Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 7 (2012 5) 907-915 ~ ~ ~

УДК 81’27 (94)

The Language Situation in Modern Australia

Irina . Dobryaeva* Siberian Federal University 82a Svobodny, Krasnoyarsk, 660041 Russia 1

Received 31.12.2011, received in revised form 11.01.2012, accepted 16.02.2012 In the article the language situation in modern Australia is analyzed from the points of the compo- nents, functional distribution of socio-communicative functions between its systems and subsystems and also the factors that formed this situation and are influencing it at present. The English lan- guage () is found to dominate in the exoglossic aspect while its codified variety (mAusE) is found to dominate in the endoglossic aspect of the language situation, the consequences of this domination for Aboriginal and migrant languages and Australian English itself are studied. The two aspects of the language situation in modern Australia: exoglossic and endoglossic – are found to be isomorphic. Keywords: language situation, exoglossic, endoglossic, language policy, non-balanced, multicul- turalism, bilingualism, macro-mediator, micro-mediator, language habitat, migration, multiethnic communities, LOTEs, Aboriginal languages, mAusE, AusE, exonormative, endonormative, supra- dialect koine, lingua franca, dialectisms, ethnolects, sociolects, polycentric, epicenter.

Introduction and cultures with the in the There is no denying the fact that modern era language habitat of Australia. is the age of global communication, interaction Definitions and mobility. It is also the age of global English – . The definitions of a language situation The societies and communities are given by different researches (A. . Shveitser, increasingly becoming multiethnic due to .. Nikolsky, Ch. Ferguson, .P. Neshimenko migration. But does this mean they are becoming etc.) vary in the set of criteria employed multilingual and multicultural? by the linguists. The definition given by With the help of studying the language A. D. Shveitser combines most of these situation in Australia, which is traditionally criteria and in our research we rely on this viewed as a multilingual and multicultural definition: “Language situation is a model society, we are trying to analyze the of social and functional distribution and phenomenon of Australian multilinguisity and hierarchy of socio-communicative systems and multiculturalism through studying the modes subsystems which coexist and interact within and types of interaction of migrant languages a politico-administrative unit or cultural

* Corresponding author -mail address: [email protected] 1 © Siberian Federal University. All rights reserved – 907 – Irina S. Dobryaeva. The Language Situation in Modern Australia habitat in a certain period of time, and also by G.. Stepanov as interaction of different social attitudes of members of these language parts of a language paradigm i.e. a syntagmatic groups (communities) towards these systems and aspect of relationship of a language paradigm. subsystems.” (Shveitser, 1978: 85) (Stepanov, 1976:30-31) This definition, like most of the others, In A.D.Shveitser’s definition, as well as in distinguishes two aspects of a language situation: the definition of Ch.Ferguson and in some other the internal differentiation of one and the same definitions, the language situation is connected language (“the system of subsystems”) and the with a synchronous state, or a “certain period of interaction of different languages (“language time”, and is sometimes treated as a static and systems”) operating in one society. Depending isolated phenomenon. on the type of the society: monolingual or But this doesn’ mean that a language multilingual, the former or the latter aspect comes situation is something isolated. In the words of to prominence. L. B. Nickolsky :” The interaction of functionally The language situation in a monolingual different languages changes in the course of time society can be defined as a system of functionally under the influence of the society and the language distributed forms of existence of one language policy. This process can be segmented into a (“the system of subsystems”), correlating with number of stages, each of which can be called ‘a the continuum of language communication. language situation’“(Nickolsky, 1976:126). According to L. B. Nickolsky’s classification of So, the language situation is the result of language situations, such language situations some linguistic as well as extralinguistic factors are called endoglossic. (Nickolsky, 1976: 80-88, and is “determined by such factors as: linguistic, cited from Shveitser) historical, cultural, demographic, geographic, The language situation in a multilingual economic, social and political (mostly language society is a similar system, in which different policy) “(Guboglo, 1973:231) languages are functionally distributed. Of all the factors mentioned above, we Such language situations are classified by consider language policy to be the key factor, L.B. Nickolsky as exoglossic. (ibid) forming a language situation. . Usseler defines The word “hierarchy” in A. D. Shveitser’s language policy as “the measures of state and definition correlates with L. B. Nicolsky’s social institutions concerning the social status of classification, in which he defines language a language as a means of communication, which situations with functionally equal systems as include social evaluation of a language as a means balanced, and those with functionally unequal of communication and also steps to form national systems as non-balanced. languages”. (Usseler, 1987: 196) In his theory of the language situations Language policy in a multinational country G.V. Stepanov distinguishes a “language state” is particularly complicated because it should and “language situation”. The “language consider such factors as a large number of state” ” is a paradigm of different varieties of languages and nationalities present and the types the same language which form the functional of relationships between them and also the role of system of this language: dialects, a codified different languages and their speakers in social language, national varieties. The elements of life. We base our research on the detailed and this paradigm can either interact or function thorough analysis of language policy in Australia independently. The language situation is defined by E.B. Grishaeva. (Grishaeva, 2005) – 908 – Irina S. Dobryaeva. The Language Situation in Modern Australia

The exoglossic aspect The first migrants were free settles from Britain. of the language situation Among the first non-English-speaking migrants in modern Australia were Germans, who formed the largest non- Australia is a multiethnic state and defines English speaking community in 19th century. The itself as a nation of migrants and a multilingual second largest group of migrants was Italians, and multicultural country. who started to arrive to Australia at the end of The modern language situation in Australia 19th century. Asian migration was banned during is a result of historical development of Australia the policy of “White Australia”, but after the and it stems from the early period of colonization abolition of this policy the country started to and formation of the Australian nation. The accept considerable numbers of Asian migrants English language was transported to Australia as well. All in all, as a result of a constant influx at the end of 18th century when the first penal of migrants from non-English speaking countries, colony was established in port Jackson (modern the language ecology of Australia was enriched Sydney). by some 200 migrant languages. They are known Before the arrival of the British, Australia as LOTEs-Languages other than English. was a multinational and multilingual society So far we can witness more than 300 which had around 250 different (and mutually hundred languages present in Australia. Besides incomprehensible) tribal languages, whose the English language, 120 Aboriginal languages speakers could not understand each other. The and 200 LOTEs there are some early pidgins in language habitat of early Australia was not the language habitat of modern Australia, which hierarchical; all its languages had equal status. developed simultaneously with the Australian Therefore, it can be said that the language English: Norfolk (or Pitkern) and Cape Barren situation in early Australia was exoglossic English. So, we can classify the language balanced. All the languages had equal situation as exoglossic. But in contrast to the early demographic and communicative capacity. Australian society, in modern Australia these The lack of a lingua franca, a language numerous languages do not have the equal status. of intertribal communication, resulted in the Having forced away the Aboriginal languages, inability of the separated indigenous (tribal) English came to dominance in Australia. languages to oppose the power of the invading The migrants arriving to Australia were English language, which not only destroyed the strongly influenced by Australian surroundings balance of the traditional language habitat, but and were supposed and expected to become part of also forced most of the Aboriginal languages the Australian society. The policy of assimilation out of this habitat. Nowadays there are only 120 demanded that migrants should accept the values Aboriginal languages left, which have limited of the host culture and study the English language social functions of local or household languages. as the most important part of acculturation. The But there are not only Aboriginal languages knowledge of English was the necessary condition and the English language in the language habitat of integration of an individual into the Australian of Australia. There are also numerous migrant society. languages there. The domination of English the modern It should be noted, that Australia has Australian society is reflected in its official always been a migrant country (migration has status – it dominates in government, political consistently been part of Australian history). administration, official papers and education. – 909 – Irina S. Dobryaeva. The Language Situation in Modern Australia

Besides that more than 90% of 22 mln population The domination of English is reflected in both of Australia speak English either as their first or objective and subjective aspects of the language second language. situation in modern Australia. While the objective The domination of English is also aspects includes the parameters characterizing reflected in its socio-communicative role of a language systems and the relationships between language – macro-mediator: it is the language these systems, the subjective one is connected of intergroup, intercommunity and international with the social prestige of the coexisting systems communication, catering for all the groups of a and with social values of the speakers (“social multilingual society. attitudes of members of these language groups The languages of migrant communities (communities) towards these systems and (LOTEs), like Aboriginal languages, have the subsystems.”) functional status of local (household or “island”) The tendency of forcing out of minority languages, or languages-micro-mediators. Such languages is accompanied by low language loyalty languages are functionally limited; their role can combined with the low status of native languages be compared to the role of dialects. The speakers of and high status of the English language in ethnic such languages are, as a rule, bilingual, speaking communities. To characterize this situation their native languages at home and switching to . Fishman applies the term of Ch. Ferguson a codified form of the national language in other “diglossia”, which the author initially used to social situations. This type of bilingualism is characterize endoglossic language situations, known as subordinate bilingualism. in which “there is a socially justified and According to J. Fishman, the transition from culturally meaningful functional differentiation” compound bilingualism, i.e. the bilingualism, of the codes, used in the society, i.e. there is an where contacting languages are functionally agreement that one variety has a “high” status, the interdependent (the English language is other – “low” status. As a rule in such situations based on one’s native language) towards there is a functional division between these two coordinative bilingualism, where languages varieties: “high” is used for “public”, “formal” function independently and again to compound situations and is often recognized as the official bilingualism, when English begins to dominate language of the state. This variety has more in all spheres (and it is the native language that is complex and conservative linguistic features, based on English) takes place within the process than “low” variety. The “low” variety is, in of assimilation of 2-3 generations of migrants. contrast, characterized by an “unofficial” status, Compound bilingualism is a complicated household usage, changeable and “simplified” socio-communicative system in which some cells structure and is limited to oral communication. of the functional matrix are filled with English, (Bell, 1980:175) the others with the native ethnic language. At the same time J. Fishman notes the opposite (J. Fishman, 1972:115-116, cited from Shveitser, tendency – the prestige of native languages in 1983:43) migrant communities is growing as the spheres of So, the general tendency of the English its functional usage are being limited. J. Fishman languages forcing out indigenous and ethnic calls this phenomenon “the prestige halo”. It languages and gaining the dominant role is the should be noted that this increased prestige is not important aspect of the language situation in backed by the increased usage of these languages. modern Australia. So, it is a kind of inverse proportion between – 910 – Irina S. Dobryaeva. The Language Situation in Modern Australia the intensity of the use of the native language is leading to aboriginal and migrant languages and the positive attitude towards it. This fact dwindling away from the social spheres despite proves that there is no direct connection between the support of the government. the objective and the subjective aspects of the The Endoglossic Aspect language situation. (Fishman, 1972, cited from of the Language Situation Shveitser, 1983:46-47). in Modern Australia Despite the fact that Australia is a multiethnic society, the idea of introduction of Describing the exoglossic aspect of the the second official language was not supported language situation in modern Australia, we by the population fearing that an attempt to treated the English language as a homogeneous proclaim one of the numerous LOTEs as the phenomenon. But the English language in second official language could lead to the split Australia, catering for all the groups of its of the society into ethnic and language groups. multiethnic society, is not at all homogenous. (Grishaeva, 2005) Therefore, the language situation in modern The modern language policy in Australia Australia is not limited to the exoglossic aspect, is aimed at integration of migrants into the but it is characterized by the combination of Australian society. Among the main principles of exoglossic and endoglossic relationships between this policy are the following: the language systems and subsystems forming • supporting Aboriginal languages and this language situation. LOTEs The History • providing the services in LOTEs of Australian English • providing the opportunities for studying LOTEs The English language was transported to In accordance with these principles, local Australia at the end of 18th century when the first governments in Australia pay a great attention penal colony was established in port Jackson to the languages of the ethnic communities and (modern Sydney). provide the services and information in different In the period of colonization of Australia languages. There exists the Buro of registration the formation of the national English language for interpreters and translators and an extensive had already been completed. The Standard infrastructure of telephone and court interpreting – the national variety of the and translation services for non-English speaking English language functioned as an supradialect population. The languages recommended for communication system in England and had a studying at schools include: standard Chinese, high social prestige while local dialects got low Indonesian, Arabic and Spanish. (ibid) social status. So, the language situation in modern Being a transported language, at first, Australia can be characterized as exoglossic English in Australia was exonormative – it had non-balanced, because only one of more than an outside standard: the British English. The 300 languages present, dominates – the English influence of a Standard British English and its language. Of all Australian languages, English has codified norms was huge. the highest demographic and functional capacity Australian English was called “corrupt and it is the language – macro-mediator with the English” and had a low status due to the features highest social status. This domination of English of south English and Irish dialects. These very – 911 – Irina S. Dobryaeva. The Language Situation in Modern Australia dialectal aberrations formed the core of the encouraged assimilation. Despite the fact that Australian variety of the English language. early settlers were the speakers of English and The recognition of the equal status of the Irish dialects, the language situation in colonial Australian English did not come quickly. The Australia did not encourage the preservation inferiority was sustained with the help of the of these dialect differences. On the contrary, system of education which was rather conservative accepting various migrant waves, the country and British norms-oriented. was in need of an overdialect koine to help the The negative attitude lasted till S.Baker’s communication on the continent. The codified publication of “The Australian language” variety of Australian English became such and G. Mitchell’s publication “The English in overdialect koine. Australia” in 1944. Both linguists claimed that the There have traditionally been distinguished codified variety of Australian English (or, in the three social accents in Australian English: Broad, terms of G.Leitner – the mainstream Australian General and Cultivated. They were distinguished English (mAusE) had the right to differ from by S. Baker in 1945 and A.G. Mitchell and the British norm and needed description and A. Delbridge in 1965. Nowadays, B. M. Horvarth judgment from the inside, not the outside. And adds two more accents: Ethnic Broad and yet as far as the 1970s Australian English was Accented. Her statistic analysis shows that still exonormative. according to the articulation of vowels there But the transition to the Australian norms is a core – Cultivated, General and Broad and was imminent. As soon as the first edition of the a periphery – Ethnic Broad and Accented. The Macquarie dictionary (part of the Macquarie speakers of periphery accents are Greeks or project) was issued in 1981, it became an authority Italians: two thirds of Greeks speak with Accented not only in lexical and grammar usage of words, (sociolect 1) and two thirds of Italians with Ethnic but also in pronunciation. So, by the end of the Broad (sociolect 2) (Leitner, 2004:230-231). 1980s mAusE became the official language of the Grammar and stylistics are quite unified Australian society. throughout the country. As for the lexis, a survey Modern Australian English is endonormative, in regional usage in the lexicon of Australian i.e. it has its own standard and norms, and it is an English, carried out by P. Bryant, found clearly epicenter of the English language in Asia-Pacific defined usage regions (or dialect zones) in region. (Leitner, 2004) Australia, namely: 1. South-west (southern part of Western The Internal Structure Australia) of Australian English 2. South-Centre (Southern Australia and Codified Australian English (mAusE) is Eastern Victoria) the official national language and as such it has 3. South-East (Victoria, Tasmania, Riverina, dialects of its own. On the whole, Australian south New Wales, part of Southern English does not have the same degree of dialect Australia) variety as British English. Moreover, Australia 4. North-East (Queensland and New South was traditionally considered as lacking dialects Wales) and regional varieties. This was accounted According to her findings, dialectisms are for by the fact that in Australia people lived limited to several onomaseological domains, such in the conditions which demanded or, at least, as: food, household utensils, countryside, birds – 912 – Irina S. Dobryaeva. The Language Situation in Modern Australia and plants while there are much less dialectisms is itself polycentric in the language habitat of in topography, business and weather. (Leitner, Australia. 2004: 254-255) As for the functional distribution of the So, mAusE plays the role of the national elements of the endoglossic paradigm, we can say language, has some dialectal differences and it is that mAusE as the language of the mainstream a codified variety of Australian English. society, the language of government, political administration, official papers and education, Varieties of Australian English dominates over the other varieties of AusE, According to G. Leitner, besides mAusE, which are limited to local and household usage. It there are other varieties of Australian English has high social prestige and has a more developed which include: Aboriginal English, English as a structure. lingua franca and ethnical varieties of Australian Thus, the endoglossic aspect of the language English. They form the paradigm of Australian situation in modern Australia is isomorphic to its English (AusE). exoglossic aspect. They are both polycomponent Aboriginal English is also called a non-balanced. The combination of socio- dialect or ethnolect of AusE. Before the arrival functional distribution and the hierarchy of socio- of the British, Australia was a multinational communicative subsystems in the endoglossic and multilingual society with more than 250 aspect form the Australian national variety of the different languages, which were mutually English language. incomprehensible to their speakers. Besides Similarly to Australian language dominating that, there was no language of intertribal in exoglossic situation, mAusE dominates in the communication, a lingua franca. Nowadays endoglossic one. Aboriginal English is the main means of mAuSe has the same relations with the communication of Australian Aborigines “substandard” subsystem which normally exist (indigenous population), and according to many between the standard language and dialects specialists, today it is the means of expressing within the national language. mAusE is also Aboriginal identity. (Kirkpatrick, 2004: 70). multifunctional, performing all the social English as a lingua franca is used for functions typical of the national language (it is communication in mixed ethnical communities. the official language, the language of culture, Although Australia is a multilingual society, science and mass media) while its “substandard” Australians are mainly monolingual or at best variants , its social and regional dialects are, as a bilingual, speaking their native language and rule, monofunctional. They are used in a limited English. range of social situations, household interaction Ethnic variants of English are called and some professional spheres. sociolects, e.g. Italian English or Greek English. Conclusion They have the features of phonetics, lexis and even grammar structures of migrant languages Our research shows that the language situation and have quite a low social status. They are in modern Australia is a complex interaction of usually the variants of English spoken by the first the systems and subsystems of its exoglossic and generations of migrants. endoglossic aspects, which are isomorphic to each Therefore, AusE, being a primary national other, both being polycomponent non-balanced. variety of the polycentric English language, English in Australia has the same dominating – 913 – Irina S. Dobryaeva. The Language Situation in Modern Australia role it has all over the world. Australian English levelling being the English language – Australian dominates over more that 300 languages in the English. language habitat of modern Australia, its codified Being the primary national variety of the variant – mAusE – being recognized as the official polycentric English language, Australian English language of the country (and the only one). is polycentric in the language habitat of modern Due to its role as the official language and Australia. This pluricentricity seems to be a high social prestige, the English language is compensation for forcing Aboriginal and migrant willingly accepted as a means of international languages out of the language habitat of Australia. communication (lingua franca) in multiethnic It seems to provide the means for expressing communities thus blurring the language and of ethnic identity for indigenous people and cultural distinctions and leading to levelling of migrants through ethnolects and sociolects of cultures and their unification, the vehicle for this Australian English.

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G.V. Stepanov, The typology of language states and situations in the countries of Roman speech (Moscow: Nauka Publishers, 1976) (In Russian). M. Usseler, Sociolinguistics (Kiev: Vischa shkola, Kiev University Publishing House, 1987) (In Russian). N.B. Vakhtin, E.V. Golovko, Sociolinguistics and the sociology of language (St. Petersburg: Academy of Humanities Publishers, 2004) (In Russian).

Языковая ситуация в современной Австралии

И.С. Добряева Сибирский федеральный университет Россия 660041, Красноярск, пр. Свободный, 82а

В статье анализируется языковая ситуация в современной Австралии с точки зрения компонентов, функционального распределения социально-коммуникативных функций между различными системами и подсистемами, a также факторов, сформировавших данную языковую ситуацию и оказывающих влияние на ее формирование в настоящее время. Выявляется доминирование английского языка (AusE) в экзоглоссном аспекте и его кодифицированного варианта (mAusE) в эндоглоссном аспекте языковой ситуации в современной Австралии и анализируются последствия этого доминирования для аборигенных и иммигрантских языков и самого австралийского английского языка. Выявляется изоморфизм между экзоглоссным и эндоглоссным аспектами данной языковой ситуации. Ключевые слова: языковая ситуация, экзоглоссный, эндоглоссный, языковая политика, несбалансированная, мультикультурализм, билингвизм, макропосредник, микропосредник, языковой ареал, иммиграция, полиэтничные сообщества, языки иммигрантов, аборигенные языки, ДАА, АА, экзонормативный, эндонормативный, наддиалектное койне, лингва франка, диалектизмы, этнолекты, социолекты, плюрицентричный, эпицентр.