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The Baltic Sea Region the Baltic Sea Region TTHEHE BBALALTTICIC SSEAEA RREGIONEGION Cultures,Cultures, Politics,Politics, SocietiesSocieties EditorEditor WitoldWitold MaciejewskiMaciejewski A Baltic University Publication From the First World War 5 to the end of the Cold War: the bloody twentieth century Kristian Gerner The First World War was to a great degree caused by German ambitions to be a global power and master of the European continent. It ended in 1918 with both the German and the Russian empires in shambles and the establishment of the successor states of the so-called Weimar Republic in Germany and the Soviet Union in Russia. For fifteen years, for the first time in half a millennium, there was no strong local imperial power in the Baltic Region. Only in 1933, with Hitler coming to power, did German imperial ambitions start to inform foreign policy again, and at the same time, Stalin had crushed all kinds of imaginable political, social and ideological opposition at home and prepared for Russia’s comeback as an imperial power in the Baltic Region and the world. In 1916, the invading German armies caused tsarist Russia to break down. In the wake of the devastating military defeats at the front and after huge political anti-tsarist demonstra- tions in the capital Petrograd (which had been renamed at the outbreak of the war in 1914) in March 1917, the tsar was forced to abdicate. A so-called provisional or temporary govern- ment was formed by a coalition of liberal and reformist socialist parties from the State Duma, the parliament which had been established as a new institution in 1906, in the wake of the 1905 Russian revolution. The leaders of the new state identified with the French revolution of 1789 and with the Paris Commune of 1871. The latter was seen as a prototype of socialist society. However, the Bolsheviks soon also identified with Russia, and with pre-Petrine Russia at that. In Muscovy, the doctrine of the Third Rome was part of the general idea that the non- Orthodox world was evil and ultimately had to be liberated and salvaged by Muscovy. The Bolsheviks viewed the two socialist Internationals from 1864 and 1889 as failed attempts of revolution in a similar way as the Russian Orthodox Church once held that both Rome and Constantinople had failed as imperial projects. The Bolsheviks created a new and definite International which they baptised the Third International. Its centre was Moscow. The capital of the Soviet Union thus reclaimed the role and the ambitions of sixteenth century Muscovy. The Third International became known as the Communist International, Komintern. Its mission to spread the revolution was carried out by branches in the capitalist states, i.e., com- munist parties that were obliged to follow orders from Moscow and work on the overthrow of the regimes and the established state order in their own countries. HISTORY From the First World War to the end of the Cold War: the bloody twentieth century 79 World War I (1914-1918) At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the European leaders adopted a security system based on balance among the great pow- ers. The gradual breakdown of the system began at the end of the 19th century. Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman empire were weakened, which resulted in unrest in the outer fringes of Europe, especially the Balkans. Germany was unified into the Second German Reich in 1871, rapidly industrialised, and began to lead an aggressive foreign policy. A system of alliances, Germany and Austria-Hungary against Britain, France and Russia, made the conflict over Bosnia-Hercegovina between Serbia and Austria escalate into the Great War of 1914. The German plan was to strike effectively against the western powers and avoid war on two fronts. But the plan failed. Russia mobilised quickly, and the German-French war resulted in a deadlock in the trenches along the western front. The US participation in the war (from 1917) was decisive. Germany and its ally Austria-Hungary surrendered on November 11, 1918. World War I marks the breakdown of three empires, Tsarist Russia, the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy and the Second German Reich. Based on nationalist movements, eight independent states were recognised during the Paris conferences in 1919-1920. Five of these are in the Baltic Region: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. In the interwar period and more outspokenly during the post-war era, a specific Nordic identity was built which included the populations of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Although the Finnish language belongs to a quite different language group, the long tradition of the Swedish language in Finland and the presence in the country of a large Swedish population, intimate relations between the Nordic peoples have been considered as rather “natural”. It is of some consequence in the present era, that Scandinavians have a tendency to believe that relations among the three “Baltic” peoples of Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians are equally intimate, which they certainly are not. In the interwar period, Lithuania and Poland were enemy states. There was no direct official contact between the two. Travellers had to move between the two states by way of passing through Latvia. Estonia and Latvia were not accepted as Nordic states by their Scandinavian neighbours, although Estonia in particular developed close cultural and scholarly relations with Sweden and Finland. International events in 1939-1940 proved that the three Baltic states certainly, and to some degree also Poland and Finland, really were not regarded as legitimate states in the eyes of the leaders of Germany and the Soviet Union. 1. Emergence of new states It is interesting to note that the Bolsheviks encouraged without hesitation and reinvigorated the Orthodox notion of the Poles as the arch-enemy of Russia, i.e. of Soviet Russia. At the time of the German defeat in November 1918, Józef Piłsudski, of Lithuanian szlachta origin and also a former socialist and organiser of Polish troops who fought against Russia on the side of the Central Powers in the war, proclaimed the reborn Polish state. Its new boundaries were not yet delimited when in 1920, during the final stage of the Civil War in Russia, Piłsudski engaged the new Polish state in a struggle for the Kresy. Poland managed to occupy Kiev, but the Red Army suc- ceeded in both defeating the white general Wrangel in southern Ukraine and pushing the Poles back to the Vistula at Warsaw. With some French assistance, Piłsudski managed to turn the tide once again. The Polish-Soviet war ended with a peace treaty in 1921, which gave Poland eastern Galicia with Lwów as well as Grodno and the western part of Belarus. In October 1920, Polish troops occupied the Wilno district, which was subsequently united with Poland. However, the new Lithuanian Figure 19. Józef Piłsudski (1867-1935) originally a socialist and terrorist, military leader during World War I, conqueror of Bolsheviks in 1920, and finally dictator 1926-1935. In 1934, he suggested to the European super powers a preventive war against Hitlers’ Germany. Photo: Uppsala University Library HISTORY 80 From the First World War to the end of the Cold War: the bloody twentieth century state had its own claims on the city, which they called Vilnius. The Polish conquest of Vilnius was not recognised by the Soviet side. The Polish defeat of the Bolshevik Red Army on the Vistula in 1920 was greeted as a miracle by official Poland. In the history books, it was ranked side-by-side with the victory at Grunwald in 1410. For the Russian Bolsheviks, the defeat was a major setback. Their war aims had been to ignite the flame of revolution in Germany by establishing direct contact with the German proletarians, many of whom sympathised with Communism and with Soviet Russia. Now the Poles crushed the dream. They were to pay fatally for this in 1939 when the Soviet Union finally succeeded in establishing direct contact Map 9. New States. Estonia and Finland are recognized by Soviet Russia as with Germany in the embrace independent states in the Treaty of Tartu (Dorpat), February 2; Lithuania of the two totalitarian regimes is recognized in the Treaty of Moscow, July 12; Latvia is recognized in the in the form of the Molotov- Treaty of Riga, August 11 by Soviet Russia. Ill.: Radosław Przebitkowski Ribbentrop pact. As a direct consequence of the defeat of Germany in the Great War and of the civil war in Russia, Finland became an independent state. After a civil war between whites and reds in 1918, which was also a war of liberation as the victory of the whites secured the new state from immediate Soviet aspirations on it, Finland became a Nordic democratic state similar to the three Scandinavian states (Iceland became a sov- ereign state only in 1944). Poland and Lithuania also became sovereign, but as separate “national” states. The Lithuanian government considered Vilnius to be the self-evident capital, but as mentioned above, Polish troops occupied the city in 1920. It was incorpo- rated in Poland until 1939 and given to Lithuania by the Soviet Union after its conquest of eastern Poland in the same year. As the results of plebiscites, Silesia was divided between Poland and Germany and Schleswig between Denmark and Germany. After a decision by the League of Nations, the Åland Islands, inhabited by Swedes, became part of the Republic of Finland but with a certain political autonomy. HISTORY From the First World War to the end of the Cold War: the bloody twentieth century 81 2. Communism and Nazism In Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland, which had been wholly or partly parts of the Russian Empire, the ruling circles and a majority of the electorate viewed the local communist parties with suspicion not only for purely ideological reasons but also because the communists were identified with Russia.
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