SOIL SCIENCE 101 for STORM WATER INFILTRATION

by Jeffrey L. HammesHammes,, Wisconsin Professional Soil Scientist Designer of Engineering Systems (608)233(608)233--92009200

MORPHOLOGICAL ESTIMATES SITE EVALUATIONS ((SOIL EVALUATIONS)

DETERMINE SETBACK LIMITATIONS

DETERMINE FLOW CAPABILITIES OF SOIL

LANDSCAPE ORIENTATION/CONTOURS FOR EACH LAYER/HORIZON

ESTABLISH VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL

DETERMINE LIMITING LAYERS REFERENCES FOR EXACT LOCATION OF

DEPTH TO LIMITING FACTORS DRAIN FIELD

EFFECTIVE BASIN SIZE

EFFECTIVE BASIN DEPTH

STORMWATER SUBSURFACE SPS 385.30(1)(c) INFILTRATION SYSTEMS SOIL & SITE SOIL EVALAUTION EVALUATION •• SOIL HORIZONS SPS 382.365(2) •• HORIZON THICKNESS •• MUNSELL SOIL COLORS SOIL EVALUATION --asas per SPS 385.30(1)(c) •• SOIL TEXTURE •• ROCK FRAGMENT PERCENTAGE SITE EVALUATION --asas per SPS 385.40(3)(a) •• SOIL STRUCTURE •• SOIL CONSISTENCE EVALUATION BY: Certified Professional Soil •• HORIZON BOUNDARY Scientist (PSS) or Certified Soil Tester (CST) •• REDOXIMORPHIC FEATURES •• SATURATION ZONES

1 SPS 385.40(3)(a) START WITH TEST HOLES SITE EVALAUTION

oo BACKHOE PITS (PREFERRED) •• LEGAL DESCRIPTION (WITHIN 40 ACRES) oo 1 or 2 PITS/BORINGS MINIMUM (varies) •• DATE OF OBSERVATION oo MINIMUM 5 FEET DEEP (OR MIN. 3 FOOT BELOW •• SCALED OR DIMENSIONED SITE PLAN •• EXTENT OF TESTED AREA PROPOSED INFILTRATION DEVICE ELEVATION •• SLOPE, TOPOGRAPHY (but varies with type of infiltration) •• LOCATION OF SOIL TESTS, ELEVATIONS •• STRUCTURES, PROPERTY LINES, NON SOIL AREAS •• VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL REFERENCE POINTS •• ANY FLOODPLAIN ELEVATIONS

INFILTRATION MIN. NUMBER OF MIN. DEPTH DEVICE TESTS BELOW INFILTR. (BORINGS vs PITS) SYSTEM INFILTRATION MIN. NUMBER OF MIN. DEPTH INFILTRATION TRENCHES 1 (EITHER) PER 100 5 FT. OR LIMITING DEVICE TESTS BELOW INFILTR. <2000 SQ.FT. LINEAR FT. MIN.2 LAYER (BORINGS vs PITS) SYSTEM SUBSURFACE 2 PITS/AREA + ADD. PITS TO 10 FT. INFILTRATION TRENCHES 1 PIT PER 100 LINEAR PITS TO 5 FT. INFILTRATION BASINS PIT OR BORING/10,000 BORINGS TO 20 FT. >2000 SQ.FT. FT. + ADD. PIT OR BORINGS TO 15 FT. >15’ WIDE SQ.FT. OR LIMITING LAYER BORING OR LIMITING LAYER

BIORETENTION 1 (EITHER) PER 50 5 FT. OR LIMITING LINEAR FT. MIN.2 LAYER

GRASSED SWALES 1 (EITHER) PER 1000 5 FT. OR LIMITING LINEAR FT. MIN.2 LAYER

SURFACE INFILTRATION 2 PITS/AREA + ADD. PITS TO 10 FT. BASINS PIT OR BORING/10,000 BORINGS TO 20 FT. SQ.FT. OR LIMITING LAYER

2 PARENT MATERIAL OF SOIL • Soil is the outermost layer of our planet. • Soil is formed from rocks and decaying plants and - FROM WEATHERING OF ROCK IN PLACE animals. - TRANSPORTED MATERIAL • An average soil sample is 45 percent minerals, 25 - BY WATER percent water, 25 percent air, and five percent - BY GRAVITY/ EROSION organic matter (living & dead organisms). - BY WIND • Natural processes can take >500 years to form one - BY GLACIERS inch of topsoil. - ORGANIC MATERIAL • There are over 70,000 kinds of soil in the United States.

MATERIAL PRODUCED BY WEATHERING OF ROCK IN PLACE

Limestone rocks are sedimentary rocks that are made from the mineral calcite which came from the beds of evaporated seas and lakes and from sea animal shells.

Sandstone rocks are sedimentary rocks made from small grains of the minerals quartz and feldspar. They often form in layers

WEATHERING OF ROCKS Original Mineral Weathering

Iron silicates Clay & Iron Oxide Granite is an example of igneous rock that formed by the

Feldspar Clay & K,Na,Ca ionsions solidification of molten material within the earth.

Quartz Sand Gneiss is an example of metamorphic rocks.

Mica Clay & K ions These rocks may have been an igneous rock such as granite or a sedimentary rock such

Calcite Calcium ions as sandstone, but heat and pressure

Shale Clay reformed them. The mineral grains in the rock are flattened through tremendous heat and

Sandstone Sand pressure and arranged in alternating patterns.

Limestone Clay & Sand

3 SOIL IMPORTED BY WATER SOIL FORMED FROM GRAVITY

ALLUVIUM

COLLUVIUM (EROSION)

WIND BLOWN DEPOSITS

LOESS

VOLCANIC ASH GLACIERS

GLACIER

4 SOME GLACIAL TERMS KETTLE DRUMLIN DRUMLIN – CIGAR SHAPED HILL FORMED FROM LARGE ICE CHUNKS SCAPING AND MELTING. THEY ALWAYS POINT THE DIRECTION OF THE GLACIER ESKER – NARROW, SINUOUS RIDGES OF SAND AND GRAVEL FROM ELEVATED STREAM BED KETTLE – SHALLOW BASIN FORMED BY A BURIED ESKER LARGE ICE CHUNK OUTWASH PLAIN LACUSTRINE – MATERIAL LEFT FROM GLACIAL LAKES – FINE SEDIMENT MORAINE –GENTLE ROLLING HILL OF DEPOSITED GLACIAL TILL MORAINE OUTWASH – SAND AND GRAVEL WASHED OUT FROM GLACIAL MELTWATER STEAMS TILL – DIRECTLY DEPOSITED GLACIAL DEBRIS WITH MIXED TEXTURES

ORGANIC SOURCES OF SOIL The SOIL SERIES

The basic mapping unit for soils LEAF LITTER INTO PEAT

Soils of similar characteristics : color, texture, structure, horizons, pedogenesis

Named after town where first identified

Abbreviations indicate name/slope/erosion: e.g. HmB2 = Hochheim loam (HmHm),( 2--6%2), 6% slope (B) and eroded (2)

Abbreviation name ( HmHm)) not same in every county

NEW SOIL CLASSIFICATION SOIL HORIZONS ----SIMPLESIMPLE DESCRIPTIVE NAMESNAMES---- LAYERS OF SOIL THAT HAVE SIMILAR COLOR, TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE e.g. HOCHHEIM LOAM: “A” HORIZON (TOPSOIL MINERAL HORIZON OLD DESCRIPTION: MIXED, MESIC BRUNIZEM WHERE ORGANIC MATTER ACCUMULATES) NEW CLASSIFICATION: TYPIC ARGIUDOLL “B” HORIZON (ACCUMULATION OF CLAY MINERALS FROM “A” HORIZON, BLOCKY STRUCTURE) TYPIC = A SOIL TYPICAL TO ALL THE OTHERS IN THAT SOIL SERIES GROUPING (mixed) ARGI UDOLL = HUMUS & CLAY ACCUMMULATION (brunizem) “C” HORIZON (MINERAL HORIZON SIMILAR TO ARGI UD OLL = FOUND IN HUMID CLIMATES (mesic) PARENT MATERIAL SUCH AS BEDROCK, ARGIUD OLL = OF THE SOIL ORDER: MOLLISOLS (FORMED UNDER GLACIAL DEPOSITS OR SEDIMENTS) PRAIRIE GRASSES WITH FERTILE UPPER LOAMY HORIZON)

5 SOIL HORIZONS HAVE SOIL COLOR

BASED ON MUNSELL SOIL COLOR CHARTS SUBSUB--HORIZONSHORIZONS USING MOIST SOIL SAMPLES

SOME COMMON SUBSUB--HORIZONSHORIZONS

HUE, VALUE AND CHROMA (10YR 4/4) HUE (10YR) = SPECTRAL COLOR

“p” = PLOW LAYER VALUE (4/) = LIGHTNESS OF HUE

“t” = HIGHER CLAY CONTENT CHROMA (/4) = CONCENTRATION OF HUE

“b” = BURIED HORIZON

PROPER LIGHT CONDITIONS

DARKER ––ORGANICORGANIC MATTER ApAp= TOPSOIL HORIZON FROM PLOWING

RED, YELLOW ––IRONIRON OXIDES Bt = SUBSOIL HIGHER IN CLAY

AbAb= BURIED “A” HORIZON REDOXIMORPHIC COLORS ––SATURATIONSATURATION

SOIL TEXTURE 10YR

SOIL SEPARATES ARE SAND, SILT & CLAY

4/

DEFINITION: THE RELATIVE PROPORTION (%) OF SOIL SEPARATES IN THE SOIL

STRONG INFLUENCE ON WATER MOVEMENT

12 TEXTURAL IDENTIFICATIONS /4

PARTICLE SIZE MODIFIER (FINE, COARSE)

SOIL TEXTURE PARTICLES–SIZE COMPARISON CLAY SAND = 0.05 mm to 2.0 mm (2 mm = + 1/16 inch)

MASSIVE SURFACE AREA Very coarse = 1.0 – 2.0 mm

HOLDS WATER TIGHTLY Coarse = 0.5 – 1.0 mm

CAN SHRINK WHEN DRIED Medium = 0.25 - 0.5 mm

CAN SWELL WHEN WETTED Fine = 0.1 – 0.25 mm Very fine = 0.05 – 0.1 mm

SILT = 0.002 mm to 0.05 mm marble CLAY = < 0.002 mm . a pinhole

6 CLAY PARTICLES IN THE SOIL - LARGE SURFACE AREA - CLAY IMPROVES TREATMENT - CLAY RESTRICTS WATER MOVEMENT - 28% CLAY = CLAY LOAM SOIL - 40% CLAY = CLAY SOIL (NOT LOAM) Sand: large Clay: little particles, tiny particles, large pores pores

THE TEXTURAL TRIANGLE SOIL STRUCTURE

A MAJOR EFFECT ON WATER MOVEMENT (HYDRAULIC FLOW)

DEFINITION: THE AGGREGATION OF SOIL PARTICLES INTO PEDS

LARGE AND SMALL PORES

DESCRIBED AS: GRANULAR BLOCKY PRISMATIC PLATY SINGLE GRAINED MASSIVE

SOIL STRUCTURE A PED IS TO A SOIL PARTICLE IS LIKE A Soil structure determines the amount MOLECULE TO AN ATOM and arrangement of empty -an individual aggregate of soil spaces in the soil , influencing on -usually the end result of applying slight how readily water moves through the hand force to a clump of soil soil and where plant roots can grow . -not to be confused with a soil “pedon” which is a larger unit (1 to 10 square meters) of a soil body in the root zone

7 WHAT “MAKES” SOIL COLLOIDAL MATTER STRUCTURE? THE CEMENT

COLLOIDAL MATTER

STICKY CLAY MINERALS

WATER

OXIDES OF IRON AND MANGANESE

MICROMICRO--ORGANISMSORGANISMS

MICROBIAL GUMS FROM ORGANIC

TEMPERATURE MATTER

VEGETATION

INSECTS,WORMS,ANIMALS

HUMAN ACTIVITY

WATER MAKES SOIL STRUCTURE RAINDROP IMPACT SHATTERS FINE SOIL

WATER MOLECULES COLLECT PARTICLES CAUSING COLLOIDAL PARTICLES AS THEY EROSION ON JOURNEY THROUGH THE SOIL SLOPES

EVAPORATING WATER DEPOSITS THE COLLOIDAL PARTICLES AND THE SOIL PARTICLES ARE DRAWN TOGETHER FINE PARTICLES AND HYDRATES CAN

REPEATED WETTING AND DRYING CREATE CRUST CYCLES ENHANCE SOIL PARTICLE (CEMENTATION) ON AGGREGATION SURFACE

MICROMICRO--ORGANISMSORGANISMS MAKE HOW DOES TEMPERATURE STRUCTURE CREATE SOIL STRUCTURE?

THREADLIKE FUNGAL MYCELIUM BIND

REPEATED FREEZING AND THAWING OF WATER IN THE SOIL SOIL PARTICLES

GUMS, FATS AND WAXES SLOUGHED

ICE CRYSTALS COMPRESS SURROUNDING SOIL PARTICLES TOGETHER. FREEZING OFF RESIST WETTING AND ACT LIKE INCREASES VOLUME BY 9% CEMENT

FREEZING REMOVES LIQUID WATER DRAWING SOIL PARTICLES TOGETHER USING THE CEMENTING COLLOIDAL MATTER

8 VEGETATION AND SOIL STRUCTURE ANIMALS, WORMS, INSECTS

ROOTS PENETRATE THE SOIL AND PRODUCE LINES OF WEAKNESS AMONG

BURROWING, SOIL PARTICLES

CHANNELING

EXPANDING ROOTS PUSH PARTICLES

EXCRETING TOGETHER PRESS AND CEMENT

ROOT SECRETIONS ACT LIKE CEMENT PARTICLES TOGETHER

ROOTS REMOVE WATER FROM SOIL / AGGREGATION THROUGH SHRINKAGE

SOIL STRUCTURE HUMAN ACTIVITY DESCRIBED

EXCAVATION, FILLING GRANULAR

COMPACTION BLOCKY PRISMATIC

AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES PLATY SINGLE GRAINED MASSIVE

SURFACE STRUCTURE GRADES (excluding massive) GRANULAR

WEAK --PEDSPEDS ARE BARELY VISABLE IN PLACE --PARTIALPARTIAL AGGREGATION

MODERATE PRISMATIC --PEDSPEDS ARE WELL FORMED AND EVIDENT --WHOLEWHOLE PEDS CAN BE REMOVED FROM PROFILE

STRONG --PEDSPEDS ARE VERY DISTINCT IN PLACE BLOCKY --PEDSPEDS ARE RIGID AND DURABLE WHEN IN HAND MASSIVE

9 SOIL CONSISTENCE DETERMINING MOIST SOIL CONSISTENCE LOOSE •• DEFINITION: RESISTANCE OF SOIL TO DEFORMATION OR RUPTURE. •• THE COHESION AND ADHESION OF SOIL MOISTEN •• DESCRIBED (MOIST SOIL) AS: SOIL LOOSE VERY FRIABLE FRIABLE EXCESSIVELY FIRM? FIRM FRIABLE? FIRM? COMPACTED? VERY FIRM EXTREMELY FIRM •• SOIL DENSITY AFFECTS WATER MOVEMENT

ROOTS (NOT REQUIRED TO REPORT) BUT BOUNDARY

HELPS TO DECIDE WHAT IS “SOIL”

HELPS TO INCORPORATE FILL SOIL

DEFINED: THE TRANSITION BETWEEN HORIZONS

HELPS TO AERATE SOIL

THICKNESS IS EITHER ABRUPT(<1”),

VERIFICATION OF SOIL STRUCTURE CLEAR (1 ––3”),3”), GRADUAL (3 ––6”)6”) OR

MEASURED AS QUANTITY AND SIZE DIFFUSE (>6”)(>6”)

BOUNDARY TOPOGRAPHY IS SMOOTH, WAVY, IRREGULAR OR BROKEN

MIN. 3 FEET SUITABLE SOIL, +20%FINES ( PASS #200 SIEVE ) % ROCK FRAGMENTS SOIL TEXTURE MAX. ROCK SUITABILTY FRAGMENT (VOL.) COARSE SAND (cos) •• Specification under SPS 382.365 for piped LOAMY C. SAND (lcos) NOT SUITABLE IF subsurface infiltration SAND (s) ------<20% FINES BY LAB •• DEFINED: Unattached pieces of rock LOAMY SAND (ls) ANALYSIS (excluding 2mm in diameter or larger FINE SAND (fs) coarse sand) LOAMY FINE SAND (lfs) •• Content is measured by volume, not weight LAB ANALYSIS REQ. •• Used in determining soil suitability for VERY FINE SAND (vfs) <20% TO VERIFY % FINES IF stormwater infiltration ROCK FRAG.>20% LOAMY VERY FINE <63% LAB ANALYSIS REQ. SAND (lvfs) TO VERIFY % FINES IF ROCK FRAG.>63%

10 MIN. 3 FEET SUITABLE SOIL, MIN. 3 FEET SUITABLE SOIL, +20%FINES ( PASS #200 SIEVE ) +20%FINES ( PASS #200 SIEVE ) SOIL TEXTURE MAX. ROCK SUITABILTY SOIL TEXTURE MAX. ROCK SUITABILTY FRAGMENT FRAGMENT (VOL.) (VOL.) CO. SANDY LOAM (cosl) LAB ANALYSIS REQ. LAB ANALYSIS REQ. SANDY LOAM (sl) <13% TO VERIFY % FINES SILT LOAM (sil) <68% TO VERIFY % FINES FINE SANDY LOAM (fsl) IF ROCK FRAG.>13% IF ROCK FRAG.>68%

LAB ANALYSIS REQ. LAB ANALYSIS REQ. VERY FINE SANDY <47% TO VERIFY % FINES SILT (si) <75% TO VERIFY % FINES LOAM (vfsl) IF ROCK FRAG.>47% IF ROCK FRAG.>75%

LAB ANALYSIS REQ. LOAM (l) <58% TO VERIFY % FINES IF ROCK FRAG.>58%

MIN. 3 FEET SUITABLE SOIL, MIN. 3 FEET SUITABLE SOIL, +20%FINES ( PASS #200 SIEVE ) +20%FINES ( PASS #200 SIEVE ) SOIL TEXTURE MAX. ROCK SUITABILTY SOIL TEXTURE MAX. ROCK SUITABILTY FRAGMENT FRAGMENT (VOL.) (VOL.) LAB ANALYSIS REQ. LAB ANALYSIS REQ. SANDY CLAY LOAM <43% TO VERIFY % FINES SANDY CLAY (sc) <56% TO VERIFY % FINES (scl) IF ROCK FRAG.>43% IF ROCK FRAG.>56%

LAB ANALYSIS REQ. LAB ANALYSIS REQ. CLAY LOAM (cl) <63% TO VERIFY % FINES CLAY (c) <63% TO VERIFY % FINES IF ROCK FRAG.>63% IF ROCK FRAG.>63%

LAB ANALYSIS REQ. LAB ANALYSIS REQ. SILTY CLAY LOAM <75% TO VERIFY % FINES SILTY CLAY (sic) <75% TO VERIFY % FINES (sicl) IF ROCK FRAG.>75% IF ROCK FRAG.>75%

MIN. 3’ SOIL SEPARATION MIN. 5’ SOIL SEPARATION TEXTURE MAX. ROCK FRAG. SUITABILTY MAX. ROCK FRAG. SUITABILTY METHODS FOR cos,s,fs, lcos, ------No ------No ls, lfs ESTIMATING % ROCK vfs <20% Yes <60% Yes lvfs <63% Yes <82% Yes FRAGMENTS cosl,sl,fsl <13% Yes <56% Yes vfsl <47% Yes <74% Yes l <58% Yes <79% Yes •• AREAL TRANSECT sil <68% Yes <84% Yes •• SHOVEL SAMPLE si <75% Yes <88% Yes scl <43% Yes <71% Yes •• PILE ESTIMATE sicl <75% Yes <88% Yes •• WEIGHT CORRELATION to VOLUME cl <63% Yes <81% Yes sc <56% Yes <78% Yes sic <75% Yes <88% Yes c <63% Yes <82% Yes

11 REDOXIMORPHIC FEATURES REDOX FEATURE DESCRIPTIONS

PRIMARY INDICATORS OF SATURATION, HIGH oo QUANTITY GROUNDWATER OR POOR HYDRAULICS --FEWFEW < 2% --COMMONCOMMON 2 ––20 %20 %

ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS --MANYMANY >20% oo SIZESIZE

IRON DEPLETIONS MOST PROMINENT --FINEFINE <5 mm --MEDIUMMEDIUM 5 --15mm15mm

CONSTANT REDUCED CONDITIONS = GLEYED --COARSECOARSE >15 mm oo CONTRAST

FORMATION DEPENDENT ON TEMPERATURE, --FAINTFAINT ––DIFFICULTDIFFICULT TO SEE pH, PRESENCE OF IRON AND MANGANESE, --DISTINCTDISTINCT ––READILYREADILY SEEN BACTERIA --PROMINENTPROMINENT ––CONSPICUOUSCONSPICUOUS oo MUNSELL COLORS USED

CALLED “REDOX FEATURES” OR “MOTTLES”

SOIL INTERPRETATION IS:

VERY DETAILED SOIL MORPHOLOGY In Wisconsin a detailed SOIL INTERPRETATION

HISTORICAL INFORMATION: HYDROLOGY, SOIL MAPS

is required

PREDICTING THE HYDRAULIC CAPABILITY AND UNIFORMITY OF THE SOIL WHEN REDOXIMORPHIC FEATURES ARE

BEST STORMWATER TREATMENT OPTIONS NOT INDICATIVE OF RECENT SEASONAL SATURATION

DESCRIPTIVE EVIDENCE; e.g. VEGETATION, DRAINAGE, TOPOGRAPHY, REDOX FEATURES, GROUNDWATER, ETC.

HAS MOSTLY REPLACED THE USE OF MONITOR WELLS SINCE 2000

THE RESULTS: DESIGN INFILTRATION OBSERVED GROUNDWATER RATES for SOIL TEXTURES RECEIVING STORMWATER

MAY NOT BE DISCERNABLE WITH

RATES BASED ON SOIL TEXTURE REDOX FEATURES

OTHER SOIL FEATURES MAY BE CONSIDERED

FLUCTUATION DEPENDENT ON SOIL

RATES IN INCHES/HOUR

RANGE IS 0.3 FOR CLAY LOAM TO 3.63.6FOR TYPES, PRECIPITATION EVENTS SANDY SOILS

ALL SOIL PORES ARE FILLED WITH

COARSER SOILS ELIMINATED DUE TO LACK OF FINES WATER

ROCK FRAGMENT CONTENT SIGNIFICANT for

WATER FLOWS OUT OF THE SOIL SUBSURFACE PIPED INFILTRATION INTO PITS AND BORINGS

12 SOIL TEXTURE DESIGN INFILTRATION RATE (IN/HR ) WHAT IS THE IDEAL SOIL FOR SAND, CO. SAND, LOAMY CO. SAND 3.60 STORMWATER INFILTRATION? LOAMY SAND 1.63

SANDY LOAM, F. SAND, LOAMY F. 0.50 TEXTURE? SAND, V.F.SAND, LOAMY V.F.SAND

STRUCTURE? LOAM 0.24

CONSISTENCE? SILT LOAM 0.13

HORIZONIZATION? SANDY CLAY LOAM 0.11

DEPTH? CLAY LOAM 0.03 SILTY CLAY LOAM 0.04 SANDY CLAY 0.04 SILTY CLAY 0.07 CLAY 0.07

CONFLICTS OF TREATMENT HORIZONALIZATION -- VS. HYDRAULICS OBJECTIVES LAYERS TREATMENT HYDRAULICS

FINE TEXTURED SOILS COARSE TEXTURED SOILS

AVOID LAYING INFILTRATION SYSTEMS ACROSS STRONGLY CONTRASTING SOIL TEXTURES OR CARBON SOURCE LOW ORGANIC MATTER HORIZONS LONG RETENTION TIME NO RETENTION SMALL PORES LARGE PORES

USE INFILTRATION RATES BASED ON MOST RESTRICTIVE SOIL WITHIN EFFECTIVE APPLICATION ZONE

HOW TO DO SIMPLE FIELD TOPOGRAPHY SOIL AND SITE 1. Find a BASELINE(building, straight fence, EVALUATION REPORTS road edge, two permanent points)

2. MARKthe borings with flag at points for

PUTS ALL THE SOIL INFORMATION measuring TOGETHER 3. Create and equal GRIDaround the borings

STANDARDIZED FORMS FOR WISCONSIN with flags , then locate all borings and flags

INFILTRATION RATES STATED

USED FOR SURFACE OR SUBSURFACE 4. SHOOT elevations INFILTRATION DESIGNS

5. DRAW contour lines

13 ISSUES WITH DESIGN SOIL SURVEY IFORMATION ON INFILTRATION RATES COUNTY WEBSITES

PROBLEM WITH OLDER AREAL PHOTOS DO ROCK FRAGMENTS AFFECT SUBSURFACE FLOW? (PRE(PRE--1975)1975)

WHAT ABOUT SOIL STRUCTURE?

PROBLEM WITH EXTRAPOLATION OF SOIL SURVEY INFORMATION TO GIS WEBSITES EXPANDABLE TO LARGE SCALES INFILTRATION RATES: CLAY vsvsCLAYCLAY LOAM

PROBLEM WITH SOIL SURVEY SOIL ENGINEERING vsvsSOILSOIL SCIENCE GENERALIZATIONS USED FOR PLANNING

14