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Visualization of Folding in Marble Outcrops, Connemara, Western Ireland: an Application of Virtual Outcrop Technology

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Visualization of Folding in Marble Outcrops, Connemara, Western Ireland: an Application of Virtual Outcrop Technology Visualization of folding in marble outcrops, Connemara, western Ireland: An application of virtual outcrop technology K.J.W. McCaffrey* Earth Sciences Department, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK M. Feely R. Hennessy Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland J. Thompson Earth Sciences Department, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK ABSTRACT al., 2000; Pringle et al., 2004a, 2004b; Clegg et a 3D representation of a landscape, such as a al., 2005; Trinks et al., 2006) or Digital Outcrop digital elevation model (DEM), enables students Virtual outcrops have been generated from Model (Bellian et al., 2005). Terrestrial laser to attain an improved perception of the geology terrestrial laser scanner data captured at two scanning (ground-based lidar [light detection in a particular region. These data sets also offer marble outcrops in the Dalradian rocks of and ranging]) is the most commonly used tool geoscientists the opportunity to collect quantita- Connemara, western Ireland. Both locations to generate these models. A laser pulse is emit- tive data sets and make observations from rock are popular fi eld study sites in the region, ted toward the outcrop, and the travel time of the exposures at their convenience, in contrast to where complex fold structures are visible refl ected light is used to calculate the distance collecting data during a time-pressured visit to in the outcrops. The development of virtual and three-dimensional (3D) coordinates of the the outcrop during fi eldwork. outcrops for student instruction is discussed, refl ecting point. In modern terrestrial laser scan- In this contribution, we provide two examples both in communicating the theories of struc- ners, this process is repeated up to 12,000 times to illustrate the role virtual outcrops can play in tural geology in the classroom, and in pre- and per second to build a high-resolution topographic education for undergraduate students and the post-fi eld study instruction. Supplementary model of the outcrop. Georeferencing the data general public. From terrestrial laser scanned VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) set using a differential global positioning system data, we generated virtual outcrops for two clas- models, Google Earth KML (Keyhole Markup (GPS) permits the generation of a geospatially sic exposures of folded Neoproterozoic marbles Language) fi les, and movies are used to com- accurate virtual outcrop that contains fully inte- in Connemara, Ireland. The locations differ municate the associated geological context for grated supplementary geospatial data such as signifi cantly in outcrop architecture: one is a each locality. Virtual outcrops and associated maps, aerial photographs, and other data sets. marble quarry with cleanly cut vertical walls; three-dimensional (3D) geological visualiza- Virtual outcrop data sets are increasingly used the other is a geomorphologically irregular, tions have the potential to supplement tra- as a research tool in the earth sciences to investi- naturally eroded valley exposing marble. The ditional educational content and aid in the gate problems in geomorphology (Rosser et al., models generated were used in two training improvement of students’ visual literacy. 2005; Wawrzyniec et al., 2007), sedimentology exercises for undergraduate students. A virtual (Bellian et al., 2005; Redfern et al., 2007), struc- outcrop created for a small marble quarry was Keywords: folds, virtual outcrop, laser scan, tural geology (Trinks et al., 2005; Pearce et al., used by an undergraduate student who had not education, Ireland. 2006; Sagy et al., 2007), and hydrocarbon reser- visited the outcrops as a basis for a laboratory- voir engineering (Pringle et al., 2004b; Enge et based research dissertation. The student carried INTRODUCTION al., 2007). These methods are of signifi cance to out a detailed structural analysis of the fold archiving sites of geological importance where geometries and styles. The other virtual outcrop Advances in geospatial surveying technolo- access to fi eld sites is limited or restricted (e.g., model was used in an educational resource for gies have provided new methods for collect- Bates et al., 2008). students prior to their visit to the site. The laser ing outcrop data, and when supported by digi- The generation and use of virtual outcrops in scan data were integrated with a 3D Virtual tal photogrammetry, can render quantitatively the analysis and interpretation of geological out- Reality Modeling Language (VRML) model accurate and visually impressive representations crops can be extended to the classroom, where depicting the surface cover and bedrock geol- of geological outcrops (McCaffrey et al., 2005). high-quality 3D visualizations can serve as ogy. These models allow user-controlled multi- This approach produces a data set that has been excellent instruction tools for educators (Trinks perspective viewing of the region’s topography termed a Virtual Outcrop (Xu et al., 1999; Xu et et al., 2005). Embedding virtual outcrops within and associated geology at a variety of scales. *[email protected] Geosphere; June 2008; v. 4; no. 3; p. 588–599; doi: 10.1130/GES00147.1; 9 fi gures; 2 animations. 588 For permission to copy, contact [email protected] © 2008 Geological Society of America Fold visualization using virtual outcrops Here we introduce the virtual outcrops, outline limestone, with intermittent sandstone beds and al., 1991; Tanner et al., 1989) and interpreted the methods used in their creation, and discuss abundant basic sills and lavas, and tuffaceous to have been emplaced from the northwest. The their application as an educational resource. horizons. The marbles of the Lakes Marble For- position of the Connemara Metamorphic Com- mation are mineralogically distinguished from plex is anomalous because it lies to the south of THE DALRADIAN MARBLES OF those of the Connemara Marble Formation by the Highland Boundary Fault. Elsewhere in Ire- CONNEMARA the lack of ophicalcite and dolomite, and visu- land and Scotland, Dalradian lithologies occur ally by their distinct blue-gray, ribbed appear- on the northwestern side of this major crustal Two distinct marble formations have been ance. The almost pure-calcite (and slightly discontinuity. The Dalradian Supergroup was described in the Neoproterozoic Dalradian rocks graphitic) marbles of the Lakes Marble Forma- deposited at the leading edge of Laurentia in Connemara (Leake and Tanner, 1994). These tion are generally homogenous but banded on a and is now exposed throughout the northwest- are the Lower Dalradian (Appin), Connemara centimeter scale, displaying thin ribs weathering ern parts of the British Isles. The sequence Marble Formation, and the Middle Dalradian out on the surface. was deformed and metamorphosed during the (Argyll) Lakes Marble Formation. Correlations Grampian (Taconic) orogeny resulting in the between the Connemara Dalradian and Scot- GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF THIS development in the Connemara region of four tish Dalradian have been described in Leake STUDY main fold phases and local attenuation of the and Tanner (1994). The Connemara Marble stratigraphic package. The metamorphic rocks Formation consists of green and white marbles, Two sites were identifi ed as excellent can- of Connemara have been subjected to amphibo- calcareous schists, and tremolitic amphibole- didates for widely useful virtual outcrops. The lite facies metamorphism, with grade increas- bearing rocks (Leake and Tanner, 1994). The sites are located 28 km apart on opposite sides ing from north (garnet zone) to south (upper Connemara Marbles have been correlated with of the ENE-WSW–trending Connemara Anti- sillimanite zone) through a series of east-west– the Scottish Appin Islay Limestone Formation form (Leake and Tanner, 1994) in the Neopro- trending metamorphic zones. (Leake and Tanner, 1994), and the rocks of terozoic-age Dalradian Metamorphic Complex the Argyll Lakes Marble Formation have been in Connemara, western Ireland (Fig. 1). The Streamstown Marble Quarry correlated with the Easdale Subgroup of the Connemara Dalradian, consisting of mainly Scottish Dalradian (Harris and Pitcher, 1975). marbles, schist, and quartzite, is allochthonous The two locations were chosen due to the The Lakes Marble Formation is a thick calcitic (Friedrich et al., 1999; Harris, 1995; Graham et contrasting nature of the exposures—one a Figure 1. Geology of Connemara, Ireland, showing the locations of the two fi eld sites discussed in this paper. Geosphere, June 2008 589 McCaffrey et al. natural outcrop surface and the other a quarry “z” fold patterns, with two distinct synformal estimate is given by the manufacturer as ±5 mm exposure. The fi rst location is a small quarry folds present on this west-facing outcrop. at these scales of observation (<25 m). at Streamstown (Irish National Grid 65497 261915) located 3 km northeast of Clifden in LIDAR DATA COLLECTION (LASER Data Acquisition: Cur Hill Connemara, western Ireland. It was chosen for SCANNING) its excellent exposures of Connemara Marble Four laser scans (three panoramas and one fold structures (see Fig. 2.26, p. 53, in Stan- The lidar data sets were collected from tripod detailed fi ne scan) were taken at Cur Hill from ley, 1999). The quarry is located in a pocket of positions that were sited for optimum view- three positions (Fig. 2B). Scans 1 and 3 were Connemara Marble, ~1 km east of the Renvyle- shed of the outcrops under study. Point clouds taken in the middle of
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