The State of Environmental Migration 2011 THE MODEL OF ALMERIA: TEMPORARY MIGRATION PROGRAMS AS A SOLUTION FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY-INDUCED MIGRATION? SARA VIGIL* INTRODUCTION we will analyse the negative and positive conse- quences of the implementation of intensive agri- Within the European Union, Spain is the country culture on both migration and the environment in most affected by desertification and by migra- this region in order to evaluate the pertinence of tion. Within Spain, Almeria is the only province the model of Almeria as a model of adaptation to with a desert in Europe. The transition from a climate change in dry regions. On the other hand, traditional rural agricultural system to a techno- migration caused by desertification is very often logical agricultural system has permitted this poor thought of as labour migration and mono-causal region who expulsed its population to turn into a relationships are extremely difficult to establish. developed region that receives population (Garcia Nevertheless, we will see through this case study Lorca, 2006). Known as the “vegetable patch of that the degradation of lands has contributed di- Europe”, the territory of Almeria has been trans- rectly to migration through its impact on poverty. formed into thousands of hectares of plastic green- houses, becoming a land of great agricultural expansion and large-scale immigration (Camacho 1. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXT Ferre, 2002). From the 1970s onward, the agriculture of 1.1. Geographic and Almeria has known a radical revolution constitut- climatic contexts ing one of the most interesting recent economic phenomenons of Spain. The semi-arid province Situated in the south east of the Iberian Peninsula, of Almeria has been transformed into the wid- Almeria, province of the autonomous community est greenhouse area in the world, with an area of of Andalusia, is one of the most arid regions in the 26,000 ha in 2007 (Campra, Garcia, Canton, Pala- cios, 2008). With this conversion, Almeria has be- Map 1. Almeria’s geographical location come one of the world’s areas that has experienced the most dramatic environmental changes in the last decades (UNEP, 2005). The incredible socio- economic change provided by this agro economic transformation has been of such extent that it is often referred to as “miraculous” (Sánchez, Aznar, Garcia, 2011). The introduction of greenhouse agriculture came hand in hand with important flows of immi- gration since this type of agriculture is extremely dependent on manpower. The “model of Almeria” could be an exemplary model for adaptation to climate change in dry regions. In this chapter, *. The author wishes to acknowledge the advice, help and data facilitated by the Subdelegate of the Government in Almeria, Professor Andrés Miguel Garcia Lorca. Source: Universidad de Almeria IDDRI STUDY 06/2012 107 The State of Environmental Migration 2011 Mediterranean basin, with a sub desert environ- the five-year drought became one of the main ca- ment. Aridity, linked to high insolation, is the most tastrophes in Spain and affected 6 million people characteristic climatic factor of the territory and (Terra Actualidad, 2007). The current drought of has brought limitations, but also opportunities, 2012, accompanied by frosts, is being described as for the economic growth of the region (Sánchez the worst drought in 50 years (COAG, 2012). Picón, 2005). As we will see, the model of intensive agricul- Climatically, the area suffers from a very se- ture in Almeria has been an important model for vere pluviometric deficit with periods of extreme economic development in an area suffering from drought. In most of the region precipitations are such climate change and desertification problems. lower than 350mm per year and many areas have less than 250mm per year. Precipitation is scarce 1.3. Desertification in the and irregular, coming, when it does, in torrential history of the region downpours (Sanchez, Aznar, Garcia, 2011)1. The average temperature is mild with variations from The formation of the semi-deserted landscape 17°C to 21°C and winds are reasonably constant took place mainly during the 19th century as result throughout the year. Solar radiation is very high of the mining activities that were accompanied by with approximately 3,200 sun hours per year (Gar- large wood consumption, agricultural expansion, cia Lorca, 2010). and demographic growth. The mining activities linked to population growth led to an exhaustion 1.2. Perspectives of climate of natural resources in Almeria causing deserti- change and desertification fication (Fermin, 2009). Between 1822 and 1857 the growth of the population in Almeria acceler- An important amount of the surface of Almeria ated in an unprecedented manner. This major is at risk of desertification. Projections that have anthropogenic pressure over a fragile environ- been made on climate change in the Mediter- ment, like the one that characterizes this region, ranean region suggest that climate change will was the main cause of the desertification process aggravate the existing problems of salinization (Sánchez Picón, 1996). The expansion of irri- and erosion. Desertification is still perceived in the gated agricultural land, in order to nourish the developed world as a far away problem but we will incoming workers, caused the depletion of surface see in this case study that it has been an integral water. From 1880 onwards, the fall in the prices constituting factor in the history of a region of a of mineral and traditional agricultural products European country, Spain. and the crisis this generated, forced populations to According to climate change indicators, average migrate (Sánchez Picón, 1996). temperatures in Andalusia have incremented in We can see that in the history of the region, land 1,2°C since 1915 and rainfall has decreased in 18% degradation was not only caused by climatic condi- since the 1960s (Informe sobre el cambio climático tions but in a very important way, by human activi- en España, 2007). Furthermore, extreme weather ties. In the Mediterranean region, climatic drying events will become more frequent with drought took place at the same time as agricultural devel- as the most distressing phenomenon. These stud- opment and rapid population growth. Desertifica- ies conclude that drought crises in the region could tion has been acting as a push factor for centuries become structural and permanent problems if the in this region. In the past, agricultural produc- projections of the climate change models are met tion was scarce and difficult in this underdevel- (Informe sobre el cambio climático en España, 2007). oped land and poverty situations were tradition- The last estimations of the Delegation of Envi- ally combated through emigration (Garcia Lorca, ronment in Spain indicate that inherited deserti- 2010). The region of Almeria has shown numerous fication covers more than 17% of the regional area examples of important changes in the rhythm of and that most of the areas suffering from deser- human occupation and the intensity of the exploi- tification are concentrated in Almeria (Montero, tation of natural resources depending on the dif- 2007). These estimations also indicate that “man- ferent economic models of each period (Sánchez made” desertification is already affecting 28% of Picón, Aznar Sanchez, Garcia Latorre, 2011). the territory (Montero, 2007). Water shortage and drought have always been a recurring prob- lem in the region. This problem is now intensified as a result of global climate change. In the 1990s 1. The translations in this chapter (french-english, spanish- english) were done by the author. 108 STUDY 06/2011 IDDRI The State of Environmental Migration 2011 2. A CHRONOLOGY OF in Almeria until the beginning of the 20th century, MIGRATION IN THE REGION also mentions the fact that meteorological catas- trophes like floods and droughts had an impor- 2.1. Historical land of migration tant impact on production acting as an important push factor for migration (Cruz Moya, 2005). Migration implies complex models of multi vari- According to Garcia Latorre and Aznar Sanchez, ability and economic development. Institutional exceeding disturbances in a short period led not and political factors have had a very important role only to extreme environmental changes, but also in migratory patterns but environmental factors to the economic and demographic stagnation of have also played a significant role. Almeria until the 1960s. “By 1910, Almeria had be- Almeria was one of the case studies chosen by come largely desert and one of the poorest prov- the EACH-FOR Project (Environmental Change inces in Spain. People began emigrating” (Garcia, and Forced Migration Scenarios) which was the Sanchez, 2001). first large-scale empirical research project on en- Nevertheless, it would be too simplistic to re- vironmentally induced migration, financed by the late the high emigration of the late 19th Century European Commission from 2007 to 2009. Spain and most of the 20th Century only to environmen- was selected as a case study because it is severe- tal factors that restricted agricultural production ly affected by two environmental issues that are (Fermin, 2009). This is because institutional and expected to become of increasing importance in social factors also played a significant role. Howev- the Mediterranean region: water shortage and er, there are good reasons to believe that environ- drought. Within Spain, Almeria was selected due mental change did have an important influence