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Paper Tiger? a Study of the Effectiveness of the United Nations Security Council

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Paper Tiger? a Study of the Effectiveness of the United Nations Security Council Paper Tiger? A Study of the Effectiveness of the United Nations Security Council Peter John Nadin A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Humanities and Communication Arts, the University of Western Sydney April 2013 Abstract The Chinese idiom ‘paper tiger’ refers to something that is outwardly powerful, yet in reality ineffective. Many observers view the United Nations Security Council as the quintessential paper tiger – possessing limitless power – yet limited in the exercise of its power. Despite the application of these labels, no study has sought to establish a measure by which the Council’s effectiveness might be evaluated. This study seeks to bridge this gap in the current literature. The aim of this study is two-fold. Firstly, to build a measure by which the United Nations Security Council’s effectiveness can be evaluated. Secondly, to build a model, which can be used to explain the effectiveness/or ineffectiveness of the Council, in any given context. A range of empirical phenomena will be used to test these measures and theories. The empirical phenomena incorporated into this study, include the detailed cases of El Salvador and Sierra Leone, as well as the case study sketches of Iraq-Kuwait, Haiti, Mozambique, Somalia, Rwanda, Croatia, Timor-Leste, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Darfur and DPRK (North Korea). The findings of this study indicate that the Council’s effectiveness is bound to the six elements of Council agency introduced in this study – those being legitimacy, Permanent Five (P-5) alignment, political will, resources, leadership and the Council-based solution (articulated through its resolutions). The findings derived from this research would be helpful in policy-making aimed at improving the effectiveness of the Council, as custodian of international peace and security. 2 Statement of Authenticity The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. Peter Nadin 3 Acknowledgements This PhD thesis has been most difficult undertaking of my life. It has been immensely challenging – both intellectually and emotionally. Throughout this task I have often grappled with a self-doubt - related to the fulfilment of the lofty expectations of quality higher degree research. In order to overcome the various challenges of the PhD journey, I have lent on the enormous support of my supervisors - Drew Cottle, Emilian Kavalski and David Walton. They have engaged with my work, corrected countless drafts and cared for me throughout – their guidance has been invaluable. They are each formative figures in my life and I greatly appreciate their tutorage. I would like to thank the University of Western Sydney and the School of Humanities and Communication Arts for granting me the opportunity to undertake this research. They allowed me to choose my topic, in an area of research outside the traditional domain of the University. I thank them for affording me this flexibility. I would also like to take the opportunity to thank Wayne Peake for his vital support as the School Administrative Officer. I must also extend a word of thanks to the people I have met along this journey. To those interviewees who gave so generously of their time and provided such useful insight, I say thank you. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their love and unyielding encouragement. I would especially like to thank my mother and father for impressing upon me the importance of education. I hope I use this gift of education to make a difference in the world, for the betterment of the oppressed and forgotten. 4 Table of Contents Introduction 10 Part I: Developing a Historical and Conceptual Framework for the Effectiveness of the UN Security Council The History and Roles of the UN Security 23 Council ‘Making a Difference’: Establishing a 50 Measure of Effectiveness The Agency of the UN Security Council 78 Part II: Examining the Effectiveness of the UN Security Council A Case Study in Effectiveness: Efforts 103 Toward Peace - Central America (El Salvador) A ‘Reversal of Fortune’: The Situation in 126 Sierra Leone Ten Cases in UN Security Council 155 Effectiveness Part III: Challenges, Opportunities and Reform Challenges to Effectiveness and Reform 190 Conclusions 221 References 226 Appendices 237 5 List of United Nations Acronyms and Abbreviations UN United Nations Asia and Middle East UNIFIL United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon UNTAET United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor UNAMET United Nations Assistance Mission in East Timor UNIKOM United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observer Mission Latin America and Europe UNFICYP United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus ONUSAL United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador 1 UNMIH United Nations Mission in Haiti UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force UNCRO United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation (Croatia) UNTAES United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium Africa I and II ONUMOZ United Nations Operation in Mozambique UNOSOM I/II/II United Nations Operation in Somalia (I/II/III) UNITAF United Task Force (Somalia) UNAMIR United Nations Assistance Mission in Rwanda MONUC United Nations Organisation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 2 MONUSCO United Nations Organisation Stabilisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo 3 1 Observadores de las Naciones Unidas en El Salvador – in Spanish 2 Mission de l'Organisation de Nations Unies en République Démocratique du Congo – in French 6 UNAMSIL United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone UNOMSIL United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra Leone UNIOSIL United Nations Integrated Office in Sierra Leone UNIPSIL United Nations Integrated Peacebuilding Mission in Sierra Leone AMIS African Union Mission in Sudan UNMIS United Nations Mission in Sudan UNAMID United Nations African Union Hybrid Mission in Darfur MINURCAT United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad 4 UNISFA United Nations Interim Security for in Abyei UN Departments and Regional Offices UNHCR Office of United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNDP United Nations Development Programme DPA Department of Political Affairs DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations DFS Department of Field Support UNOWA United Nations Office for West Africa UNOCA United Nations Office for Central Africa UNRCCA United Nations Regional Centre for Preventive Diplomacy for Central Asia SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-General * The United Nations Security Council will be referred to as the ‘Council.’ This study will not use the acronym UNSC. 3 Mission de l'Organisation des Nations unies pour la stabilisation en République démocratique du Congo – in French 4 Mission des Nations Unies en République centrafricaine et au Tchad – in French 7 List of Other Acronyms and Abbreviations AFRC Armed Forces Revolutionary Council CAR Central African Republic CBRN Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear Weapons CNDP National Congress for the Defence of the People 5 DDR Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration DDRRR Disarmament, Demobilization, Repatriation, Reintegration and Resettlement DLF Darfur Liberation Front DMZ Demilitarised Zone DPA Darfur Peace Agreement DPRK The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea DRC The Democratic Republic of the Congo ECOMOG Economic Community of West Africa States Monitoring Group ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EU European Union EUFOR Artemis European Union Force Artemis (for the Ituri region of the DRC) EUFOR RDCongo European Union Force in the Democratic Republic of the Congo EUFOR TChad/RCA European Union Force in Chad and the Central African Republic FARDC Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo 6 FMLN Frente Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front 7 GoS Government of Sudan GoSL Government of Sierra Leone GRULAC Group of Latin America and Caribbean Countries ICBM Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile 5 Congrès national pour la défense du peuple – in French 6 Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo – in French 7 Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional – in Spanish 8 IFOR Implementation Force (Bosnia) INTERFET International Force for East Timor ISAF International Security Assistance Force (Afghanistan) JEM Justice and Equality Movement MNF Multi-national Force NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation RSK Republic of Serbian Krajina RtoP Responsibility to Protect RUF Revolutionary United Front SLM/A Sudan Liberation Movement/Army SNM Somali National Movement SSDF Somali Salvation Democratic Front SSR Security Sector Reform UK United Kingdom US United States USC United Somali Congress USSR United Socialist Soviet Republic WEOG Western Europe and Other Group Chapter 1 Introduction The anchor of faith, the growing wheat of hope, and the heart of charity adorn the walls of the United Nations Security Council Chamber in New York City. In the centre of the chamber hangs a mural, which depicts a phoenix rising from the ashes of the Second World War. Surrounding the image of the phoenix are scenes of hope for a new world devoid of conflict and human suffering. It is clear that both Arnstein Arneberg and Per Krohg sought to encapsulate, through the interiors, the expectations held for the Council. 1 Lofty expectations are, however, seldom met. For the Council
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