Idylls of the Hearth: Enoch Arden and the Creation of Paradise The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:37736744 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA Idylls of the Hearth: Enoch Arden and the Creation of Paradise A. G. Ruperto A Thesis in the Field of English Literature and Writing for the degree of Master of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies Harvard University November 2017 1 2 Abstract This thesis examines a theme of natural theology exhibited in Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s “Enoch Arden.” It surveys the text’s thematic experiments with scenery and spirituality, as well as the strategies governing its narrative during the cultural and religious transformation of Victorian England. Modernist epistemology has exposed Tennyson’s devotion to nature poetry, as well as his progressive understanding of spirituality through acute observation and visualization of the environment. This study traces that progress from the poet’s celebrated early works to the later and lesser-known Idylls of the Hearth, published as Enoch Arden, Etc. “Enoch Arden,” the titular installment of this publication, will be the primary focus of my research. This poem displays a phenomenological view of nature, where spiritual connections manifest between characters and their settings—a theme pervading many works throughout Tennyson’s career, when he sought spiritual enlightenment above literary fame, and rural habitation above modern luxury. My readings are informed by interdisciplinary contributions to Tennysonian literature including biographies, contemporary studies, and periodical reviews. My research concludes that natural theology operates as the central feature of “Enoch Arden,” and many of Tennyson’s narratives. It demonstrates that by textually conceptualizing environmental designs, and humanity’s place within those designs, the poet remedied his lifelong anxieties about the existence of God and an afterworld. 3 Dedication For my parents—my idols. If I had a flower for every time I thought of you, I could walk through my garden forever. 4 Acknowledgements To simply acknowledge the following people would not suffice, because I owe them a debt of gratitude. On this long journey through the ALM program I have had the privilege of working with Sarah Powell, my academic advisor, Talaya Delaney, my thesis advisor, and Professor Robert Kiely, my thesis director. Thank you, Sarah, for introducing me to the Harvard community, and for helping me navigate the field of English literature. Thank you for exhibiting a high standard of decorum, intellect, poise, and warmth that reminded me why I was seeking my degree, that I was in the company of serious academics, and most importantly, that I was in the company of good people. Thank you, Talaya, for patiently listening to all of my convoluted ideas, and subtly teaching me the ways of thoughtful redirection. Thank you for your guidance, your grace, and your wisdom. Thank you for being present and available. Thank you for being a bridge over troubled water, and a flame in the dark. Thank you, Professor Kiely, for imparting your knowledge to this humble student. Thank you for taking a chance on me, for entrusting me as your faculty aide and your thesis candidate. Thank you for our conversations, and for your inspiration. Thank you for teaching me to be a better writer. Thank you for teaching me to be a better man. 5 Table of Contents Dedication …………………………………..………..……………………………....……...…... 3 Acknowledgements ………………………………..…………..………..…………….................. 4 List of Tables …………………………………………………………...…...…...……............… 5 I. Introduction ………………………………………………………...…....………....……. 6 II. Natural Theology and Tennyson’s Early Career ……....……...…............…...……...… 22 III. Natural Theology in Enoch Arden .…...……...……………….......…...………...…...… 33 IV. Summary and Conclusions …………………………………….……………...…....….. 59 V. Bibliography …………………………………………………..……...…………...….... 63 6 Chapter I Introduction A complex depiction of Alfred, Lord Tennyson as both naturalist and spiritualist can be traced through a range of scholarship generated since his tenure as poet laureate of Victorian England. Framed in a culture of industrialization and scientific discovery, his legacy endures as much for his convoluted religious beliefs as for his skill as a writer. The metaphorical presence of God dominates Tennysonian literature, pervading the minds of its characters as well as the settings they inhabit. Often this includes a theological paradox of doubt and faith, reflecting the broader context of 19th-century Anglicanism when laypersons felt compelled to reexamine the depths of their convictions.1 Modernist epistemology has contributed much in this regard to the tributive elegy “In Memoriam A.H.H.,” and generally maintains that Tennyson struggled to define his beliefs in the natural and supernatural worlds following the unexpected death of his friend Arthur Henry Hallam. This notion is perpetuated in a well-known biography written by Sir Harold Nicolson,2 who claims that “the death of Hallam was, as in the whole of ‘In Memoriam,’ fused into his almost morbid perplexity about faith and doubt and immortality” (128). In fact, Tennyson’s conflict with religion preceded the loss of his friend. His doubts about faith and immortality were built on a lifelong obsession with nature, which he perceived as calculating and chaotic, productive and destructive, wondrous and merciless. While nature had granted Hallam 1 The Victorian Anglicans were pressed between the Protestant Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church. Many felt the adoption of a foreign version of Christianity was against nationalistic values, while the arrival of the industrial revolution and modern culture tested their beliefs as Christians altogether. 2 All references to Nicolson are to Tennyson: Aspects of His Life, Character and Poetry (New York: Doubleday, 1962). 7 life, it had then abruptly taken it from him. Tennyson was forever vexed by the injustice of such death, which had come prematurely to many gifted and virtuous human beings. He began to question the fundamental tenets of Christianity, including the benevolence and existence of God, and the concepts of a human soul and an afterlife. But he also questioned the modern Victorian’s disengagement with nature, which seemed unnatural and somehow at odds with God’s plan. With this in mind, he painstakingly searched for signs of rebirth in his surroundings, while struggling to balance domestic normalities with the complex, invisible laws of faith. In this way his career suffused literary artistry with natural theology.3 Epitomizing the modern Renaissance man, Tennyson took an extracurricular interest in natural sciences like astronomy, biology, and geology at an early age. His departure from writing was impelled not only by the rapid modernization of post-industrial England, but also by the toxic atmosphere that permeated his household.4 AJ Meadows notes that the young Tennyson was “struggling to cope with his personal problems,” including the dysfunction within his family, and therewith “set himself a rigorous program of study...something approaching half of these studies were devoted to science” (112).5 This routine prompted a teleological examination of Christian cosmogony, specifically the creation of the earth and the presence of unseen forces. For all its complexity, Tennyson began to see the universe as possessing a systemic exactness, like the thumbprint of God. According to Nicolson, he enjoyed a sort of “earth worship” that 3 Natural theology is typically defined as a branch of philosophy of theology which attempts to either prove God’s existence, define God’s attributes, or derive correct doctrine based solely from human reason or observations of the natural world. 4 The infamous ructions of the Tennyson family preceded Alfred’s fame. George Tennyson was a violent alcoholic, embittered after being disinherited in favor of his younger brother, Charles, who lived in a castle. One of twelve children, Alfred held a lifelong fear of epilepsy and mental illness, predominant in his family and misunderstood in Victorian medicine. His brother Arthur also suffered from chronic alcoholism, while his brother Edward was admitted to a mental institution in 1833. 5 All references to Meadows are to Astronomy and Geology, Terrible Muses! Tennyson and 19th- Century Science (Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London: Vol. 46, No. 1, 1992). 8 “smacks often of the microscope.” Eventually, the quest for technical knowledge became one of spiritual reification. Tennyson was especially concerned with life after death, creationism, and the arcane foundations of religion. He committed to explore these mysteries, consciously and subconsciously, in his writing. And it was this state of suspense, between heaven and earth, to which he owed his stylistic debts. Tennyson’s poetic career developed on the heels of his predecessor, William Wordsworth, who served as Britain’s poet laureate from 1843 to 1850. Together they bookmarked the beginning and end of the Victorian era, while leaving an indelible mark on the literary world. Wordsworth’s romantic poetry utilized a refreshingly colloquial