttest of three groups of subjects B. Creativity questionnaire C. Satisfaction Questionnaire

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE To collect the data, the researcher will do as follow: 1.The researcher will administer a pretest and creativity questionnaire Y1) which will propose to measure students ‟mastery in creativity, English achievement before given a treatment. 2.The researcher will apply an experiment that use AEC 4fun game (X) to teach English skills. 3.The researcher will administer a posttest (Y2) which propose to measure students „mastery in creativity, English achievement and satisfaction after the students are given a treatment. Applying one group pretest-posttest, the researcher wants to find out whether there is any significant different of students‟ mastery before and after being taught using AEC4fun Game at Angthong Pattamarot Witthayakhom school in academic year 2020. The flow of research instrument outline class is displayed in Figure 3

Pretest Independent variable Posttest Y1 X Y2

Figure 3: A diagram one group pretest-posttest design

DATA ANALYSIS 1. Data collected from creativity and satisfaction questionnaire will be analyzed by descriptive statistics including mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) 2. Data collected from pretest and posttest will be analyzed by Wilcoxon signed rank test.

CONCLUSION

Strategic Thinking requires both Creative thinking ability, satisfaction and achievement in CLT. In this paper I will provide using game through creative thinking can and has been applied to the learners. AEC 4Fun game has several advantages as creative thinking ability method which give good reasons for the use of games in students‟ English skill. Thai EFL learners employ creative thinking ability, satisfaction and achievement in CLT and glide as their repair strategies. Playing game as thereby considered an active engagement whereby players constantly have to make decision. This education game is expected to eliminate boredom and fear to learn math and facilitate the learning process in the geometry material of Senior High School.

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References [1] Campbell, D. (1960). Blind variation and selective retention in creative thought as in other knowledge processes. Psychological Review, 67(6), 380–400. [2] Cannatella, H. (2004). Embedding creativity in teaching and learning. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 38(4), 59–70. [3] Chapple, L. & Curtis, A. (2000). Content-based instruction in Hong Kong: Student responses to film. System, 28, 419–433. [4] Chen, C. Y. (Revised) (2006). [Abbreviated Torrance Test for adults manual: the Taiwan Norm]. Revised according to Goff, K., & Torrance, E. P. (2002) Forehead, M. (n.d.). Bloom's Taxonomy: Original and Revised (pp. 41-44, Rep.). [5] Gagn , R. M. (2011). Principles of instructional design (5th ed.). Belmont, Ca.: [6] Kiili, K. (2005). Digital game-based learning: Towards an experiential gaming model. The Internet and higher education, 8(1), 13-24

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Thai ELF Learners’ Pronunciations in the Final Two-consonant Clusters: A Case Study

Nattapoom Khoomboon1, Songsri Soranastaporn2

MA Program in Applied Linguistics, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University1 Associate Professor from Applied Linguistics Program, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University2

[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to investigate Thai EFL learners‟ pronunciations in the final two-consonant clusters. In this case study, the participants are 30 students at a secondary school. The research instruments are 12 sets of the word list constructed from phonotactic possibilities given by Roach (2002) and Duanmu (2009). Data are collected by audio records and analyzed problematic consonant clusters. The findings explore that cluster reduction and gliding are the two phonological processes employed for repair strategies in their pronunciation. The first consonants are reduced in case of those clusters initiating with /r/ or /l/ and following by stop, fricative, affricate, or nasal. Meanwhile, the second consonants are reduced in case of those clusters initiating with stop, fricative, affricate or nasal and following by stop, fricative, or affricate. Partially, /-lp/, /-lt/, /-ld/ and /-lk/ become [w] in case of following by /e/ or /ɪ /. Their difficulties of pronunciations are phonotactic constraints and differences from their mother tongue. The implications of this case study suggest that pronunciations of Thai learners should be dealt with during early stages of second language acquisition in order to prevent fossilization.

Keywords: consonant clusters, cluster reduction, gliding, Thai ELF learners

1. Introduction As a result of globalization, English language is increasingly learned and taught throughout the world. According to the model of Kachru‟s Three Concentric Circles of English (2005), Thailand is grouped in the expanding circle which uses English as a foreign language (EFL). Although, Thai students have learned English language for twelve years in fundamental education. They still have difficulties in English language learning. Pronunciation is one of aspects causing difficulties for Thai EFL learners. The studies expose that Thai EFL learners have obstacles in pronouncing unfamiliar segments and cluster consonants. (c.f. Rungruang, 2017; Sahatsathatsana, 2017; Suwanajote, 2017; Soontornwipat & Sonsri, 2016) One of factors which causes difficulties are phonological differences between mother tongue (L1) and second language (L2). The ease or difficulty of acquiring L2 sounds depend on the influence of L1. Whether L2 sounds are similar to L1 sounds, those sounds are easy to acquire. Meanwhile, L2 sounds are different from L2 sounds. It is not easy for the L2 learners to acquire the target sounds. (Avery & Ehrlich, 1992; Swan & Smith, 1987) Thai and English language have different phonological system. Therefore, it causes difficulties for Thai EFL learners in pronunciation. In Thai phonological system, basic syllable structure is (C1) (C2) VT (C3). The obligatory element of syllable is vowel (V) and tone (T). In the onset position, C1 allows any consonants and C2 allows /l/, /r/, and /w/ as clusters. In the coda position, C3 allows /p/, /t/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /j/, /w/ and constraints clusters. (Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom, 2005) Comparing to English language, the obligatory element of syllable structure is vowel (V). It variously proceeds clusters in both onset and coda position. The maximum number of consonants at the onset of an English word is three e.g. „spry‟ /spraI/. The maximum number of consonants at the coda is four e.g. „texts‟ /teksts/. (Mohammad & Kak, 2007) Phonologically, there are differences between Thai and English language in cluster

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constraints. Thai EFL learners have difficulties to produce correct sounds, especially final consonants. Thai language has one distinctive feature which is not allowed any clusters in coda position. This make Thai EFL learners use repair strategies to produce unfamiliar segments and cluster consonants. In previous studies, there are several studies about Thai EFL learners‟ pronunciation in aspects of onset and coda clusters. (c.f. Chakma, 2014; Kalra, 2010; Mano-Im, 1999; Padibat & Cochran, 1997; Pulsup, 1993; Phoprai, 2008; Sarapan, 1990) However, no studies extensively conduct every onset or coda clusters. This case study primarily focuses on coda clusters which seem to contrast with Thai phonological system. The purpose of the study is to investigate Thai EFL learners‟ pronunciations in the final two-consonant clusters in order to explore their difficulties and repair strategies in producing two-consonant clusters. This bring to the following research questions.

Research Questions 1. What difficulty level do Thai EFL learners process in final two-consonant clusters? 2. What the phonological processes do Thai EFL learners use as repair strategies to pronounce final two-consonant clusters?

2. Literature Review 2.1 Consonant Cluster A consonant cluster is as a group or sequence of consonants that appear together in a syllable without a vowel between them. (Jones, 1976) In English language, there are 2 kinds of cluster: initial (onset) and final (coda) clusters. This study explains only two-consonant clusters given from descriptions of the phonotactic possibilities of English (Roach, 2002; Duanmu, 2009) There are 12 types and 57 phonotactic possibilities as shown in table 1.

Table 1 Phonotactic Possibilities of Final Two-consonant Clusters in English Phonotactic Possibilities Examples Lateral Approximant + Stop or Affricate: /lp/, /lb/, /lt/, /ld/, /ltʃ /, /ldʒ /, /lk/ help, bulb, belt, hold, belch, indulge, milk Rhotic /r/ + Stop or Affricate: /rp/, /rb/, /rt/, /rd/, /rtʃ /, /rdʒ /, /rk/, /rɡ / harp, orb, fort, beard, arch, large, mark, morgue Lateral Approximant + Fricative: /lf/, /lv/, /lθ/, /ls/, /lz/, /lʃ / golf, solve, wealth, else, bells, Welsh Rhotic /r/ + Fricative: /rf/, /rv/, /rθ/, /rs/, /rz/, /rʃ / dwarf, carve, north, force, Mars, marsh Lateral Approximant + Nasal: /lm/, /ln/ film, kiln Rhotic /r/ + Nasal or Lateral: /rm/, /rn/, /rl/ arm, born, snarl Nasal + Stop or Affricate: /mp/, /nt/, /nd/, /ntʃ /, /ndʒ /, /ŋk/ jump, tent, end, lunch, lounge, pink Nasal + Fricative: /mf/, /mθ/, /nθ/, /ns/, /nz/, /ŋθ/ triumph, warmth, month, prince, bronze, length Voiceless Fricative + Voiceless Stop: /ft/, /sp/, /st/, /sk/ left, crisp, lost, ask Two Voiceless Fricatives: /fθ/ Fifth Two Voiceless Stops: /pt/, /kt/ opt, act Stop + Voiceless Fricative: /pθ/, /ps/, /tθ/, /ts/, /dθ/, /ks/ depth, lapse, eighth, klutz, width, box

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2.2 Repair Strategies and Phonological Process in L2 Learners Second language learners may confuse when they face the phonological system which is different from their L1. They start using some resources in order to simplify their productions. They will use resources are also called repair strategies to replace other segments or syllable structure which they perform i.e. phonological processes which are applied to preserve constraints. (Paradis, 1988) Here are some brief descriptions of two phonological processes discussed in this study. Cluster reduction is a phonological process which reduce one or more consonants from a target cluster so only a single consonant occurs at syllable margins. (Grunwell, 1987) In final two- consonant clusters, it is possibly to occur 2 types as shown in figure 1 and 2. First, the second consonant (C2) is deleted and the first consonant (C1) still exist. Second, the first consonant (C1) is deleted and the second consonant (C2) still exist.

C1C2  C1 Ø C1C2  Ø C2 /depθ/  [dep] /hɑːrp/  [hɑːp] /stɒpt/  [stɒp] /hɑːrt/  [h ɑːt] /tæps/  [tæp] /hɑːrd/  [hɑːd] Figure 1 Cluster reduction Type 1 Figure 2 Cluster Reduction Type 2 Gliding is a phonological process which replaces specific consonant like liquids /l/ and /r/ with [w] or [j]. (Bowen, 1998) There are different types such as replacement with liquids or fricatives. In English final two-cluster consonants, if C1 is /l/ and C2 is /t/ or /k/, C1 is replaced by [w] shown in figure 3. /-lt/ and /-lk/  [w] /belt/  [bew] /help/  [hew] /sɪlk/  [sɪw] /mɪlk/  [mɪw] Figure 3 Gliding Replaced by [w] 3. Research Methodology 3.1 Sample In this case study, participants are 30 students who are willing to be informants in English pronunciation. All participants are students with age between 15-16 at a secondary school of Thailand. They are Thai ELF learners with a minimum 9 years spending time on English language learning and never have experience in abroad. They are 15 males and 15 females. 3.2 Research Instruments The research instruments used in this study are 12 sets of a word list developed from phonotactic possibilities of English. Each set contains 5 words with final two-consonant clusters as mentioned the literature review. The chosen words are common words that Thai ELF learners familiarize. 3.3 Procedure First, researchers made a friendly rapport with the participants in order to reduce their anxiety. Before collecting data, the participants were informed by researchers of the procedures. They understood that they pronounce naturally and had no impact on their pronunciation. Next, they were asked to pronounce all 5 words in 12 word lists while being audio-recorded. The recordings were done individually in a friendly atmosphere. After the data were collected, researchers carefully listened to each recording and transcribed the problematic consonant clusters based on phonetic training. However, to ensure more reliability, PRATT was employed to analyze some complicated phonemes and variety of allophones derived phonological process i.e. [w] in guiding. Finally, researchers drew the discussion and conclusion.

4. Results and Discussion The findings showed that 64% of correct forms and 36% of incorrect forms produced by Thai EFL learners. It can be implied that females have good performance in pronouncing English final two-cluster consonants comparing to males. (females n=750 > males n=402)

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Both males and females mostly employed cluster reduction as their repair strategy at 25.5% which is more than replacement at 10.5% as shown in table 2. Table 2 Correct and Incorrect Forms Produced by Thai EFL Learners Correct Forms Incorrect Forms (Tokens) (Tokens) First Cluster Second Cluster Replacement Reduction Reduction Males 402 88 258 152 Females 750 23 90 37 Total 1152 (64%) 111 (6.17%) 348 (19.33%) 189 (10.5%)

Regarding to the first research question, incorrect forms of their pronunciation classified by phonotactic possibilities indicate which final two-cluster consonants located the levels of difficulties. The group of lateral approximant plus nasal produced by males is highest frequency of incorrect forms. (n=58) While the group of two voiceless stops produced by females is lowest frequency of incorrect forms. (n=5) It is assumed that their difficulties can be divided into 3 levels. First, their incorrect forms are between 2-20 tokens defined as low difficulties. Second, their incorrect forms are between 21-40 tokens defined as moderate difficulties. Third, their incorrect forms are between 41-58 tokens defined as high difficulties. Females and males have different levels of difficulties through the similar group of clusters. Figure 3 illustrates overall tokens of incorrect pronunciation classified by phonotactic possibilities.

70

60 58 50 48 48 50 45 45 42 40 35 37 32 34 28 28 30 25 21 20 12 14 8 10 9 10 5 7 5 2 0

Male Female

Figure 3 Tokens of Incorrect Pronunciation Classified by Phonotactic Possibilities 119

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The difficulties of final two-cluster consonants for female located in the low and moderate levels, while the difficulties of two-cluster consonants for males located in moderate levels. The groups of lateral approximant plus nasal (/lm/ and /ln/) and lateral approximant plus fricative (/lf/, /lv/, /lθ/, /ls/, /lz/, and /lʃ /) are the most difficulties for both genders. On the contrast to Mano-im (1999), that easiest clusters are ranked as the following: a nasal followed by a stop /-nt/, a nasal followed by a fricative/ -ns/, a lateral followed by a stop /-lt/, a nasal followed by an affricate /-ntʃ /, a stop followed by a fricative /-ks/, and a fricative followed by a stop /-sk/. The groups of final two-cluster consonants including fricatives locate in moderate and high difficulties for males in every aspect while females seem to be low difficulties. This result agrees with the discussion of Rungruang (2017). In my notice, females have less difficulties in pronunciation especially in final consonant clusters including /r/ and two voiceless fricatives /fθ/ while male have more difficulties. According to this result, my notice would be a good evidence to support that females have high abilities to pronounce the final two- cluster consonants which is difficult and different from their L1. Table 3 shows the different levels of their difficulties between males and females.

Table 3 Difficulties Levels of Final two-cluster Consonants between Males and Females Males Females Low None - /r/ + Stop or Affricate* - /r/ + Nasal or Lateral* - Two Voiceless Stops - Voiceless Fricative + Voiceless Stop - /r/ + Fricative* - Stop + Voiceless Fricative - Nasal + Stop or Affricate - Nasal + Fricative - Two Voiceless Fricatives* Moderate - Two Voiceless Stops - Lateral Approximant + Stop or Affricate - Nasal + Stop or Affricate - Lateral Approximant + Fricative - Voiceless Fricative + Voiceless Stop - Lateral Approximant + Nasal - Nasal + Fricative - Stop + Voiceless Fricative High - /r/ + Stop or Affricate* None - /r/ + Nasal or Lateral* - Lateral Approximant + Stop or Affricate - /r/ + Fricative* - Two Voiceless Fricatives* - Lateral Approximant + Fricative - Lateral Approximant + Nasal

Regarding to the second research questions, most of Thai EFL learners employed two repair strategies i.e. cluster reduction and replacement. According to incorrect forms of their pronunciation, researchers systemically analyzed problematic consonant clusters and found 3 phonological rules which they performed when final two-consonant clusters.

1. C1[+Liquid] C2[+Consonantal]  Ø C2[+Consonantal] The first consonants are reduced in case of those clusters initiating with /r/ or /l/ and following by stop, fricative, affricate, or nasal e.g. „part‟[pɑː t], large [lɑː dʒ ], „golf‟ [ɡ ɑ ː f], and „solve‟ [sɑː v]. These are the phonological process of cluster reduction. One confirmation is the case study indicted 8 of 12 errors of EFL learners simplified /r/ and /l/ in final cluster. (Suttitham et al., 2017)

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2. C1[-Liquid] C2[+Consonantal]  C1[+Liquid] Ø Secondly, the second consonants are reduced in case of those clusters initiating with stop, fricative, affricate or nasal and following by stop, fricative, or affricate e.g. „books‟ [bʊ k], „month‟ [mʌ n], „jump‟ [dʒʌmp], „act‟ [æk] These are the phonological process of cluster reduction. Most of EFL learners omitted the second consonant in final cluster position which is similar to Soontornwipat and Sonsri (2016).

3. C1[+Lateral] C2[+Stop]  [w] /_ V[+Front, -Round] /-lp/, /-lt/, /-ld/ and /-lk/ become [w] in case of following by /e/ or /ɪ / e.g. „help‟ [hew], „melt‟ [hew], „belt‟ [bew], „build‟ [bɪ w]„silk‟ [sɪ w], and „milk‟ [mɪ w]. These are called the phonological process of gliding.

5. Conclusion This case study is to investigate Thai EFL learners‟ pronunciations in the final two-consonant clusters. The findings expose that 64% of Thai EFL learners pronounce final two-consonant clusters correctly. There are 36% of EFL learners produce incorrect forms and employ cluster reduction and replacement as their repair strategies. This seems to be mainly the influence of the L1 does not allow final clusters. Their difficulties of pronunciations are phonotactic constraints and differences from L1. The implications of this case study suggest that pronunciations of Thai learners should be dealt with during early stages of second language acquisition in order to prevent fossilization. Finally, researchers hope that the EFL teachers recognize about learners‟ difficulties and help their students gain a better pronunciation.

References [1] Avery, P., & Ehrlich, S. (1992). Teaching American English pronunciation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [2] Bowen, C. (1998). Developmental phonological disorders. A practical guide for families and teachers. Melbourne: ACER Press. [3] Chakma, S. (2014). Difficulty in pronunciation of certain English consonant sounds. Sripatum Chonburi Journal, 10(3), 110-118. [4] Grunwell, P. (1987). Clinical phonology (2nd ed.). London: Croom Helm. [5] Iwasaki, S., & Ingkaphirom, P. (2005). A Reference Grammar of Thai. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [6] Jones, C. (1976). Some constraints on medial consonant clusters. Language, 52, 121-130. [7] Kachru, B. B. (2005). Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. [8] Kalra, R. (2010). Initial consonant clusters' pronunciation problem. Galaxy: The IELE Journal, 2(1). [9] Mano-Im, R. (1999). Pronunciation of English final consonant clusters by Thai speakers. (Unpublished MA thesis). Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. [10] Mohammad, A & Kak, A. A. (2007). Introduction to English Phonetics and Phonology. Bangalore, Delhi: Foundation Books. [11] Padibat, N., & Cochran, C. (1997). An investigation of sonority dispersion in Thai-English interlanguage Codas. In S. Buchner (Ed). Working Papers in Linguistics. George Mason University. Fairfax, Virginia. (4), Spring. 5-22. [12] Paradis, C. (1988). On Constraints and Repair Strategies. The Linguistic Review, 6, 71-97. [13] Phootirat, P. (2012). Register variation in Thai-English interphonology: The contrast of /r/ and /l/. (Unpublished docteral dissertation). The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA. [14] Pulsup, S. (1993). Stylistic variation of (r) and (l) in Bangkok Thai consonant clusters among Mathayom IV girl students at Sriayudhya School. (Unpublished MA thesis). Chulalongkorn University, Thailand.

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[15] Roach, P. (2010). English phonetics and phonology (4th ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [16] Rungruang, A. (2017). Consonant Cluster Acquisition by L2 Thai Speakers. English Language Teaching, 10(7), 216-231. [17] Sahatsathatsana, S. (2017). Pronunciation Problems of Thai Students Learning English Phonetics: A Case Study at Kalasin University. Journal of Education, Mahasarakham University, 11(4), 67-84. [18] Sarapan, C. (1990). A study of English consonant pronunciation problems by Mathyom 3 students at Kamalasai School, Kalasin province. (Unpublished MA thesis). Mahasarakham University, Thailand. [19] Suttitham, T., Charoensil, T., Lamjuanjit, Y., & Chaleechai, K. (2017). How Thai University Learners Perceive English and Thai Consonant Clusters. Proceeding of RMU 2017 (pp. 8-15). Mahasarakham: Mahasarakham Rajabhat University. [20] Soontornwipat, S & Sonsri, B. (2016). The Pronunciation of Two English Final Consonant Clusters by Huachiew Chalermprakiet University Students. Liberal Arts Review, 11(2), 1-7. [21] Suwanajote, N. (2017). The effect of cluster simplification in Thai on the English language learners. Paper presented at The IAFOR International Conference on Arts & Humanities. [22] Swan, M., & Smith, B. (1987). Learner English: A teacher's guide to interference and other problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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The Variation of Post-copula Nominal Pivots in English there-Existential Constructions: The Corpus-based Analysis

Nattapoom Khoomboon

MA Program in Applied Linguistics, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University [email protected]

Abstract. The purpose of this study is to investigate variables causing language variations of English there-existential constructions through corpus-based analysis. In this study, 2,000 empirical data retrieved from Corpus of Contemporary American English are selected by the criteria of Francez (2007) and McNally (2011), and then are classified into the categories of definiteness effects (DEs) proposed by Milsark (1974). The results exposed that English is a language considered as anti- definiteness effects. The genre of written and spoken language is not a variable causing language variations. There are 88.5% of weak determiners followed as nominal pivots. On the contrary, it is found 5.60% of strong determiners and 5.90% of non-category followed as nominal pivots in English there-existential constructions. Probably, a variable causing language variations is hierarchical selections of definite determiners rather than universal determiners as compare to other languages. The new insights of linguistic phenomena will be beneficial for ESL and EFL pedagogists and linguists in further studies.

Keywords: there-existential constructions, nominal pivots, definiteness effects (DEs), corpus-based analysis

Background of the Study Existential construction (EC), a term coined by Jespersen (1924: 155), refers to a designated sentence type whose main functions to assert or deny the existence of some entity in a location. ECs perform syntactic structures and semantic properties involving property-based analyses of pivot and establishing correlation between nominal restrictions (henceforth definiteness effects; DEs) and predicate restriction. (Milsark, 1974; Barwise & Cooper, 1981; Keenan, 1987; Ladusaw, 1994; Musan 1996) Currently, McNally (2011) defined EC as a non-canonical structure expressing a proposition about the existence or the presence of someone or something which universally manifests five structural properties as hierarchically shown in structure (1).

(1) (Expletive) + (Copula) + Pivot + (Coda)

According to McNally‟s definition, ECs share five common characteristics of the structural properties, but structural properties vary noticeably from language to language in both structural and semantic properties. Universally, pivot is only one structural property required in ECs while other structural properties in brackets are option. Her definition correlates to the elements of ECs proposed by Francez (2007) as following descriptions.

Expletive is not universally available. If a language requires expletives, it requires them obligatorily. Copula is not universally available. If a language requires a copula of some sort, it may or may not require it obligatorily. Pivot is universally available and obligatory. Coda is universally available and optional. One of the central claim between Francez (2007) and McNally (2011), the only obligatory element of ECs is pivot i.e. post-copula nominal indicating the entity or the individual about existence or presence in a context. Other elements may be present or are required depending on language typology and specific language. Copula is necessary for copula-based construction like English, but it 123

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is not required in all languages. Coda is a locative phrase in ECs, but its presence is not requested in all contexts. Some languages also exhibit a locative expression by using expletive. The table 1 compares ECs elements by binary values according to whether it is universally available across languages and whether it is obligatory in English.

Table 1The Basic Elements of ECs Elements Universally Available English Obligatory Expletive - + Copula - + Pivot + + Coda + -/+

According to typology of English ECs, McNally (2015) claimed that constructions are based on copula verb. The denotative meaning of word „exist‟ can be replaced by copula verb „be‟ in this construction as shown in data (2a) and (2b). Normally, English ECs carry four of five characteristics from as illustrated in the set of data (2c). (2) a. Lions exist in Africa. b. Lions are in Africa. c. There[Expletive] are[Copula] lions[Pivot] in Africa.[Coda] (Ziv, 1982: 262)

Milsark (1974) first explored that English ECs have a restriction in position of post-copula nominal pivots called definiteness effect (DEs). Post-copula nominal pivots are not allowed strong determiners (i.e. definiteness determiners and universal determiners) which are considered as ill-forms or ungrammatical sentences as provided in the set of data (3). (3) *a. There is the dog in the room. *b. There is John’s dog in the room. *c. There is that dog in the room. *d. There is he / him in the room. *e. There is John in the room. *f. There is all / both / every / each dog in the room. (Milsark, 1974: 195)

According to data (3a-3f), English ECs are not followed post-copula nominal pivots representing definiteness namely pronoun and proper noun as shown in (3d-3e) and nominal pivots co-occurring with definite determiner „the‟ as shown in (3a), proper noun possession as shown in (3b), demonstrative pronoun as shown in (3c), and strong quantifiers as shown in (3f). However, it was found that current English ECs allow post-copula nominal pivots against DEs proposed by Milsark (1974) as empirically exemplified in data (4). (4) 12 a. There‟s always the option of a self induced coma. (Definite determiner) b. Fortunately there was my income to fall back on. (Possessive determiner) c. For the older listeners there‟s John Lenon, Dire Straits, Love and, wait for it, Barry Manilow does Fran Sinatra – nice! (Proper noun) d. Instead of a couple hundred other passengers, there was her two flight attendants, a pilot, copilot and enough food to feed Rhode Island. (Pronoun) e. There was this great maze of tunnels that you could walk through in the caverns. (Demonstrative determiner) Francez (2007: 96)

1 Francez (2007: 97-98) explained that data 3a-3d are contextualized EC citied from Abbott (1993) and data 3d is fake definite; not semantically equivalent. 124

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The empirical data (4a-4e) contrastively represents the language use as comparing to the set of data (3). I consequently assume that these English ECs could be language variation as McNally (2015: 27) clarified that ECs seem to be anti-definiteness effects in nominal pivot. Previously, there are a great deal of studies emphasizing on theoretical linguistics, language typology, and some preliminary analysis. The two preliminary studies of Silverstein (1976) and Gundel et al. (1993) claimed that pronouns are ranked more highly than proper nouns or other definiteness nouns. If a language allows pronouns as nominal pivots, definiteness nouns are allowed in ECs. On the contrary, Beaver et al. (2006) quantitatively investigated noun phrase distributions in ECs among English, Dutch, Hebrew, and Russia and revealed that nominal pivots are various from language to language in the aspects of definiteness effects, genres, and frequency in language use. As their suggestions, they inspire further empirical work grounded in a detailed analysis of language variation. Currently, there are no in-depth studies of English ECs variation. Therefore, it is a great opportunity to explore this language variation. By time limitation, this project term will basically investigate two variables i.e. internal and external variables. Internally, DEs include two main categories of determiners (i.e. weak and strong determiners). Externally, genres include written and spoken language. The two mentioned variables would explore language variation of English ECs. This leads to the following research questions.

Research Questions 1. Are current English ECs still faithful of DEs as proposed by Milsark (1974) or anti- definiteness effects clarified by McNally (2015)? 2. Between written and spoken, which genre frequently violates DEs? What causes language variation of English ECs?

Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are to reveal a new insight of language phenomena involving current English ECs and to investigate which variable causes language variation of English ECs.

Significances of the Study The results will be beneficial for linguists and EFL pedagogists to describe language phenomena which variously derive from prescriptive rules.

Theoretical Frameworks I adopted five structural properties of ECs proposed by Francez (2007) and McNally (2011) to be the criteria to selection the data for this research. DEs framework proposed by Milsark (1974) is adapted to analyze categories of determiners co-occurring in the positions of post-copula nominal pivots whether they are weak or strong determiners in English ECs.

Basic Concepts of Definiteness Effects Another property associated ECs are definiteness effects. DEs are divided into types of determiners (DPs). Milsark (1974) first proposed semantic distinctions between two kinds of DPs: weak determiners and strong determiners. The property of all strong determiners commonly share together is expression of quantification. A strong determiner is an operator over the set of entities that picks the members of that set for which the predication holds. Meanwhile, all weak determiners can be analyzed as expressions of cardinality. A weak determiner expresses the size of the set of entities denoted by the DP. Some DPs are unambiguously strong determiners i.e. typical definiteness nouns i.e. every, most, all, both, and each (henceforth universal determiners). Some are unambiguously weak determiners i.e. typical indefinite nouns. Some are ambiguous between the two i.e. bare plurals, several, many, some, and no. It is also categorized in weak determiners.

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Table 2 Weak and Strong Determiners adapted from Ladusaw (1994: 220) Weak = Unambiguously Cardinality Neutralization = Strong = Unambiguously Quantification Ambiguously Indefinite Determiners bare plurals, Universal Determiners - a, an several, every, most, all, both, and each - Cardinal e.g. one, two, three, … many, some, Definite Determiners any, - the no - Personal Pronoun e.g. I, you, we, they, another / other he, she, and it etc. - Demonstrative Pronoun e.g. my, your, our, his, her, and its - Proper Noun e.g. John, Nick, Marry, ...

Previous Studies In last two decades, corpus-based analysis has been exploited as a foundation tool for analyzing linguistic features. Since corpus is repertoires provided large amounts of data and language variations, corpus is convenient for researchers who willing to analyze linguistic phenomena and involving genres. (Biber, 2012) ECs are still attractive for linguists to study and explore different aspects. Corpus-based analysis is increasingly used as data-driven and linguistic analysis. There are current and contemporary relevant studies about ECs by corpus-based analysis. Schmidt (2011) explored that the crucial distinction between abstract and concrete nouns effect on the use of ECs and DEs. He later conducted experimental design by rating study and found that strong determiner „every‟ and definite determiner „the‟ are exception in English ECs. It serves his hypothesis that abstract noun co-occurring with post-copula nominal pivot is acceptable for native speakers while concrete noun are unacceptable as shown in the set of data (5).

(5) *a. There is every book under the bad. b. There is, like, every book under the bad. *c. There‟s the school bully on the bus. d. There‟s, like, the school bully on the bus. (Siegel 2002: 48)

Retrieved data from BNC, Hartman (2013) noticed that definite determiner the can be used in negative English ECs in case of a pivot containing modified a noun phrase as shown in (6a-6b), a 3 pivot with superlative as shown in (6c-6d), a pivot with amount relative2 embedded in a coda phrase as shown in (6e-6f), and a pivot in discourse-referential contexts as show in (6g).

(6) a. There wouldn‟t be the trucks they had promised. b. There wasn‟t the awful competitiveness that we had on stage. c. There has not been the fullest public consultation. d. There was not the slightest sign of a polite thank-you. e. There were not the multitude of motorcars about in those days. f. There aren‟t the professional barriers there that I think there were ten years ago. g. There is not the freedom here. (Hartman 2013: 20)

2 Jutta (2013: 20) defined amount relative as an additional phrase that deals with meaning of number or uniqueness interpretation of the determiner. 126

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It is not only English ECs that researchers have investigated DEs, but also Brazilian Portuguese. Bratkievich (2006) found that weak determiners co-occurring with nominal pivots (60.11%) are allowed for ECs while strong determiners (39.88%) resist DEs constraints. Brazilian Portuguese is one of languages that is considered as anti-definiteness effects. Universally, strong 4 determiners are ranked in higher position than weak determiners. However, definite determines 3 like tudo ("everything"), [Personal Pronouns], o ("the"), isto/isso ("this one"/"that one"), esse ("that"), and este ("this") are intervened by universal determines like a maioria ("most") and todos ("all"). Meanwhile, indefinite determiners and ambiguously determiners are alternately arranged in free variables as shown in figure 1.

tudo ("everything") > [Personal Pronouns] > a maioria ("most") > o ("the") > todos ("all") > isto/isso ("this one"/"that one") > esse ("that") > este ("this") > [Numerals] >

algum ("some") > muito ("much"/"many") > nenhum ("no") > um ("a") > pouco ("few") > algo/alguém ("something"/"somebody") > nada/ninguém ("nothing"/ "nobody")

Figure 1 The Hierarchy Selection of Brazilian Portuguese Ecs 5 Park (2014) revealed that concord structures 4 in ECs occur more frequently in written genre than spoken genre at 90.27%. Surprisingly, non-concord structures in ECs are quite equal proportion shown in spoken (53.21%) and written (49.10%). In her study, determiners are mostly neutralization between unambiguously cardinality and unambiguously quantification e.g. many, a lot of, a few, a number of, a range of, and a variety of. Determiner distribution is variously used by variables of genres (written and spoken) and structures (concord and non-concord). It also suggested that non- concord structures in ECs are deemed acceptable in speech. Similarly, Palacios (2015) later examined that contractions in non-concord ECs is not uncorrelated to subject-verb agreement. According to the proportion of agreement or concord in ECs, it found that plural subjects are conversely used with singular verbs 31% while there are no evidences showing the use of singular subjects with plural verbs. Additionally, social factors involve the use of concord and non-concord structures in ECs. It seems that males more favor non-concord (39%) than females (28%). Young generations prefer to non-concord (36.6%) as comparing to middle-aged (25.7%).

Data Collection Data are retrieved from Contemporary American English (COCA) which is one of databases that has high reliability and validity. It provides sufficient empirical data covering two variables for this analysis. Searching for data, instruction „there is/are‟ is covered all linguistic phenomena excluded other tenses and modals. All data must be considered as ECs by Francez (2007) and McNally (2011)‟s definition and structural properties. The data are collected by randomly sampling technique and facilitated by machine searching. This avoids from a researcher bias and data faking. For current English language use, the data must be specified within 2016-2019. The data are totally 2,000 English ECs which local in two genres: written and spoken. All English ECs are transformed into Excel program for analyzing categories and descriptive statistics. Data manipulation is shown as figure 2.

3 Bratkievich (2006) defined tudo ("everything") and and isto/isso ("this one"/"that one") as a personal pronoun in Brazilian Portuguese. 4 Concord structures are defined as English ECs which are faithful of DEs while non-concord structures violate DEs and ignore subject-verb agreement. 127

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there is Written Language (n=250) (n=1,000) there are Sets of Data (n=250) (n = 2,000) there is Spoken Language (n=250) (n=1,000) there are (n=250)

Figure 2 Data Manipulation

Research Analysis In this research, Excel is employed in process of data analysis. Drop-down function easily helps to categorize kinds of determiners co-occurring with post-copula nominal pivots. It is also provided available for basic descriptive statistics i.e. frequency, percentage, and diagram for preliminary analysis. Manipulated data in Excel, a researcher analyzes post-copula nominal pivots in English ECs by using DEs criteria from Milsark (1974). It mainly falls into two categories and four sub-categories. First, weak determiners include indefinite determiners (A1-A2) and neutralized determiners (B1-B4). Second, strong determiners include universal determiners (C1-C5) and definite determiners (C6-C9) as following criteria in table 3.

Table 3 Post-copula Nominal Pivot Categories Weak Determiners Strong Determiners Indefinite Neutralized Universal Definite Determiners Determiners Determiners Determiner (A1) a, an (B1) bare plurals (C1) every (C6) the (A2) Cardinal (B2) several, many (C2) most (C7) Demonstrative numbers (B3) some, any (C3) all pronouns (B4) no (C4) both (C8) Personal pronouns (C5) each (C9) Proper nouns

Then, two linguists specializing in syntax and semantic reanalyze and re-check for data validity. The ratio and frequency between the use of weak and strong determiners in overall English ECS will answers research question 1. The ratio and frequency between the use of weak and strong determiners in written and spoken language will answer research question 2. The comparisons among determiners and the relation between non-category determiners in written and spoken language will answer research question 3.

Results and Discussion According to ratio and frequency, English ECs partially violate DEs Milsark (1974) as show in figure 3. Strong determiners were used in English ECs 112 times (5.60%) while weak determiners were normally used in English ECs 1,770 times (88.50%). Additionally, English ECs use non- category determiners (i.e. no noun phrase, clause, double determiners, going to be, and two different determiners) 118 times (5.90%) which is a bit higher than strong determiners.

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Weak Determiner Strong Determiner Non-category 118, 5.90% 112, 5.60%

1770, 88.50%

Figure 3 Overall Ratio between Weak and Strong Determiners

The result can answer research question 1 that English ECs seem to refuse DEs as mentioned in Milsark (1974). English ECs trend use strong determiners and non-category with 11.5% as compared 39.88% of strong determiners used in Brazilian Portuguese ECs, anti-definiteness effects. This can basically predict that English trend to perform language variation in ECs as mentioned in McNally (2015). According to ratio and frequency, written language is more faithful of DEs than spoken language as shown in figure 4. Written language used weak determiner 907 times (90.70%) more than spoken language 863 times (86.30%). In contrast, spoken language allowed strong determiners 61 times (6.10%) more than written language 51 times (5.10%). Thus, both spoken and written allowed non-category determiners in ECs 76 times (8%) and 42 times (4.2%) respectively.

Spoken Language Written Language

Weak Determiner Strong Determiner Weak Determiner Strong Determiner

Non-category Non-catergory 42, 76, 8% 51, 4.20% 61, 5.10% 6.10%

863, 907, 90.70% 86.30% Figure 4 Ratio between Weak and Strong Determiners in Different Genres

The result can answer research question 2 that written language less frequently used strong determiners than written language. The result was similar to Park (2014) which revealed that strong determiners (i.e. concord structures) occurred equally proportion shown in spoken (53.21%) and written (49.10%). This means spoken language trend to be accepted from speakers through they violate grammar rules. Also, spoken language allowed non-category determiners as double of written language which showed language variation more than written language 8% and 4.2% respectively.

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Spoken Language Written Language

202 205 184 184 184

110 91 86 93 68 7872 71 49 32 29 18 2419 22 15 1 0 0 0 2 2 0 1 0 0 5 127 9 7

Figure 5 Comparisons among Determiners

According to comparisons among determiners, it showed that the internal variable like categories of determiners effecting on language use and language variation. General strong determiners (C6-C9) are allowed more than universal determiners (C1-C5) in English ECs as shown in figure 5. Spoken language allowed general strong determiners more than written language. There are only two exceptions i.e. determiner „the‟ and „all‟. The higher rate of determiner „the‟ was used in both written and spoken language because of exception of English ECs and general uses to emphasize on more specification and definiteness. (Hartman, 2013; Schmidt, 2011) Surprisingly, this research was not found that there are the uses of determiner most and each which made disagreement to predictions of Silverstein (1976) and Gundel et al. (1993). If a language allows pronouns as nominal pivots, all definiteness nouns are allowed in ECs.

According to figure 5, English ECs are arranged frequency of determiners. It was clear to see that general strong determiners were frequently permitted to perform in case of DEs violence. In contrast, Brazilian Portuguese ECs allowed tudo ("everything") more than general strong determiners like personal pronouns and later a maioria ("most"), and todos ("all"). (Bratkievich, 2006) This language is considered as non-systemic arrangement to compare with English ECs. 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Two different No NPs Clause Complex DPs going to be DPs Spoken language 33 23 15 11 10 Written language 11 11 13 6 2

Figure 6 Relations between Non-category Determiners in Spoken and Written Language 130

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It was not only the internal variable to indicate the cause of language variation, but also external variable like genres. The relations between non-category determiners in spoken and written language can be the main evidence that language variation as shown in figure 6. Spoken language had higher rate in using non-category determiners as compared to written language. The highest of sub- category was no noun phrase while the lowest of sub-category was two different determiners. The correlation between written and spoken language were the same direction. This means genres between spoken and written language cannot be a predictor of language variation in English ECs.

Conclusion Current English ECs trends to be more anti-definiteness effects through their majority still play the role of definiteness effects. Spoken language a bit more frequently violates DEs as compared to written language. Spoken language also performs more non-category determiners than spoken language. Groups of strong determiners included non-category determiners seem to be an indicator to judge as language variation for internal variables. Non-category determiners also make a prediction as genres (written and spoken) and external source of language variation. There are two limitations for this research. First, the data analysis is without discourse- referential contexts. For further study, it is suggested that researchers should analyze by using more discourse contexts as noticed by Hartman (2013). The contexts are very important because some of contexts such as speciation phrases can indicate whether ECs requires weak or strong determiners. Second, this research is a bit low to investigate social variables (i.e. external variable). For further study, it suggests that researchers should investigate the factory such as genders and ages effecting on the use of ECs as suggested by Beaver et al. (2006) and Palacios (2015).

References [1] Abbott, B. (1993). A pragmatic account of the definiteness effect in existential sentences. Journal of Pragmatics, 19: 39-55. [2] Barwise, J & Cooper, R. (1981). Generalized quantifiers and natural language. Linguistics & Philosophy, 4: 159-219. [3] Beaver, D. et al. 2006. Bad subject: (Non)-canonicality and NP distribution in existentials. In Proceedings of Semantics and Linguistic Theory, 15: 19–43, Ithaca, NY, CLC Publications. [4] Biber, D. (2012). Register as a predicator of linguistic variation. Corpus Linguistic and Linguistic Theory, 8(1): 9-37. [5] Bratkievich, A (2006). The existential/canonical alternation in Brazilian Portuguese: Result from a corpus study. B.A. thesis, University of Califonia Berkley. [6] Gundel, J. et al. (1993). Cognitive status and the form of referring expressions in discourse. Language, 69: 274–307. [7] Hartmann, J. (2013). Apparent exceptions to the Definiteness Effect in English. Bucharest Working Papers in Linguistics XV, 2: 5-25. [8] Keenan, E. (1987). A semantic definition of “indefinite NP”. In The Representation of (In)definiteness, Edited by Eric Reuland and Alice G.B. ter Meulen. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [9] Ladusaw, W. (1994). Thetic and categorical, stage and individual, weak and strong. In Proceedings of Semantics and Linguistic Theory, 4: 220-229. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University DMLL. [10] McNally, L. (2011). Existential sentences. In Semantics: An International Handbook of Natural Language Meaning, Maienborn C, von Heusinger K, Portner P eds., 2: 1829-1848. Berlin, de Gruyter [11] McNally, L. (2015). Existential Sentences Crosslinguistically: Variations in Form and Meaning, Annual Review of Linguistics, 2: 1-31. [12] Milsark, G. (1974). Existential Sentences in English. PhD thesis, MIT. Published 1979 by Garland Press, New York.

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[13] Musan, R. (1996). There-construction revisited. In Proceedings of Semantics and Linguistic Theory, 6: 167-184. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University DMLL. [14] Park, S. (2014). Non-concord in Existential-there Constructions: A corpus-based Study. SNU working Papers in English Linguistics and Language, 12: 111-137. [15] Schmidt, C. (2011). The Definiteness Effects in Existential Sentence of English: An Empirical Data Approach. Wissenschaftlich Arbeit, Tubingen University. [16] Siegel, M. (2002) Like: the Discourse Particle and Semantics. Journal of Semantics, 19(1): 35- 71. [17] Silverstein, M. (1976). Hierarchy of features and ergativity. In Grammatical Categories in Australian Languages, Dixon R. M. W ed., 112-171. Canberra, Australian National University. [18] Williams, E. (1994). Thematic Structure in Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [19] Ziv, Y. (1982). Another look at definite in existentials. Journal of Linguistics, 18: 73–88.

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An Analysis of L1 Interference in the Writing Composition of Cambodian EFL Learners Sophea Yin1, Natthapong Chanyoo2

MA Program in Applied Linguistics, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand

Abstract: Writing in L2 has always been challenging for second language learners. One of the rooted causes of the difficulties is the interference of their native language structures on their L2 production. However, no previous studies were systematically conducted to investigate causes of errors among Cambodian EFL learners when they composed texts. The current study was conducted in the purpose of investigating the types of transferred errors committed in essay writing among Cambodian learners at a tertiary level. Fifty pieces of essay writing composed by Cambodian learners studying at a university in Thailand were collected and analyzed. Lott‟s (1983) was used as framework of analysis. The content analysis of interview revealed that 24 % of committed errors were due to L1 interference. The findings showed that the most frequently produced errors was plural nouns, followed by comma, word choice, and literal translation, respectively. The results contribute to the reduction of errors by providing suggestions and ideas for the language instructors in the instruction of English writing.

Keywords: L1 interference, Writing compositions, Errors, Error analysis, Cambodian learners

Introduction

L1 interference in L2, also known as interlanguage or crosslinguistic influence, refers to the application of one‟s native language while producing the target language or L2 (Weinreich, 1953; Sharwood Smith, 1994; Hashim, 1999). It has been considered as a major obstacle for second language learners (Fries, 1945). With the interference of L1, students tend to unconsciously produce errors in their products of target language. Generally, errors in L2 productions are resulted from the difference of language structures between L1 and L2 (Odlin, 1989; Bella, 1999). Some common errors result from L1 on L2 language production that are misformations of L2 language structure, additions of unnecessary features of L2 language structures, omissions of the necessary features of L2 language structures, and misorderings of L2 structure due to L1 structure effects. Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982) mentioned that second language learners have tendency to commit such errors in their sentence.

These issues, however, can significantly affect their quality of all aspects of language products as well as the standardization of the production of the target language. In writing product, however, if errors are committed, the meanings or the purposes of the message might be misleading. The more influence of L1 into their writing, the more likely that they produce error, which lead to the lower score of their writing. Too many errors, however, could lead to miscommunication. Raimes & Sofer (2002) asserted that the errors caused by L1 interference could be problematic for the audience to get comprehension. Therefore, the errors influenced by the L1 interference can be regarded as a countermeasure hindering success for second language learners (Lado, 1957). Thus, the issue of L1 interference in writing composition is worthy to be considered in the field of language teaching and learning.

Literature Review

1. Learners’ Challenges in L2 Writing

Writing in L2 is considered as a difficult language skill to learn because the learners are required to write or produce any language product in the target language through 133

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writing. Non-native learners, especially Cambodian EFL learners at the tertiary level, always have problems with this subject. Even though, it is hard to master, writing is very important for tertiary level students for their academic success (Abbate-Vaughn, 2007; Alter & Adkins, 2006). In their academic institutions, they are required to be proficient in academic writing since they are most commonly required to write reports, assignments, research articles, dissertations, thesis, and other various tasks, in which they are expected to refrained errors.

Silva (1993) claimed that due to the difference between L1 and L2, students might face difficulty with inadequate language knowledge, which can lessen their L2 writing effectiveness. Weigle (2002) indicated that if the writers do not have sufficient linguistic knowledge of lexis and grammar in L2, they are surely incapable of writing that target language effectively and appropriately. It would be more difficult if the linguistic characteristics between both languages, L1 and L2, are far different, which can make the writers to more likely to rely on the structure of their mother tongue language. This inter- language effect, however, makes the learners more likely to commit unwanted errors. The findings indicated that graduate students face crucial difficulties in their academic writing and suggested for solutions. Meanwhile, there have been numerous studies pointed out that undergraduate students are struggling with their academic writing (Hashim, 1999; Bennui, 2008; Safraze (2011); Sanmuganathan, 2014; Vu, 2017; Sermsook, Liamnimitr & Pochakorn, 2017). It suggests that both levels of students respectively face difficulties in their writing composition.

2. Classification of L1 Errors

Various studies by previous researchers have classified errors into different categories. A prominent classification was done in Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982) study. They classified errors according to their difference features into four main categories: omissions, additions, misformations, and misorderings. This classification is promising because it can indicate the cognitive processes highlighting the reconstruction of L2 by the learners. Ellis (2008) asserted that this approach might provide pedagogical implication since it shows how the learners learn the L2 language. Taking this framework into account, Ellis (2008) introduced two taxonomies for classification of errors: linguistic and surface strategy. Linguistic strategy divides errors into types according to their distinct level of language (lexis, syntax, morphology or particular categories of grammar in the target language). Surface strategy, however, divide errors into four different types such as omission, addition, misformation, and misordering (Dulay, Burt & Krashen, 1982). 3. Previous studies on L1 error analysis

Different proportion of interference errors have been found and claimed by various researchers. Chau (1975) indicated that 51 percent errors due to L1 were among mixed level Chinese adult learners. Similarly, Lott (1983) found that approximately 50 percent of errors were distinguished to have resulted from L1 interference committed by Italian university students. Thus, the proportions of interlingual errrors produced by L2 learners have been found various by different researchers.

Vu (2017) did an empirical study to investigate the negative interference of L1 (Vietnamese) in L2 writing (English) among Vietnamese EFL learners at tertiary levels. The results showed that various errors such as word forms, prepositions, articles, possessive cases and pronouns were found in essay writing as a result of L1 negative effects. Lee (2001) analyzed committed errors among 25 Korean intermediate and advanced level students. The results revealed that approximately 26 percent of detected errors were affected by L1. It also found that wrong word choice was most frequently committed and followed by prepositions, articles. In a recent research, Nuraini (2019) 134

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identified grammatical errors in writing produced by Indonesian students. The identified errors were classified into four categories based on Dulay, Burt, and Krashen‟s (1982) taxonomy. The findings showed that the most frequently committed were errors in misformations (54.49%), which is followed by errors in omissions (31.11%), misorderings (12.78%), and additions (11.11%). Bennui (2008) analyzed the characteristics of L1 interference in L2 paragraph writing among 28 English major students at a university in Thailand. It was found that some structures (word order, subject-agreement, and determiners) were affected by L1 and direct translation of Thai language into L2 writing were major problems.

In the Cambodian context, Bhela (1999) did an exploratory case study of negative transference of L1 on L2 acquisition among four different L1 speaking participants such as a Vietnamese, a Cambodian, a Spanish, and an Italian speaker. The results revealed that L1 transference took place in structure use of their writings. Keuk (2008) analyzed the errors committed by his students in their conversation, interview, and some written materials. He found that most committed errors were resulted from mother tongue interference and misapplication of the rules due to inadequacy in training or exposure in English. Interference errors such as phonology (dropping “s” sound), borrowed words, word choice, dropping of articles, tenses, active/passive voice, subordinate conjunctions, fragment) were remarkably found challenging for Cambodian EFL learners. The data for analysis is, however, mainly focused on subjects‟ spoken products. Bounchan & Moore (2010) provided an overview of some language features in English that are commonly found challenging for Cambodian learners instead of providing empirical findings.

Objectives of the study

In order to achieve the purposes, the current study will find the answers through addressed research questions as follows:

1. What are types of errors, as resulted from L1 interference, committed by Cambodian students in their essay writing compositions? 2. Which is the most predominant interference error committed by Cambodian students in their essay writing compositions? 3. How well do the learners understand the transfer in their writing, and how might they avoid them?

Methodology

1. Participants

Fifty Cambodian university students were recruited in this study based on their national identity, and willingness to participate. They are both graduate and undergraduate students studying at a university in Thailand.

2. Sample text

Data collected for error analysis in this study were 50 pieces of essay writing composed by Cambodian students studying at a university in Thailand. Each student was assigned to write an essay on the same topic “Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? Woman should get same payment if taking the same task as man. Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.” under the restriction of time allowance (40 minutes) and limitation of words (300-350 words).

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3. Analytical scheme

This study adapted Gass, Behney & Plonsky‟s (2013) procedures of error analysis, in which there are five stages in error analysis: 1). the collection of sample of learners‟ language; 2). identification of errors in the written products; 3). the classification of errors; 4). the quantification of errors; and 5). the analysis of the sources. The researcher followed Lott‟s (1983) framework for the identification of transfer errors, in which there are three criteria: (1) overextension of analogy, (2) transfer of structure, and (3) interlingual/intralingual errors. However, in order to get the claim and sources of transfer errors, the researcher conducted an interview with the participants to clarify the committed errors in their writing composition. Only the clarified errors were counted. All the identified errors were categorized into categories based on Dulay, Burt, and Krashen‟s (1982) taxonomy of error classification, in which there are four categories such as omissions, additions, misformations, and misorderings.

Findings

1. Types and frequency of L1 interference errors committed in English writing

Figure 1: Proportion of L1 interference errors in students’ written essays

The analysis of data and the interview sessions revealed that 487 errors (24.36%) of the total errors were confirmed to have caused due to the effect of their L1 features. Some errors that were not confirmed by the students were removed from the count.

Table 1 Categories and frequency of L1 interference errors in students’ writing

Categories Frequency Percentage (%) Omissions 210 43.12% Additions 30 6.16% Misorderings 6 1.23% Misformations 174 35.73% Others (word choice) 67 13.76% Total 487 100%

The results of the data analysis show that errors in the category of Omissions were found to be the most frequency committed errors (N=210; 43.12%), followed by Misformaiton (N=174; 35.73%), Others (N=67; 13.76%), Additions (N=30; 6.16%), and Misorderings (N=6; 1.23%).

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1.1 Omissions: this error refers to the absence or omission of a linguistic item that it must present in a well-formed structure.

Table 2 Summary of L1 error types occurred in the category of Omissions

Before interview After interview Error types Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Plural nouns 268 53.17% 91 43.33% Comma 113 22.42% 69 32.86% Articles 101 20.04% 35 16.67% Verb to be 13 2.58% 7 3.33% Prepositions 9 1.79% 8 3.81%

The most frequently committed errors in category are plural nouns (N=268; 53.17%) followed by comma (N=113; 22.42%), articles (N=101; 20.04%), verb to be (N=13; 2.58%), and prepositions (N=9; 1.79%). However, some errors were removed from counting following the responses of the students. The most frequently committed errors in category are plural nous (N=91; 43.33%) followed by comma (N=69; 32.86%), articles (N=35; 16.67%), prepositions (N=8; 3.81%), and verb to be (N=7; 3.33%).

1.2 Misformations: this error refers to the application of the wrong form of structure or morpheme.

Table 3 Summary of L1 error types occurred in the category of Misformations

Before interview After interview Error types Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Plural nouns 139 34.49% 0 0.00% Literal translation 58 14.39% 57 32.76% Subject-verb agreement 55 13.65% 15 8.62% Fragment 24 5.96% 24 13.79% Comparison 23 5.71% 18 10.34% Voice 19 4.71% 3 1.72% Prepositions 19 4.71% 15 8.62% Capitalization 17 4.22% 0 0.00% Collocation 14 3.47% 14 8.05% Run-on sentence 12 2.98% 12 6.90% Relative pronouns 10 2.48% 6 3.45% Tenses 9 2.28% 6 3.45% Spelling 4 0.99% 4 2.30%

According to Table 3, it was found that the misformation of plural nouns (N=139; 34.49%) were found to be the most frequently committed errors in the writing compositions of Cambodian students, and they are followed by literal translations (N=58; 14.39%), subject-verb agreements (N=55; 13.65%), fragment (N=24; 5.96%), comparisons (N=23; 5.71), voice (N=19; 4.71%), prepositions (N=19; 4.71%), capitalization (N=17; 4.22%), collocations (N=14; 3.47%), run- on sentences (N=12; 2.98%), relative pronouns (N=10; 2.48%), tenses (N=9; 2.28%), and spelling (N=4; 0.99%). However, after the verification from students during the interview, some errors were removed from the count. It was found that literal translations (N=57; 32.76%) were found to be the 137

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most frequently committed errors, followed by fragment (N=24; 13.79%), comparisons (N=18; 10.34%), subject-verb agreements and prepositions (N=15; 8.62%), collocations (N=14; 8.05%), run- on sentences (N=12; 6.90%), relative pronouns and tense (N=6; 3.45%) relatively, spelling (N=4; 2.30%), and voice (N=3; 1.72%).

1.3 Additions: this error refers to the appearance of a linguistic item that it must not present in a well- formed structure.

Table 4 Summary of L1 error types occurred in the category of Additions

Before interview After interview Error types Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Unnecessary word 17 53.13% 15 50.00% Unnecessary phrase 9 28.13% 9 30.00% Prepositions 6 18.75% 6 20.00%

The results before the interview indicated that additions of unnecessary word (N=17; 53.13%) were found to be the most frequently committed errors in the writing compositions of Cambodian students, followed by additions of unnecessary phrases (N=9; 28.13%), and additions of prepositions (N=6; 18.75%). The results after the interview showed that additions of unnecessary word (N=15; 50%) were still found to be the most frequently committed errors in the writing compositions of Cambodian students, followed by additions of unnecessary phrases (N=9; 30%), and additions of prepositions (N=6; 20%).

1.4 Misorderings: refers to incorrect placement of linguistic item in the structure. Table 4.5 presents the type and frequency of errors happened in this category.

Table 5 Summary of L1 error types occurred in the category of Omissions

Before interview After interview Error types Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage L1 structure 6 100% 6 100%

Some students committed this type of error due to the influence their native language structure in their English writing. It accounts for 6 frequency (100%).

1.5 Other category:

Other than the errors that are categorized in Dulay, Burt, & Krashen‟s (1982) classification of errors, the analysis of students‟ written works found that committed errors in word choice (N=67; 100%). The frequency and proportion of this type of errors is illustrated in Table 6.

Table 6 Summary of L1 error types occurred in the category of others

Before interview After interview Error types Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Wrong word choice 126 100% 67 100%

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Some students committed this type of error due to the misapplication of their native language reference in their English writing. It accounts for 67 frequencies (100%).

2. Students’ awareness of L1 interference errors

The result revealed that all the students were able to identify some errors in their own writing. However, they were able to self-edit were related to spelling, subject-verb agreement, capitalization and comma, most of which were the errors that were not identified as L1 influenced errors. However, most learners were unable to self-identify their own L1 errors. Most students admitted that they normally think in their own language first in order to write in English. Doing so, it will facilitate them in thinking of ideas to write. However, the application of this method can make the students prone of transference of their native language structure into their English writing. Some responses are extracted below:

“Yes, I am…It‟s most of the time. I think I frequently, around 80%, I think in Khmer to write in English. It is because it can help me to find idea and err others like words to write. But er..If I do not do so, I think it‟s hard to find idea to write.” (SG9)

“Yes, I know and I mm… I agree that it is not a good, but I… it‟s that..I still have to think what to write in my language first, to be fast and mm… so that I am able to write it in English.” (SU6)

“Most of the time. I think in Khmer first so that I think mm..I am.. I can write. Yeah it‟s better. I normally do that when I do not have any idea to write.” (SG11)

When asked how their writing would be improved, most students (N=27; 23%) responded that improving grammatical skills is the most important way to improve their English writing, followed by improving lexical resource (N=21;18%), practicing and improving structure (N=20;17%) relatively, getting more instruction (N=17;15%), and reading (N=12;10%). Some responses are extracted as below:

“I think mm… for that grammar is the most important thing and mm.. we need to focus on in order to improve our writing in English. For example, like if we are so poor in grammar, we can‟t..mm that‟s why we created errors here.” (SG1)

“For that..I think..it is vocabulary, I think so. It is really hard… for me mm..when I cannot think of any word that I want to use when writing. And that‟s…So, I‟m not sure but I.. I think we should learn more vocabulary to say and write.” (SG9)

“I think that…I am not sure but it should be…I don‟t know mm.. sentence structures in English, It can…because it helps us to write better and also make our writing I think can be looked well. Because that I think.. I think students should learn more structures in English, so that they can write a lot..and well.. and can get more scores.”(SG11)

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Reading 10% Improve More grammar instruction 23% 15% Practice writing Improve lexical 17% resources 18% Improve structure 17%

Figure 2: Students’ responses on the way to improve writing

Discussions

The result of data analysis showed that L1 interference errors accounted for 24% of overall errors, which were identified in English writing compositions of Cambodian students. This proportion is aligned with Krashen‟s (1982) and James‟s (1998) claim, in which they claimed that up to 30% of committed errors could have resulted due to the influence of L1 among adult students. It can be inferred that there is a considerable proportion of effect of their native language linguistic features in their English writing, and L1 play an important role in their process of writing. Khmer language structure greatly influence on Cambodian learners‟ product in L2 due to dissimilarities between both languages (Bhela, 1999; Keuk, 2008). The great influence of their L1 can be resulted from lack of instructions or inadequate exposure to L2 environment (Ellis, 2008; Keuk, 2008). The students had received linguistic output of their native language from their L1 environment. It forms a learning habit, which can have the influence on L2 learning process as their current habit is dominantly associated with learning process of L1. The errors committed in L2, therefore, are significantly resulted from L1 habit interfering into acquisition of L2.

The analysis of students‟ written essays a long with their responses during the interview revealed a number of types of errors that were caused as the result of the influence of their first language structures. Plural noun was found to be the most committed errors in their writing, followed by comma, word choice, literal translation, articles, fragment, comparisons, addition of unnecessary words, subject-verb agreement, collocation, run-on sentence, addition of unnecessary phrases, missing of verb to be, relative pronouns, tense, L1 structure, spelling, and passive voice. Most frequently, they normally forget to add “s”, “es”, “ies” to regular nouns in order to form the plural forms of those nouns or change the form of irregular nouns when they are used in plural in English (Hem, 2017). Unlike in English, there is no irregular form or change in the form of nouns while being used as plural. Words which act as an indicator of quantity such as one, two, several, a little, some, a few are added after the nouns in order to show plural form (Bounchan & Moore, 2010). The second most frequently committed error was comma. Most students did not use comma where they are required in the sentence writing, especially after a transitional word and a subordinate clause. The absence of comma in their sentences might be influenced by the absence of comma in their native language writing system, too (Zheng & Park, 2013). In their L1 interference guide, Bounchan & Moore (2010) said that in Khmer writing system a space is used in place of comma in order to indicate a separated idea or connection of clause or phrase in the sentence. Furthermore, students opted to use incorrect words. For example, in Khmer, the word “បបបបបបបបបបប” can be used to refer to 140

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money that repaid from working such as salary, fee, wage and etc. Cambodian learners do not find these words different. Similarly,the word “woman” and “female” are not found to be different by Cambodian leaners. The misuse of these lexical items can be due to the overgeneralization of meaning and usage the word (Keuk, 2008). Students made a direct word-by-word translation from their native language into their L2 writing, which lead to unclear message. For example, the student wrote, “The employers should provide salary and benefit to woman staff as man staff”. The word “បបប” in Khmer language means “as” is used as an equal comparative word to compare two things. Unlike in English, this comparative word is used directly closed to the nouns that being compared. As in the example, Khmer people would say “បបបបបបបបបបបបបប ដដដបបបបបបបបបបបប” (female stuff as male staff), which the correct form is “female staff as equal to male staff”. Sermsook, Liamnimitr & Pochkorn (2017) found that Thai students also struggle with their L1 effect, which make them to produce this error. Students think in their native language first to write in English as their strategy. . In the current study, students dropped articles (a, an, the) where necessary in their writing due to the effect of their L1 linguistic features. Keuk (2008) found in Cambodian students‟ reflection papers that one of common errors also involved dropping of articles. The finding is consistent with Bataineh‟s (2005) study, in which he found that errors of articles were caused minimally by the influence of student‟s native language among Jordanian learners.

The findings of current study revealed some frequent errors, which are the challenges faced by Cambodian learners in their L2 writing compositions due to the influence of L1 structures into writing process. Errors can indicate how the learners acquire the language (Corder, 1967; Dulay, Burt & Krashen, 1982; James, 1998; Ellis, 2002). Corder (1981) stated that errors that are committed by learners are regarded as a major source of information in providing feedback for the learning process. Learners‟ errors should be used by language instructors in order to enhance students‟ language products (Littlewood, 1994). Bennui (2008) suggested that teachers should make of students „errors as the basis for preparing the lesson and materials. To respond to this problem of L1 interference in writing, language instructors should integrate their writing class with other language skills such as reading or storytelling, which involves using various plural forms of nouns, vocabulary, sentence structures, tenses, articles, subject-verb agreement, etc.). English writing teacher should also try to raise awareness of L1 interference by explaining the differences between English and Khmer language patterns, and help them to form a new thinking habit in order to avoid negative interference of L1 in their English writing by switching to think and writing in English, instead. To achieve this, traditional method, in which Khmer language is used for translation back and forth, should be replaced. It is vital that language instructors help their students to develop a sense of writing process, raise awareness of L1 interference in order to overcome the negative transference of mother tongue in English writing. As in the interview, most students raised that strengthening their grammatical skill is the most important factor that can help them to improve their English writing, they should provide their students more correction on grammatical errors and give feedback based on the identified errors in their written works. Ferris & Roberts (2001) indicated that students could improve their accuracy over time when they receive feedback from teachers. Therefore, the investigation of errors commonly committed by students should be a contributing step to move toward the improvement of writing quality among Cambodian EFL learners. The examination of errors and their sources can lead to the reduction of errors and writing quality improvement (Bennui, 2008; Watcharapunyawong & Usaha, 2013).

Conclusions

Despite they are studying at the tertiary level of education along with many years of experiences in learning English, the learners still produce unwanted errors, which are due to interference of their native language features. These errors, somehow, provide unsatisfactory effect on 141

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their English academic writing products. To discover their problems, this study was trying to investigate the frequent types of errors that resulted from their own language effect. The findings suggested that common errors in their writing compositions are plural nouns, comma, word choice, literal translation, articles, fragment, comparisons, addition of unnecessary words, subject-verb agreement, collocation, run-on sentence, addition of unnecessary phrases, missing of verb to be, relative pronouns, tense, L1 structure, spelling, and passive voice. It implies that learners at tertiary level still are effected from their mother language influencing on their writing. Findings from the current study suggest instructors to pay more attention on this kind of effect, and they should prepare effective teaching materials and strategies to help the students to reduce errors. It is recommended that the future studies paying attention on exploring the effective ways to reduce errors in writing or to avoid L1 interference in writing compositions.

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[21] Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [22] Safraze, S. (2011). Error Analysis of the Written English Essays of Pakistani Undergraduate Students: A Case Study. Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences, 1(3), 29-51. [23] Sanmuganathan, K. (2014). Impact of L1 on ESL (English as a Second Language) Writings of the Undergraduates of University of Jaffna. Proceedings of Jaffna University International Research Conference, 171-181. [24] Sermsook, K., Liamnimitr, J. & Pochakorn, R. (2017). An Analysis of Errors in Written English Sentences: A Case Study of Thai EFL Students. English Language Teaching, 10(3), 100-110. [25] Sharwood Smith, M. (1994). Second Language Learning. Theoretical Foundations. London. Longman. [26] Silva, T. (1993). Toward an understanding of the distinct nature of L2 writing: The ESL research and its implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 657-677. [27] Tran-Chi-Chau (1975) 'Error analysis, contrastive analysis and students' perception: a study of difficulty in second language learning. International Review of Applied Linguistics XIII: 119- 143 [28] Vu, D. (2017). An Empirical Study on Negative Transfer in Vietnamese Tertiary EFL Learners‟ English Writing. The Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes, 4(5), 661-668. [29] Watcharapunyawong, S., & Usahal, S. (2013). Thai EFL Students‟ Writing Errors in Different Text Types: The Interference of the First Language. English Language Teaching, 6(1), 67-78. [30] Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [31] Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in Contact. The Hague: Mouton [32] Zheng, C., & Park, T. J. (2013), An Analysis of Errors in English Writing Made by Chinese and Korean University Students. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(8), pp 1342–1351.

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4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

4th August 2020 Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakorn Pathom

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