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Portuguese Lavenders Evaluation of Their Potential Use For UNIVERSITY OF COIMBRA 2012 Portuguese lavenders: evaluation of their potential use for health and agricultural purposes Mónica da Rocha Zuzarte A thesis presented to the Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the University of Coimbra in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biology (Speciality in Plant Physiology) Front cover: Lavandula luisieri growing in the wild at Serra do Caldeirão, Algarve, Portugal. II SUPERVISORS Professor Jorge Manuel Pataca Leal Canhoto Department of Life Sciences Faculty of Sciences and Technology University of Coimbra Professor Lígia Maria Ribeiro Salgueiro Faculty of Pharmacy University of Coimbra This work was financially supported by national funds from FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a T ecnologia under the project CEF/POCI2010/FEDER and by a PhD grant SFRH/BD/40218/2007 to Mónica Rocha Zuzarte supported by QREN funds through the “Programa Operacional Potencial Humano”. III “When you learn, teach, when you get, give” Maya Angelou V I dedicate this thesis to my family and life companion, Rui, for their love, endless support and encouragement. VII AKNOWLEDGMENTS It is a great pleasure to thank everyone who taught, assisted, supported and encouraged me during the course of my PhD project making it a very pleasant journey. I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. Lígia Salgueiro and Prof. Jorge Canhoto, whose expertise, suggestions and constructive commentaries, added considerably to my graduate experience. I would like to thank them for guiding me into the scientific world. A very special thanks goes out to Prof. Jorge Paiva for introducing me to the fantastic world of aromatic and medicinal plants. During this work his encouragement, friendship and valuable knowledge in taxonomy were essential. I am very grateful to Prof. Augusto Dinis and Dr. José Dias for their assistance in electron microscopy. It was a pleasure to work with them and I always felt at home! Thank you for those moments! I´m very grateful to Prof. Maria José Gonçalves for guiding me through the antifungal activities, the many hours spend at the lab were a true pleasure! I thank Prof. Carlos Cavaleiro for his assistance in essential oil analysis and enlightening advices. I owe sincere and earnest thankfulness to Prof. Dr. Isabel Abrantes and all members of the Nematology group. A special thanks goes out to Carla Maleita for all her help in the experimental activities on nematodes, her kindness and true friendship. To Sofia Costa, I thank her patience and precious help in the statistical analysis of the nematicidal experiments. I am truly indebted and thankful to Prof. Dr. Teresa Rosete and all members of the Laboratory of Cellular Immunobiology and Oncobiology for the Centre of IX Neuroscience and Cell Biology of the University of Coimbra. A special thanks to Vera Francisco, Bruno Neves and Joana Liberal for teaching me the techniques and helping me along the work. I would also like to thank them and the remaining members of the team for making it a pleasure to be at the lab and providing me with enjoyable lunch hours. Thank you very much! To Prof. Eugénia Pinto and Dr. Luís Vale-Silva I thank their assistance and collaboration on the evaluation of the essential oils mechanism of action. I thank Prof. Luís Bonifácio for aiding me during the insect repellency assays and the remaining members of Instituto Nacional de Recursos Biológicos (Oeiras) for their sympathy and kindness during my stay. To Dr. Ludovina Lopes I thank all the teaching on in vitro culture and the wise words of encouragement always said at the right moments with a lovely smile. Thanks are also addressed to all my colleagues at the Laboratory of Biotechnology of the University of Coimbra, for the joyful moments at the lab. A very special thanks to Elisa Figueiredo, Rita Teixeira and Patrícia Caldeira for being such good friends! To Mr. Arménio Matos I would like to thank his stimulating help in plant harvest. I would like to thank Prof. António Pereira Coutinho for his friendship, sympathy and lovely words of encouragement. Such a wonderful person! The collaboration of the staff and the facilities provided are also greatly appreciated. A special thanks to Isabel Corino, Eulália Rosa, José Brasão and Conceição Panarra for their help and friendship. X I owe sincere and earnest thankfulness to all my friends that accompanied me out of the lab. A special thanks goes to Liliana Santos, Filipa Pinho, Filipe Almeida and Marisa Machado. Last but by no means least I thank my family for the support they provided me through my entire life and, in particular, I must acknowledge my life companion, Rui, without whose love and encouragement I would not have finished this thesis. XI TABLE OF CONTENTS List of publications related to this Ph.D. Thesis …………………………………………………………... XVII Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. XIX Resumo ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. XXIII List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………………………….... XXVII I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES …………………………………………………... 1 1. General Introduction and Objectives ……………………………………………………………. 3 1.1 References …………………………………………………………………………………... 8 II. MORPHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF LAVANDULA SPP. ………… 11 1. Taxonomy ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 13 1.1 History ……………………………………………………………………………….......... 15 1.2 Features of the genus ……………………………………………………………………… 17 1.3 The Portuguese Lavenders ………………………………………………………………… 19 1.3.1 Material and methods ……………………………………………………………. 19 1.3.2 The species ………………………………………………………………………. 25 1.3.2.1 Lavandula latifolia …………………………………………………… 25 1.3.2.2 Lavandula luisieri ……………………………………………………. 26 1.3.2.3 Lavandula multifida …………………………………………….......... 27 1.3.2.4 Lavandula pedunculata ………………………………………………. 28 1.3.2.5 Lavandula viridis ……………………………………………….......... 29 1.4 References …………………………………………………………………………………. 31 2. Trichomes ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 33 2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………........... 35 2.2 Material and methods ……………………………………………………………………… 37 2.2.1 Light microscopy ……………………………………………….………….......... 37 2.2.2 Scanning electron microscopy ……………………………………………........... 38 2.2.3 Histochemistry ……………………………………………………………........... 38 2.3 Results and discussion …………………………………………………………………….. 38 2.3.1 Trichomes diversity ……………………………………………………………... 38 2.3.2 Histochemistry …………………………………………………………………... 49 2.4 References …………………………………………………………………………. 53 3. Essential Oils ……………………………………………………………………………………. 57 3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………........... 59 3.2 Material and methods .……………………………………………………………………... 63 3.2.1 Plant material ……………………………………………………………………. 63 3.2.2 Isolation of the essential oils …………………………………………………….. 64 3.2.3 Qualitative and quantitative analysis ……………………………………………. 65 3.2.4 Compound identification ………………………………………………………... 66 3.2.5 Statistical analyses ………………………………………………………………. 66 3.3 Results and discussion …………………………………………………………………….. 66 3.3.1 Lavandula luisieri ………………………………………………………………. 66 3.3.2 Lavandula multifida……………………………………………………………... 70 3.3.3 Lavandula pedunculata …………………………………………………………. 72 3.3.4 Lavandula viridis ………………………………………………………….......... 77 3.3.4 Lavandula stoechas ……………………………………………………………... 79 3.4 References …………………………………………………………………………………. 82 4. Chemotaxonomy ………………………………………………………………………………… 87 4.1 Chemotaxonomy ………………………………………………………………………….. 89 4.2 References ………………………………………………………………………………... 95 XIII III. BIOGICAL ACTIVITIES AND CYTOTOXICITY OF LAVANDULA SPP. ESSENTIAL OILS 99 1. Antifungal activity against human and animal pathogenic strains ……………………………… 101 1.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………... 103 1.2 Material and methods ……………………………………………………………………… 110 1.2.1 Essential oils …………………………………...………………………………... 110 1.2.2 Pure and reference compounds ………………………………………………….. 111 1.2.3 Fungal strains ……………………………………………………………………. 111 1.2.4 Antifungal activity ………………………………………………………………. 111 1.2.5 Mechanism of action …………………………………………………………..... 112 1.2.5.1 Germ tube inhibition assay ……………………………………………. 112 1.2.5.2 Flow cytometry ………………………………………………………... 113 1.3 Results and discussion …………………………………………………………………….. 114 1.3.1 Lavandula luisieri ………………………………………………………………. 114 1.3.1.1 Antifungal activity ……………………………………………………. 114 1.3.1.2 Mechanism of action …………………………………………………... 116 1.3.2 Lavandula multifida ……………………………………………………….......... 117 1.3.2.1 Antifungal activity ……………………………………………………. 117 1.3.2.2 Mechanism of action …………………………………………………... 120 1.3.3 Lavandula pedunculata………………………………………………………….. 122 1.3.3.1 Antifungal activity ……………………………………………………. 122 1.3.4 Lavandula viridis ………………………………………………………….......... 125 1.3.4.1 Antifungal activity ……………………………………………………. 125 1.3.4.2 Germ tube inhibition …………………………………………………... 128 1.3.2.3 Mechanism of action ………………………………………………….. 128 1.4 References …………………………………………………………………………………. 132 2. Anti-inflammatory activity ……………………………………………………………………… 139 2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………... 141 2.2 Material and methods ……………………………………………………………………… 145 2.2.1 Essential oils …………………………………………………………………….. 145 2.2.2 Materials ………………………………………………………………………… 145 2.2.3 Cell culture ……………………………………………………………………… 146 2.2.4 Cell viability ……………………………………………………………………... 146 2.2.5 Nitric oxide scavenging activity ………………………………………………… 147 2.2.6 Nitric oxide production ………………………………………………………….. 147 2.2.7 Cell lysate preparation and Western blot analyses ……………………………… 148 2.2.8 RNA extraction ………………………………………………………………….
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