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RETHINKING AUDIENCES: Visual Representations of Africa and the Nigerian Diaspora

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RETHINKING AUDIENCES: Visual Representations of Africa and the Nigerian Diaspora RETHINKING AUDIENCES: Visual Representations of Africa and the Nigerian Diaspora Edward Adedamola Adeleke Ademolu, 2018 A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities, Global Development Institute, School of Environment, Education and Development Table of Contents Abbreviations and Acronyms………………………………………………………………………6 Figures and Tables…………………………………………………………………………………...7 Images …………………………………………………………………………………………………7 Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………...9 Declaration and Copyright………………………………………………………………………...10 Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………………11 CHAPTER 1: Introduction and Research Background……………………………………….12 1.1 Introduction to the Research………………………………………………………….12 1.2 Research Aims and Objectives of the Research……………………………………14 1.3 Research Significance…………………………………………………………………15 1.4 Narrating the Research’s Story: Situating the ‘Self’ ……………………………….16 1.5 The Background Story: A Reflective Journey……………………………………….17 1.6 Organisation of the thesis………………………………………………………..……23 1.7 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………23 CHAPTER 2: Literature Review…………………………………………………………………..24 2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...24 2.2 Understanding Representations: meanings and Language……………………….24 2.3 Theories of Representation…………………………………………………………...25 2.4 The Power of Representations: Discourse and Ideology…………..……………...27 2.5 Docile Masses or Active Appropriators? Audiences and Representations………30 2.5.1 Understanding Audiences…………………………………………………………..31 2.5.2 Effects vs Encoding/Decoding: The oscillation between passive and active….33 2.6 Representations of Development: NGO fundraising Images and Audiences…...36 2.6.1 What is Development?......................................................................................36 2.6.2 ‘Shock-effect’ images and public donations………………………………………39 2.6.3 Relationships between audiences and distant people…………………………..41 2.6.4 Development representations and public perceptions…………………………..42 2.7 Situating Diaspora in the study of Development Representations……………….43 2.7.1 Towards a conceptualisation of Diaspora and their identities…………………..44 2.7.2 Understanding Diaspora identities…………………………………………………45 2 2.7.3 Diaspora and Development………………………………………………………...47 2.8 Conceptual Framework and Research Questions………………………….………48 2.9 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………....51 CHAPTER 3: Contextualising Nigeria Diaspora and Development Representations…53 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….53 3.2 Nigeria: Country and Demographic Profile…………………………………………54 3.3 Nigeria, Colonialism’s Imagining? Nigeria and Colonialism……………………...60 3.3.1 Imposition of British Colonialism and the Establishment of Nigeria…………...60 3.4 Migration………………………………………………………………………….…….63 3.5 Nigeria(ns) and Development Representations……………………………….……67 3.6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….………..71 CHAPTER 4: Methodology and Methods………………………………………………………..73 4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...73 4.2 Ontological and Epistemological Orientation………………………………………...73 4.3 Qualitative Methodology and Methods……………………………………………….74 4.4 Sample…………………………………………………………………………………..76 4.5 Conducting the Research……………………………………………………………...77 4.5.1 Planning the Focus Groups………………………………………………………….77 4.5.2 Conducting the Focus Groups………………………………………………………78 4.6 Interviewing Participants……………………………………………………………….81 4.7 Online Ethnography…………………………………………………………………….83 4.8 Ethical Considerations………………………………………………………………….86 4.8.1 Positionality and Research(er) Reflexivity………………………………………….88 4.9 Data Recording and Analysis………………………………………………………….89 4.10 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..94 CHAPTER 5: Development representations and diaspora knowledge and perceptions of their place of origin………………………………………………………………………………....95 5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...95 5.2 Helplessness……………………………………………………………………………95 5.3 Primitivism………………………………………………………………………… ….103 5.4 Homogenous and Undifferentiated……………………………………………….…106 3 5.4.1 Territorialised Rurality…………………………………………………………..….106 5.4.2 Spacio-culturally Monolithic: ‘Nigeria as Africa’………………………………….111 5.5 Dual and Multiple Perceptions and Understandings………………………………112 5.6 Indignation of, and Ethno-Racial Identification with Representations…………...116 5.7 White British Audiences………………………………………………………………123 5.8 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..125 CHAPTER 6: Development representations and diaspora engagement with development in their place of origin…………………….…………………………………....130 6.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………130 6.2 Diaspora mistrust of international development organisations…………………………………..…………………………...……………..131 6.2.1 Oversimplified Africa……………………………………………………………….131 6.2.2 Discouraging Messages……………………………………………………………134 6.2.3 Racist Imagery………………………………………………………………………138 6.3 Remittances ‘as’ Development? African Diaspora and ‘Homeland’ Remitting…142 6.4 ‘Faith-full’ Support: The Role of Religion in Diaspora Engagement……………..146 6.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..148 CHAPTER 7: Diaspora audiences producing, shaping and/or challenging development representations………………………...…………………….…………………………………....153 7.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….153 7.2 #Twitter = Digital Re-presentation? Diaspora Microblogging and Image- Sharing……………………………………………………………………………………..156 7.2.1 Children and Childhood……………………………………………………………160 7.2.2 Food and Cuisine…………………………………………………………………..163 7.2.3 Property……………………………………………………………………………..167 7.2.4 Industrialised Cities…………………………………………………………….…..172 7.2.5 Tourist/leisure attractions………………………………………………………….175 7.3 #United Diaspora……………………………………………………………………..180 7.3.1: #United Diaspora Against ‘White Media’………………………………………..183 7.4 Video Sharing on YouTube………………………………………………………….187 7.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….194 4 CHAPTER 8: Development Representations and African Diaspora: Summary, Contributions and Ways forward……………………………………………………………………………………..…….198 8.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….198 8.2 Summary of the Empirical Findings…………………………………………………200 8.3 Empirical Contributions……………………………………………………………….202 8.4 Theoretical Contributions…………………………………………………………….206 8.5 Limitations……………………………………………………………………………..211 8.6 Suggestions for further research……………………………………………………212 8.7 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….214 References ......................................................................................................................................215 Appendices ....................................................................................... ………………………230 Appendix 1: Tables showing diaspora focus group participants……….……………....230 Appendix 2: Tables showing white focus group participants……………………..……..233 Appendix 3: Focus Group Discussion Prompt Sheet………………………..…………….234 Appendix 4: Table showing online diaspora interview participants……………..……..235 Appendix 5: Table showing interviews with NGOs and development organisations..236 Appendix 6: Interview Prompt Sheet for NGO professionals / Key Informants……….237 Appendix 7: Interview Prompt Sheet for online diaspora…………………………………238 Appendix 8: Focus Group NGO Representations…………………………………………..239 Word count: 81, 883 5 Abbreviations and Acronyms CRT Critical Race Theory DFID Department for International Development IMO The International Organisation for Migration INGO International Non-Governmental Organisation ITN British Independent Television Authority NGO Non-governmental Organisation SNS Social Networking Sites UK United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland UNICEF United Nations Childs Emergency Fund USA United States of America VSO Voluntary Services Overseas 6 Figures and Tables Figure 1: Sign Model…………………………………………………………………………………………27 Figure 2: Satellite View and Map of Nigeria showing Abuja……………………………………………..54 Figure 3: Map of Nigeria showing its 36 states……………………………………………………………55 Figure 4: Map of Nigeria showing the boundaries of 1914………………………………………………61 Figure 5: Graph showing countries of origin of African migrants in the UK (2008)……………………65 Table 3.1: Total Number of Nigerian-born emigrants between 1960 and 2015……………………….57 Images Image 1.1: First visit to Lagos, Nigeria (1995)………………………………………………………………19 Image 3.1: London Metro Newspaper Headline, August 2015: ‘African migrants a threat to our way of Life’…………………………………………………………………………………………………66 Image 3.2: The Sun, June 12, 1968, pp. 2-3. Reproduced with permission of News Syndication……69 Inage 3.3: United Action for Nigeria/Biafra, 19th December 1969. Reproduced with permission of News Syndication……………………………………………………………………………………………………...70 Image 4.1: “The Africa the media never shows you – in pictures”………………………………………..84 Image 4.2: Reflective Journal………………………………………………………………………………..90 Image 5.1: WaterAid ‘Malawian Crisis’ (2016)………………………………………………………………86 Image 5.2: Concern Worldwide, ‘Free Children from hunger’ Appeal (2015)……………………………88 Image 5.3: Oxfam (2012)……………………………………………………………………………………...93 Image 5.4: Oxfam (2012) ‘Food For all’ Campaign…………………………………………………………98 Image 5.5: Comic Relief (2016)……………………………………………………………………………..108 Image 7.1: #TheAfricaTheMediaNeverShowsYou Tweet………………………………………………..157 Image 7.2: ‘Our little ones are happy’………………………………………………………………………160 Image 7.3: “Africa isn’t about starving and malnourished children”……………………………………..160 Image 7.4: “The Joy of African Children”…………………………………………………………………..161 Image 7.5: “African Kids do
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