ASSIGNMENT 8 CLASS IX HISTORY

THE LATER VEDIC AGE

Note: ● The Study Material consists of 3 parts – o Part I - The important highlights of the chapter. o Part II - The activity based on the chapter. o Part III – The questions based on the study material you need to answer in your respective notebook and submit when you are back to the school.

PART – I Highlights of the lesson

We have read in the previous chapter that the early Vedic Age ended around 1000 BC. The next five hundred years may be described as the Later Vedic period. The use of Iron along with other metals facilitated the growth of Aryan Civilization. The later Vedic period shows all-round development among the Aryans.

SOURCES TO RECONSTRUCT THE LATER VEDIC AGE

1. Later Vedic Literature :

Upanishads and Vedas help us to reconstruct the past

The later Vedic literature includes Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda and Sama Veda. Each of the ​ ​ Vedas consists of two parts : the Samhita and the Brahmana. The Samhita is composed of ​ hymns and prayers to be sung at rituals and sacrifices. The Brahmanas are prose texts that explain in detail the meaning of the hymns. Besides, there are the Aranyakas (forest texts) and the Upanishads which contain philosophical thoughts of learned sages on Soul, God and the ultimate truth or reality.

2. Smritis and Epics : Many other literary productions were handed down in the course of many centuries. Some of these are the Smritis and the two great Epics, The Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

3. Archaeological Sources : The archaeological sources include the axes made of iron and ​ other iron tools. The later Vedic people were familiar with four types of pottery - black and red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware.

SPREAD OF VEDIC CIVILIZATION TO MANY NEW REGIONS IN INDIA

As population increased, the Aryans moved along the course of the rivers Ganga and ​ Yamuna. The scene shifted from Punjab to the land of the Kurus which was the region around ​ modern Delhi. Further, they occupied vast regions to the east, such as Kosala (east Uttar Pradesh), Kashi (Varanasi), Videha (north Bihar) and Magadha (South Bihar). The name ‘Vangas’ (Bengal) occurs in one of the Aranyakas (forest texts). The Aitareya Brahmana ​ mentioned the Andhras, who in modern times are the Telugu-speaking people of Southern India.

Thus, the territories occupied by the later Vedic Aryans comprised the whole of India to the north of the Narmada and some regions even to the south of that river.

ROLE OF IRON IN LATER VEDIC ECONOMY

Axes made of iron made it easier to fell trees and clear forests. That made more and more land available both for cultivation and colonisation Iron ploughshare made deep ploughing casy. It helped the peasants to produce varied crops. Carpenters, masons and metal workers started working with better iron tools. This gave rise to development of different crafts.

Increased agricultural productivity led to the growth of trade and commerce. This gave a momentum to the rise of towns and cities.

Monumental Evidence to Suggest that Southern India had also become Familiar with Iron :

A Megalithic Tomb

● Megalithic Monuments such as dolmens and cromlechs have been found all over South India. The word 'megalith' means large stone (mega + lith). ● A dolmen or a cromlech is a megalithic tomb with a large flat stone laid on upright ones.

● Iron tools, arrows and fragments of rice and other grains have been found, besides the skeletons of the persons buried in these graves. This is enough to show the transition from Copper and Bronze Age Culture to the Iron Age.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EARLY AND LATER VEDIC SOCIETY

Many changes can be traced in the social life of the later Vedic Aryans.

1. Position of Women : ● In the early Vedic society women were treated as being equal with men. Women could attend assemblies. They took part in all religious rites. They could offer sacrifices along with their husbands. ● In the later Vedic age women were generally given a lower position. Although women continued to be associated with all religious rites, the rules of marriage underwent a change. ● If monogamy was the ideal, polygamy was the practice, at least in higher sections of society. In a polygamous system a woman naturally assumes subordinate position. ● The practice of widows marrying again, which was fairly common in the Rig Vedic age, was now regarded with disfavour. ● But the education which some women received was of a high order. The discourses of women philosophers are preserved in the Upanishads. ​

2. Caste System : ● The later Vedic society was also divided into four varnas, but the growing cult of sacrifices added much to the power of the Brahmins. Now the Brahmins and the ​ ​ Kshatriyas enjoyed power and privileges denied to the Vaisyas and the Shudras. ​ ​ ​ ​ ● Moreover, many other caste groups, besides the four major Varnas, had come into being. In the words of R.C. Majumdar, "We have references to the merchant, the ​ ​ chariot maker, the smith, the carpenter, the tanner, the fisherman, etc., as names of distinct castes." ● In the later Vedic age the membership of a Varna or that of a caste had become hereditary. There was also a fixation of occupations on the basis of one's caste. ● The position of the Shudras was made miserable by depriving them of the rights of ​ learning the sacred texts and performing sacrifices. The so-called 'untouchables were ​ forced to live in separate settlements outside the village or the town boundaries.

3. The Four Ashrams or Stages of Life : ● The man's Life was divided into four periods of twenty-five years each. Each period represented one Ashram. ​ ​ ● The Brahmacharya Ashram was mainly devoted to education for the development of ​ body and mind. ● The Grihastha Ashram was the period when man married and led a family life. ​ ​ ● The Vanaprastha Ashram was spent in meditation and prayer. ​ ​ ● The last phase was the Sanyasa Ashram. One had to renounce all worldly pleasures ​ ​ and live in the forest as a Sanyasi,

4. Gurukul System of Education :

Gurukul System of Education

● The Gurukul system of Education had become well established in Inter Vedic times. ​ The pupils stayed with their Guru for their physical mental and spiritual development ● Besides Vedic Literature, secular subjects like Logic, Ethics, Military Science, Mathematics, Law, Astronomy and Astrology were included in the courses of study, ● No fees were charged for this type of education, but the pupils paid a voluntary contribution known as Gurudakshina when they completed their education. ​ ​ ● Children belonging to both rich and poor families had to stay together. They rendered various duties in the running of the Gurukula. They gathered fuel, tended the cattle, begged alms from the neighbouring villages and worked in the fields attached to the Gurukula.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EARLY AND LATER VEDIC POLITICAL ORGANISATION

The later Vedic period saw many changes in the political organisation. We could see the emergence of Janapadas or large kingdoms ruled by the kings whose powers had grown ​ enormously.

1. The King : The Later Vedic literature tells us that the kingship (or State) is a divine creation. The state came into being to end anarchy and restore peace.

2. Administrative System : The emergence of large kingdoms was associated with growth ​ administrative machinery. ● The most of important officials were the - ○ Treasurer, the Collector of Taxes ○ Royal Chamberlain who managed the household of the monarch ○ Older officials of Rig Vedic age - the Purohit (Royal Chaplain), the Senani ​ ​ (the General) and the Gramini (leader of the village). Mention is also made of ​ ​ Sachiva. In later ages the Sachivas rose to the level of ministers. The Sabha ​ ​ ​ was gradually converted into the King's Court.

3. The Rajasuya and other Sacrifices : ● Sacrifices such as the Rajasuya, the Vajpeya and Ashvamedha were unknown in the ​ ​ ​ ​ Rig Vedic age. ● In the Later Vedic period, Vajapeya sacrifice was performed by a new king at the time ​ of his coronation. ● The Rajasuya sacrifice was performed to appease Gods in order to ensure the material well being of the kingdom. ● The Ashvamedha sacrifice was an occasion for a powerful king to proclaim that he ​ was the ‘King of Kings'.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EARLY AND LATER VEDIC ECONOMIC LIFE

1. Growing Importance of Agriculture : In addition to Yava or barley, a new crop Vrihi or ​ ​ rice had assumed greater significance. The later Vedic Aryans produced many other crops such as wheat, millet and sugarcane.

2. Crafts : There was a remarkable variety of crafts in the later Vedic. Perhaps the most ​ significant change was the use of iron in large ● Crafts such as leather-working, carpentry, making of jewellery and manufacture of glass flourished. ● Crafts specialization had now become more common than in the early Vedic period. Thus chariot-making developed as an occupation different from that of carpentry.

3. Trade and Industry : Important changes can be seen in the field of Trade and Commerce. ​ ● Commerce was made easier by the use of such units of value as nishka and satmana, ​ ​ ​ although it can not be said with certainty that they had developed as regular coins. ● The reference to ships indicates a flourishing inland maritime trade. ● Many of the professions were organised into guilds, which controlled prices and ensured the quality of the goods.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EARLY AND LATER VEDIC RELIGIOUS LIFE

Significant changes took place in the religion of the Aryans of the later Vedic period.

1. Gods and Goddesses : ● The Rig Vedic Gods - Indra, Agni, Surya etc. lost their prominence. New gods ​ Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva gained prominence. ​ ● They believed that Prajapati or Brahma was the Creator. ​ ​ ​ ​ ● Vishnu, the Preserver, helped men and Gods in their distress. ​ ● Shiva was regarded as Mahadeva, the great God, and Pashupati, the Lord of animate ​ ​ ​ ​ beings. ● Rama and Krishna, who were the Incarnations of Lord Vishnu, became popular deities ​ ​ ​ ​ during the Epic period. ● Durga, Kali, Lakshmi and Parvati emerged as the important female deities of the ​ people.

2. Rituals and Sacrifices of the Later Vedic Period : In the later Vedic period, the simple religious practices became complicated and ritualistic. ● Sacrifice became the most important part of their religion. The ceremonies could be performed only by Brahmins, who were given a prominent position in society. ​ ​

● Many superstitious beliefs in spirits, spells and charms became part of their religion ● Practice of Tapasya or penance occupied an important place in the religion. ​ ​ ● They believed in the principles of Karma (action) and Moksha (salvation). ​ ​ ​ ​

3. Philosophy of the Upanishads : Towards the end of the later Vedic phase a new trend is visible. ● The Upanishads do not deal with rituals or sacrifices. They deal with the higher ​ knowledge and explain the relationship between Jeeva (individual soul) and Brahma ​ ​ (Supreme Soul or God). ● A major concept of the Upanishads is "the essential unity of all religions, of all ​ ​ spiritual paths." ​

THE EPICS

The most famous literary works of the later Vedic period were the two at Epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Epics were not written at one time. It is assumed by ​ ​ the scholars that the Epics must have been composed in the period between 500 BC and 200 ​ ​ AD. ​

THE RAMAYANA

The Ramayana is believed to be the work of the sage Valmiki. The central theme is the story ​ ​ of Rama, who is pictured as an Incarnation of Vishnu, and Sita an Incarnation of Lakshmi. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

● Rama was the eldest son of King Dasaratha, who ruled over Kosala with Ayodhya as ​ ​ Capital of his kingdom. The king wanted to appoint his eldest son Rama as the Yuvaraja, but this was opposed by his second Queen Kaikeyi. ​ ​ ● The king had promised her two boons. So she demanded that he gave the throne to her son Bharata and sent Rama into exile for fourteen years. ● In the course of wanderings in the forest, Rama reached the territory near the Godavari, in the province called Janasthana. It was a colony of Rakshasas who had ​ ​ ​ connections with the kingdom of Sri Lanka. ● Rama came to the rescue of the munis (sages) living in the region and killed a number of Rakshasas who had ill-treated the sages. ● To take revenge on Rama, Ravana, the non-Aryan ruler of Lanka, abducted Sita and took her to his Capital. ● Rama fought against Ravana heroically, killed him and rescued Sita. ● Rama returned to Ayodhya and his coronation was celebrated with great rejoicing all over the kingdom.

THE MAHABHARATA

The Mahabharata is believed to be the work of Veda Vyasa. ​ ​ ● The main story is about the conflict between the Pandavas and the Kauravas and the battle at Kurukshetra, which involved many Aryan kings of the period. ● King Shantanu of the Lunar dynasty was the ruler of Hastinapur, a region between Ganga and Yamuna. He was succeeded by his son Vichitravirya, who had two sons, Pandu and Dhritarashtra. ● After the death of Vichitravirya, Pandu became the king. He had five sons known as the Pandavas.

● Pandu handed over the kingdom to his blind brother Dhritrashtra who had a hundred sons known as Kauravas. All the princes were educated under Kripacharya and Dronacharya. ● Duryodhana, the eldest of the Kauravas, felt jealous of Pandavas and planned to destroy them. ● The Pandavas got only the barren tract of land near Delhi and founded the new Capital known as Indraprastha. ● Duryodhana was determined to destroy the Pandavas, so he invited the Pandavas to the palace for a game of dice. During the game, Yudhishthira, the eldest of the Pandavas, staked everything he had and lost his kingdom, his brothers and even Draupadi, who was grievously insulted in the open court. ● The Pandavas were sent into exile for thirteen years and after completing their term of exile, they claimed their kingdom again. ● Duryodhana refused to give their share of the kingdom and this resulted in the great war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas.

MESSAGE OF THE BHAGAVAD GITA

Arjuna had refused to fight against his own relatives; but Lord Krishna, who was his Charioteer, gave him the divine message of true dharma which was contained in the ​ Bhagavad Gita.

Your concern, says the Gita, "is solely with action, not its fruit. Action is its own reward." In ​ ​ the battle that lasted for eighteen days, all the Kaurava brothers were killed. Yudhishthira became the king of Hastinapur.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE EPICS

1. The Epics serve as the main source of information about the political institutions and the social and cultural organisation of the Epic age.

2. They provide information about the various Aryan Kingdoms, about their armies and the weapons they used during the period. The Kshatriyas believed that death on the battlefield was the noblest act in the life of a warrior

3. The Epics are acclaimed for their literary and philosophical value. ​

4. They reveal the high ideals of family life of the Aryans. The great heroes, depicted in the Epics as the embodiment of high moral principles, made a great impact on successive generations.

5. The Bhagavad Gita, which forms part of the Mahabharata, is one of the most popular religious texts considered sacred by the people of India. The interests of the self might conflict with duty and whenever there is such a conflict the Gita does give the answer. That is the secret of the aunty popularity of this religious text. It teaches that the Soul is Immortal.

PART-II ACTIVITY

In a tabular form, write a comparative study of the Early Vedic Period and the Later Vedic Period.

PART-III QUESTIONS

1. Mention any two of the religious texts which serve as sources to reconstruct the later Vedic Age. 2. Mention any two archaeological sources to reconstruct the later Vedic Age. 3. Name any two newer regions occupied by the Aryans during the later Vedic period. 4. Mention the monumental evidence to suggest that Southern India had also become familiar with Iron in the later Vedic Age. 5. Mention any two of the Ashrams in the life of a man in Aryan society. 6. Mention the important subjects included in the course of Gurukul education. 7. Name the sacrifice that was performed by a king at the time of his coronation during the later Vedic Age. 8. Mention briefly the rituals and sacrifices of the later Vedic Aryans? 9. Mention the reasons for the importance of the Brahmins (priestly class) in the later Vedic society. 10. What is the message of the Bhagavad Gita?

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

1. Describe the social changes evident in the later Vedic period with reference to : a. Position of Women b. Caste System

2. In the later Vedic Age there was a marked change in the economic life of the Aryans. In this context describe : a. The growing importance of Agriculture b. Variety of Crafts c. Changes in the field of Trade and Commerce