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Glossary aedeagus Sclerotized tube in male moths through which the vesica or penis passes Bold within the text of an entry indicates a cross- aerosol Suspension of solid or liquid particles in air with reference to another headword. The following abbrevia- droplets smaller than 50 µm tions are used for: aestivation Dormancy during hot or dry season pl. plural of a term aetiology Science and study of the factors causing disease sing. singular of a term age-grading Determination of the physiological age of adj. adjective an insect lat. Latin agitator Mechanical device in the spray tank to ensure uniform distribution of toxicant and to prevent abdomen Third major division of an insect body (fig. 2-1) sedimentation abiotic Inanimate environmental factors such as climate, air-sac Thin-walled dilated sections of the tracheae temperature, etc., that do not derive directly from the akinesis State of immobility due to lack of stimuli presence of other organisms; see biotic alary muscles (=aliform muscles) Paired muscles that abundance (=population density) Number of individu- support the heart (fig. 2-24) als of a species in a particular area alate Possessing wings; in the context of termites, winged Acari (=Acarina) Mites, ticks; order of the class Arachnida reproductives acaricide Any agent suitable for the control or eradica- aliform muscles See alary muscles tion of mites and ticks alimentary channel Digestive tract (fig. 2-23) accessory gland Gland subsidiary to a major one; more alinotum (pl. alinota) Wing-bearing plate on the dorsum specifically, a gland opening into the genital chamber of the meso- or metathorax acaetylcholine A neurotransmitter of many interneural, alitrunk Fused thorax and first abdominal segment (pro- neuromuscular and other cholinergic effector synapses, podeum) of adult ants (fig. 5-59) relays an electrical signal in chemical form, with alkaloids Group of nitrogen-containing chemicals found transduction back to the electrical signal at the in plants, many with important toxic properties and/or postsynaptic membrane pharmacological actions activation In embryology, the commencement of embry- onic development within the egg allelochemicals Volatile messengers for communication activator In applied entomology, any chemical added to between individuals of different species; see kairo- a pesticide to increase its toxicity mone, allomone, pheromone and synomone active constituent See active ingredient allomone Communication chemical that benefits the pro- active ingredient (a.i.) Actual toxic agent present in ducer by the effect it invokes in the receiver; see pesticide formulations allelochemicals aculeate Non-parasitic, phytophagous allopatric Non-overlapping geographic distribution of aculei Minute, hair-like outgrowths or microtrichia of organisms or taxa; see sympatric the cuticle covering the wings and other structures alternate host The other species of plant that is neces- beneath the scales of primitive moths sary for the completion of the life cycle of some acute poisoning Poisoning which occurs when a large insects and plant-disease producing organisms amount of a pesticide is incorporated in a single go; alternative host Organism which acts as one of several the effect of the poisoning is seen quickly; see hosts to a pest or pathogen chronic poisoning altruism Behaviour costly to an individual but beneficial additive See adjuvant to others adecticous pupa Pupa without articulated mandibles Ametabola (adj. ametabolous) Insects without metamor- (fig. 2-43) phosis adenotrophic viviparity Viviparity (producing living ametabolous development Development of primitive, offspring) in which there is no free-living larval stage; wingless insects without metamorphosis; there are no eggs develop within the female uterus, nourished by marked changes in body form between the immature special milk glands until the larvae mature, at which and adult insects; during their development the insects stage they are laid and immediately pupate; occurring undergo more than 10 moults and continue to moult in some Diptera after sexual maturity adfrontal area Area between the adfrontal sutures and amplexiform Type of wing-coupling mechanism in the ecdysial lines on the larval head which an enlarged humeral area of the hind wing is adhesive In applied entomology, any material added to broadly overlapped by the forewing increase pesticide retention; different commercial pre- ampulla Sclerotized structure on the inner face of the parations of methyl cellulose are used for this purpose valva in certain male moths adjuvant Spray additive to improve either physical or anabolism See metabolism chemical properties of a pesticide; see also adhesive, anal In the direction or position of the anus, near the emulsifier, sticker, supplement, wetter anus or on the last abdominal segment 266 Glossary anal area The posterior part of the wings, supported by aphrodisiac (adj. aphrodisiac) Substance produced by the anal vein(s) (fig. 2-1) either sex that facilitates courtship or prepares the anal fan See vannus opposite sex for copulation after the pair has been anal fold (=vannal fold) Distinctive fold in the anal brought together area of the wing apical Area at or adjacent to the tip of the wing or other anal hooks Hooked or clubbed setae at the posterior end structure (fig. 2-2) of the pupa, used to attach the pupa to the cocoon or a Apocrita , one of the two Hymenoptera suborders pad of silk apod A larva without legs (fig. 2-42) anal shield Sclerotized middorsal plate on abdominal apode (adj. apodous, apodal, apod) An organism without segment 10 of the larva legs anal tube Membranous posterior end of the intestinal tract apodeme Enfolded or rod-like projection of the integu- anal veins One of three wing veins (IA to 3A) situated ment to which muscles are attached posterior of the cubitus or cubital vein (fig. 2-21) apodous Without legs analogues Series of organic compounds similar in apolysis Separation of the new epidermis from the old function but not identical in structure to the original cuticle in preparation for ecdysis compound apophysis (pl. apophyses) Rod-like apodemes to which analogy (adj. analogous) Functional similarity of a the muscles operating the female genital organs are structure of two or more organisms without common attached evolutionary origin, eg. the wings of insects and birds aposematic coloration Warning coloration; usually or bats; opposite to homology refers to the bright, often contrasting colours of dis- anatomy Science of the structure of animal bodies; study tasteful or toxic species, but applies equally to alerting of their structures by separation into parts odours, audible signals or other similar features anemophily Pollination by wind aposematism Communication system based on warning Annelida Animal phylum of segmented worms eg. earth signals worms appendage Any structure attached to a part of the body anoxia (adj. anoxic) deficiency in tissues of an organism antagonist (adj. antagonistic) (1) Organism interfering or appendicular ovipositor True ovipositor formed from inhibiting growth or presence of another; (2) chemical appendages of segments 8 and 9 such as a drug, hormone, etc. producing opposite applied entomology (=economic entomology) Study of physiological effects; (3) muscles producing opposite both beneficial and injurious insects and related movements so that contraction of one must be accom- organisms like ticks, mites and spiders panied by relaxation of the other; opposite synergist apterous Wingless anteclypeus Transverse sclerite on the anterior border of Wingless insect orders the frontoclypeus in the larva, with which the labrum articulates aqueous Watery; made from or of water antenna (pl. antennae) Paired, segmented sensory append- Arachnida Class of spider-like animals like true spiders, ages on an insect’s head; commonly called ‘feelers’ harvestmen, scorpions, mites, ticks, etc. antennomere Subdivision of the antenna (fig. 2-2) arachnophobia Fear of spiders anterior Situated at or towards the front Araneae Class of the Arachnida, the true spiders anthropogenic Caused by arboreal Referring to a tree, situated on a tree; eg. a anthropophilic Associated with humans termite nest attached to a branch of a tree antibiosis (adj. ) Property of an organism that Bristletails adversely affects the well-being of another organism arista (pl. aristae) Large bristle located on the dorsal edge that consumes it of the apical antennal segment in Diptera (fig. 2-5 I) antidote Medicine that is given to cancel out the effect of aristate Bearing a bristle a aroliar pad Pretarsal ventral adhesive pad (fig. 2-19) antifeedant (=deterrent) Chemical of bitter taste or un- arolium (pl. arolia) Central lobe between the claws at the pleasant scent disliked by some insects tip of the tarsus in the adult (fig. 2-19) antixenosis In plant resistance, unsuitability of a plant to arthrodial membrane Soft, stretchable cuticle, eg. a feeding insect between segments anus Posterior opening of the digestive tract (fig. 2-22) Arthropoda Largest phylum in the animal kingdom, aorta Major blood vessel carrying blood away from the comprising thirteen classes, eg. insects, spider-like heart; in insects, the vessel that carries haemolymph animals, crustaceans, centipedes, millipedes, trilobites from the heart to the head region (fig. 2-24) Articulata Group of segmented animals comprising aperture Opening, hole Arthropoda and Annelida apex Tip of the wing (fig. 2-21) or other structure articulate (adj. articulated) Connected by a joint, jointed, aphids Plant lice (Hemiptera: ) segmented Glossary 267 asexual reproduction Form of reproduction not involv- ing two parents; often by means of parthenogenesis asynchronous muscle Muscle that contracts many times per nerve impulse, as in many flight muscles and those controlling the tymbal atrium Chamber, especially inside a tubular conducting system, such as the tracheal system atomiser Device for breaking up a liquid stream into fine droplets by a stream of air or centrifugal force attractant In applied entomology, any material with an odour that attracts certain insects; lure auditory Relating to the sense of hearing augmentation Use of organisms for biological control by means of periodic liberation of organisms that are already present or that are less persistent but will be effective for some time after the release. Aug- mentation aims at an increase of the natural enemy’s population to an effective level of control and can be achieved by inoculation and inundative release aurate With ears or ear-like structures autecology Ecology of individual species, as opposed to communities (synecology) autocide Lethal substance produced within an organism which kills it. In applied entomology, the use of a pest causing its own destruction automimic Condition of Batesian mimicry in which (reproduced with permission from Browne, B.) palatable members of a species are defended by their Binatang resemblance to members of the same species that are chemically unpalatable biological control (=biocontrol) Human use of selective autotrophic organisms (=autotrophs) Producers like living organisms or viruses to control populations of green plants, , some bacteria, etc. pest species (plants or animals) autotomy The shedding of appendage(s) notably for bioluminescence Ability of particular organisms, eg. defence some fungi, algae, fish, fireflies, glow worms avoidance Disease control measures which rely on crops (Elateridae, Lampyridae), gnats (Diptera), being grown in localities or seasons where or when a springtails (Collembola) and lantern bugs (Hemiptera) pest or disease is not active to display glowing light of different colours bactericide Any substance that destroys bacteria biomagnification Progressive build-up of a pesticide residue in the bodies of organisms of a food chain bait Foodstuff used for attracting animals. In applied biomass Weight of all individuals of a group of organisms entomology, baits are usually mixed with a poison to taken together; measurement frequently used in ecology form a poison bait biome Major regional ecological complex of communi- At or towards either the base or the main body, or ties extending over large natural areas and character- closer to point of attachment (fig. 2-2) ised by distinctive vegetation and climate, eg. tropical Batesian mimicry Mimetic system in which a palatable rain forest species gains protection from by resembling biordinal Of two alternating sizes; refers to crochets of an unpalatable species; see Müllerian mimicry the larval prolegs benign Of a kind disposition, not malign biotic Animate features of the environment of organisms benthos Bottom sediments of aquatic habitats and/or the arising from the activities of other living organisms; organisms that live there as distinct from abiotic bifid Forked biotic potential Potential for reproduction in an optimum binatang Neo-Melanesian Pidgin for certain insects environment without limiting factors; see binodal Having two knots or knobs environmental resistance, reproductive potential biocide Substance capable of killing a wide range of biserial In two series, often concentric; refers to crochets unrelated organisms of the larval prolegs biological diversity (=biodiversity) Variety of life forms bivoltine Having two generations in one year comprising the different plants, animals and micro- black sooty mould Black stains on leaves caused by organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which particular fungi growing on sweet excretions (honey- they are part; species richness or species diversity dew) of aphids 268 Glossary

Blattodea carina Raised ridge, often on the wing covers of beetles blotch mine Discoloured patch or blister on a leaf caused (adj. carnivorous) An eater of flesh of animals by a minute insect larva mining or burrowing between or materials of animal origin the upper and lower epidermis; see mine carrier In applied entomology, any material serving as boom sprayer Horizontal or vertical light frame carrying diluent and vehicle for the active ingredient of a several spray nozzles pesticide; usually in dusts borers Organisms that tunnel or bore into wood and other caste Structurally and functionally specialised, distinct materials; termites, strictly speaking, are not borers groups in social insects, usually differing in behav- brachypterous Short-winged; wings not covering the iour, eg. reproductives, workers, soldiers abdomen catabolism See metabolism brain In insects, the suboesophageal ganglion of the caterpillar Worm-like, larval stage of moths and butter- central nervous system (fig. 2-27) comprising proto- flies cerebrum, deutocerebrum and tritocerebrum caudal At or towards the anal (tail) end brood Clutch of individuals that hatch at the same time cathrema A striated thickening at the base of the ductus from the eggs produced by one set of parents ejaculatorius in Nepticulinae (Nepticulidae) buai Neo-Melanesian Pidgin for betel nut Areca catechu cecidozoa Gall-inducing animals bursa copulatrix Copulatory ducts and sac in adult cell of a wing An area of the wing membrane partially or female moths, comprising the ostium bursae, ductus completely surrounded by veins (fig. 2-21) bursae and corpus bursae cement layer Outermost layer of the cuticle, often absent bursa seminalis Expansion or diverticulum of the ductus central nervous system (CNS) In insects, the central seminalis in which sperm is stored temporarily series of ganglia extending for the length of the body; Bursicon Neuropeptide hormone that controls hardening see brain and darkening of the cuticle after ecdysis cephalothorax Term indicating either fusion of, or caecum (pl. caeca) Blind-ending tube or sac indistinctness between, head and some or all anterior Short-horned grasshoppers thoracic segments in crustaceans and arachnids calamity See outbreak cephalon (adj. cephalic) Head callus In insects, a swelling on the thorax of some flies, cercus (pl. cerci) Slender, paired and segmented append- usually near the base of the wings; in botany, a ages arising from the tenth abdominal segments of superficial tissue developing in woody plants through some insects (fig. 2-22) cambial activity, in response to wounding, protecting chaetosema (pl. chaetosemata) Group of setal, usually the injured surface divergent sensilla present on the head of butterflies camouflage Crypsis, in which an organism is indistin- and some moths guishable from its background chaetotaxy Arrangement and system of naming larval campodeiform larva Larvae which, in their early stage and adult bristles or setae on the exoskeleton at least, resemble dipluran Campodeidae; these larvae chalaza A sclerotized, conical area of the larval integu- are predacious, oligopod and prognathous and lack ment, bearing a single plumose seta or up to three abdominal appendages except cerci; many larval simple setae Coleoptera and Trichoptera have campodeiform chela (adj. chelate) Last joint of an arthropod limb, if it larvae (fig. 5-33 D) can be opposed to the joint preceding it, so that the cancerogen See carcinogen appendage is adapted for grasping, as in pincers of canopy fogging Method used to study insect diversity of lobsters and some Chelicerae; such a limb is termed the canopy of tropical rain forests. The method uses chelate insecticides sprayed into the canopy (fogging) to kill chelicerae (adj. chelicerate) Paired, prehensile first insects that can be collected conveniently, when they appendages of Chelicerata, contrasting with antennae fall from the canopy of other groups; often form chela Act of preying on other members of the Chelicerata Subphylum of the Arthropoda, containing same species those animals with chelicerae like the spider-like cantharophily Pollination by beetles animals Arachnida and Merostomata capitate With head chemoreceptor Sense organ responsive to chemical capitulum (=gnathosoma) (pl. capitula) Head-like mouth- stimuli like taste and olfaction parts of ticks and mites chemosterilant Chemical used to render an insect sterile caput Head without killing it carbamates Class of synthetic insecticides Chilopoda Class of Mandibulata, the centipedes Geological epoch, 360 to 285 million chitin A rigid nitrogenous polysaccharide or proteo- years before the present glycan found in many arthropod exoskeletons and carcinogen Any factor resulting in the transformation of hyphal walls of fungi a normal cell into a cancer cell; see mutagen chitin synthesis inhibitor A class of insecticides that cardo Proximal part of the maxillary base (fig. 2-6) prevents chitin formation Glossary 269 chlorocresol (4-chloro-m-cresol) Crystalline chemical coleopteroid Beetle-like used to prevent mould attack on preserved insects Collembola Springtails; one of the entognathous orders cholinesterase in the blood essential for proper colliculum Sclerotized plate or thickening near the pos- nerve function terior end of the ductus bursae in female genitalia chorion Egg-shell colloidal formulation Solution in which the particle size chromosome (adj. chromosomal) Linear sequences of is less than 6 µm in diameter, and in which the genes plus additional non-genetic sequences in which particles stay dispersed the genetic material is organised; composed of nucleic colon The hind gut between the ileum and the rectum acid, commonly DNA and proteins colony Group of individuals, other than a single mated chronic poisoning Poisoning which occurs when small pair, which constructs nests and rears offspring in a amounts of a pesticide are taken into the body over a cooperative manner; see social insects long period of time.; the small doses eventually add commensalism (lat.: at the same table) Two species up to enough poison to cause the symptoms of in which one species profits from the association poisoning to appear; see acute poisoning without harming or benefiting the other chronic toxicity (=cumulative toxicity) Capability of a Term describing an assemblage of pesticide to be injurious after repeated exposures populations living in a prescribed area or physical chrysalis (=chrysalid) (pl. chrysalides, chrysalids) Obtect habitat, inhabiting some common environment pupa of butterflies and moths compatible In applied entomology, term referring to circadian rhythm Repeated periodic behaviour with an chemical materials that can be mixed together without interval of about 24 hours changing their effects adversely on pests or plants clade Group of organisms proposed to be monophyletic, competition Effect of a common demand by two or more that is, all descendants of one common ancestor organisms upon a limited supply of a resource, eg. cladistics Classification system in which clades are the food, water, light, minerals, mates, nesting sites, only permissible groupings territory, etc. When intraspecific (species-specific), it cladogram Diagram illustrating the branching sequence is a major factor limiting population size or density; of purported relationships of organisms, based on the when interspecific (between species), it may result in distribution of shared features (fig. 5-11) local of one or more competing species. claspers Paired structure near the end of the abdomen in Competition is an integral factor in Darwin’s theory male insects which engages with the female genitalia on the evolution of species during copulation complete metamorphosis Metamorphosis in holometa- classification Any method organising and systematising bolous insects which in general has four stages - egg, the diversity of organisms, living and extinct, accord- larva, pupa, adult - each entirely different from the ing to a set of rules others; see gradual and incomplete metamorphosis clavate Clubbed compound eye Major visual sense organ of insects clavus (pl. clavi, adj. claval) Area of the wing delimited composed of one to some thousand individual sensory by the claval furrow and the posterior margin units (ommatidia) (fig. 2-30) claw Hooked, usually paired, structure at the tip of the compressed Referring to insects that are flattened from pretarsus (fig. 2-19) side to side cleptoparasite Parasite stealing prey from other parasites concentrate spraying Direct application of an active clone (1) Group of organisms of identical genotype, ingredient without dilution produced by some kind of asexual reproduction and conidiophore see some sexual processes such as haploid selfing, or conidium Asexual spore of certain fungi, cut off extern- inbreeding a completely homozygous line; (2) group ally at apex of specialised hyphae (conidiophores) of cells descended from the same single parent cell conjunctiva Membrane between segments, particularly clypeus The part of the insect head to which the labrum of the abdomen is attached anteriorly (figs. 2-4, 2-6, 2-10, 2-12) conservation The management, protection and preserva- cocoon Protective silken covering which encloses the tion of the earth’s natural resources and environment pupa of several endopterygote insect groups, usually conspecific Referring to individuals of the same species spun by their larvae; also used for any kind of en- constriction ‘Waist’ between first and second abdominal closure of immature stages eg. eggs, larvae or pupae segment of ants, bees and apocritan wasps (fig. 5-59) cocoonase Enzyme secreted by some advanced moths consumers Heterotrophic organisms feeding on plant and used to soften or break down cocoon silk to allow material (), animal matter () the escape of the adult and decay, litter, carrion (, ); coevolution Evolution of two or more species due to see food chain, materials triangle, trophic levels mutual influence. Ants for instance have coevolved contact poison Chemical that kills when it contacts some with plants and other insects in ways that make the external parts of a pest relationships more efficient and dependent control In applied entomology, prevention or reduction Coleoptera Beetles and weevils of losses from pests by any method; see eradication 270 Glossary conventional insecticides Chemical insecticides Crustacea Class of mandibulate Arthropoda comprising copulation Sexual unity, mating crabs, lobsters, shrimps, crayfish, isopods, etc. coprophage (adj. coprophagous) Feeder on animal dung crypsis (adj. cryptic) Camouflage by resemblance to coremata Thin-walled eversible organs of male moths environmental features used for the dissemination of pheromones cryptic Hidden, camouflaged, concealed corethrogync Specialised scales near the tip of the cryptobiosis State of a living organism during which there abdomen in some female moths, usually used to cover are no signs of life and metabolism virtually ceases the egg-mass cubitus Fifth main longitudinal vein (Cu), with two corium Hardened, non-transparent basal portion of the branches CuA and CuP; CuA forms the posterior forewings of true bugs () margin of the discal cell (fig. 2-21) cornea Cuticle covering the eye or ocellus (fig. 2-30) cucullus Dorsal lobe at the apex of the male valva in cornicles Paired tubes on the upper posterior end of the certain moths abdomen of aphids (Aphididae: Hemiptera) which cumulative toxicity Capability of a pesticide to be inju- secrete a waxy liquid rious after repeated exposures; see chronic toxicity cornutus (pl. cornuti) A sclerotized spine or other cuneus Triangular section in the apical tip of the process on the everted vesica of a male hardened part of the hemelytra of bugs with corpora allata (sing. corpus allata) Paired endocrine two enclosed cells (fig. 5-26 E) glands associated with the stomodeal ganglia behind curative In applied entomology, the application of a the brain; the source of Juvenile Hormone (fig. 2-28) pesticide during severe infestation of crop corpora cardiaca (sing. corpus cardiacum) Paired glands cursorial Running lying close to the aorta and behind the brain, acting cuticle The non-cellular skin or integument of insects as stores and producers of neurohormones (fig. 2-28) consisting of chitin, structural proteins and pigments; corpus bursae Membranous sac of the female genitalia in larvae it is shed at intervals to allow growth in which the male deposits the spermatophore during cuticular Referring to or made from the cuticle copulation de-alate Reproductive termite that has lost wings cosmopolitan Distributed world-wide or nearly so deciduous Falling off, detaching, eg. at maturity costa (adj. costal) (1) Anterior or leading edge of the Any heteroptophic organism breaking down wing, between the base and the apex (fig. 2-21); (2) dead organic matter to simpler organic or inorganic anterior margin of the valva of the male genitalia material, eg. dung beetles, isopods costal fold Expanded costal area folded over or beneath decticous Exarate pupa with articulated mandibles for the forewing in male moths, often covering special biting through and escaping from cocoon/host during pheromone-disseminating scales or hairs final emergence (figs. 2-43, 5-51 A) coxa Basal segment of the leg (fig. 2-19) deflexed Pointing downwards cranial Referring to the head deflocculating agent Any material added to a spray cranium Head suspension to delay sedimentation crawler In entomology, the active first instar of scale defoliant Chemical that makes the leaves fall off plants insects demecology See population ecology cremaster Constricted anal area of the pupa, usually demography (adj. demographic) Numerical and mathe- bearing hooked setae used for attaching the pupa to matical analysis of populations and their distributions the cocoon silk or a silk pad (fig. 5-51 B) dendrites Long extensions of nerve cells crenulate With small regular indentations, scalloped dentate Toothed creosote Complex mixture of phenols and phenolic depressed Referring to dorso-ventrally flattened features ethers obtained from the dry distillation of wood; dermal Made from or related to skin when pure, creosote is colourless and has a pungent dermal gland Unicellular epidermal gland that may odour. Due to impurities the colour of creosote varies secrete wax, cement and probably pheromones between black and yellow; creosote is an excellent dermal toxicity Poisoning through the skin wood preservative Dermaptera crepascular Active at low light intensities, dusk or dawn deterrent (=antifeedant) Chemical of bitter taste or Geological epoch, 145 to 65 million years unpleasant scent disliked by some insects before the present detritus Broken-up and usually decaying organic matter crochets Terminal sclerotized hooks on the larval prolegs (adj. detritivorous) Eater of organic detritus crop (1) Food storage area of the digestive system, poste- of plant or animal origin rior to the oesophagus (fig. 2-23); (2) cultivated plant Geological epoch, 400 to 360 million years crop rotation Successive growing of different crops on before the present the same area of land diagnosis Identification of a specimen or the cause of a cross-veins Transverse veins linking the longitudinal veins disease Glossary 271 diapause Period of suspended growth or development, ditrysian Having separate copulatory and oviposition usually with greatly decreased metabolism, allowing apertures in the female, with the bursa copulatrix the animal to survive a seasonal unfavourable period, connected to the vagina by an internal duct, the such as winter cold or summer heat or drought ductus seminalis diaphragm Membrane closing the posterior end of the diurnal Active during the day male abdomen, between the bases of the valvae diverticulum Blind lateral sac of the alimentary canal or dichotomy (adj. dichotomous) Branching or bifurcation other organ into two equal portions; see identification keys DNA (Desoxyribonucleic Acid) Nucleic acid, a linear die-back Progressive death of twigs or leaves beginning polynucleotide, forming the genetic material of all at the tips cells, some organelles and many viruses; a major differentiation Process whereby cells or cell clones component of chromosomes assume specialised functional biochemistries and dormatia Cavities produced specifically to house certain morphologies previously absent. Such determined arthropods like mites and ants; see myrmecophytes cells usually lose the ability to divide. Usually dorsal To, near or belonging to the back (fig. 2-2) associated with the selective expression of the dorsal diaphragm Main fibromuscular septum that previously unexpressed. divides the haemocoel into pericardial and perivis- diffusion Tendency of particles like atoms or molecules ceral sinuses (fig. 2-2) to disperse randomly and occupy available space; the dorsal vessel Longitudinal, tubular organ or ‘heart’ process is accelerated by temperature, the source of responsible for circulating haemolymph (fig. 2-24) movement being thermal agitation dorsolateral Area between dorsal and lateral areas diluent Any liquid or powdered material that is used to dorsoventral Relating to both the dorsal (the back) and reduce the concentration of a chemical for spraying or the ventral (the belly) sides of an organism; a dusting purposes dorsoventrally flattened insect is one that appears dimorphic Occurring in two forms; differences in size, flattened as if pressed down from above form or coloration; see sexual dimorphism dorsum Upper surface; sometimes applied to the inner dimorphism Structures or features of members of the margin of the wing same species existing in two clearly separable forms; dose (=dosage) In applied entomology, the quantity of a see sexual dimorphism pesticide applied per individual, or per unit area or diploidy (adj. diploid) Nuclei or cells in which the per unit volume or per unit weight chromosomes occur as homologous pairs, so that drift In applied entomology, spray or dust carried by twice the haploid number is present; most somatic natural air currents beyond the target area cells (body cells) are diploid drone Male bee, especially of honey bees and bumble Diplopoda Class of Mandibulata, the millipedes bees, derived from an unfertilised egg Diplura Diplurans; one of the three entognathous orders duct, ductus Channel, tube or canal for carrying a Diptera True flies, mosquitoes, gnats, midges, sandflies, secretion from a gland to the point of discharge punkies, etc. ductus bursae Duct leading from the ostium bursae or direct flight muscles Muscles that power flight and are copulatory aperture to the corpus bursae in the directly attached to the wing; see indirect flight female genitalia muscles (fig. 2-32) ductus seminalis Duct joining the bursa copulatrix to discal cell Central area of the wing, bounded anteriorly the vagina of the female by veins R or Rs, posteriorly by CuA and distally by duster In applied entomology, equipment suitable for the the discocellular veins application of pesticide dusts to a target discocellular veins Short and often weak transverse ecdysial lines Lines of weakness lateral from the veins or cross-veins which form or close the distal end adfrontal sutures of the larval head along which the of the discal cell in the wings head capsule splits at ecdysis disinfectant Substance that removes contaminant organ- ecdysis Shedding of the larval or pupal cuticle isms from surfaces Ecdysone (=Ecdyson) Insect hormone secreted by the disinfect In applied entomology, to kill or inactivate prothoracic gland involved in moulting (fig. 2-35) pests present on the surface of plants or plant parts or echolocation Method used by several nocturnal, cave- in the immediate vicinity, eg. in soil dwelling or aquatic animals for determining position dispersal Movement of an individual or population away of objects by reflection of high-pitched sounds (ultra- from its birth site sound); common in many bats, oil birds and platypus dispersant Substance that facilitates the production of eclosion Release of the adult insect from the cuticle of suspensions or emulsions in chemical sprays the previous instar; sometimes used for hatching from distal At or near the furthest end from the attachment of egg an appendage, opposite to proximal (fig. 2-2) eclosion hormone Neuropeptide with several functions distribution In population ecology, the spread of associated with adult eclosion including increasing individuals of a population in an area cuticle extensibility 272 Glossary ecology Study of relationships of organisms or groups of emulsion Dispersion of one liquid in another in the form organisms to their environment, both animate (biotic) of tiny droplets and inanimate (abiotic); see synecology, autecology encapsulation In applied entomology, the encapsulation and population ecology of a pesticide in a non-volatile envelope of gelatine, economic damage Injury done to a crop that will justify usually of minute size, for delayed release the cost of artificial control measures endemism (adj. endemic) Confined to certain localities. economic entomology See applied entomology For instance a species native to a particular place and Economic Injury Level (EIL) Pest density at which the found only there or a disease occurring in certain damage caused by a pest equals the costs of its control individuals or areas Economic Threshold Level (ETL) Pest density at which endite Inwardly directed appendage or lobe of a limb control must be applied to prevent the Economic segment Injury Level being reached endocrine gland Hormone gland releasing its product(s) ecosystem Interacting system comprised of all the living directly into the haemolymph not via ducts organisms in an area and their inanimate environment endocuticle Flexible, unsclerotized inner layer of the ecotone Zone of transition between clearly demarcated cuticle (fig. 2-3); see exocuticle groups of organisms or communities of two different endoderm (=entoderm) Innermost germ layer of habitats; see edge effect metazoan embryos developing mainly into gut lining ectoderm Outermost germ layer of metazoan embryos and associated glands developing mainly into epidermal and nervous tissue endogenous rhythm Clock or calendar-like activity ectognathous Referring to mouthparts lying outside the patterns, commonly circadian, unaffected by external head conditions ectoparasite External parasite living at the expense of endoparasite Internal parasite living at the expense of the host, but which it does not kill the host, but which it does not kill endoparasitoid Internal parasite living at the expense of ectoparasitoid External parasite living at the expense of the host which it eventually kills the host which it eventually kills ectothermia (adj. ectothermic) Inability to regulate the endophilic Indoor loving, as of an insect that feeds inside body temperature relative to the surrounding environ- a dwelling ment (adj. endopterygote) Group of holometa- edge effect Ecological effects in the zone of transition bolous insect orders with wings developing internally between ecosystems; often results for instance in during pupal stage increased species diversity in the zone of transition endothermy (adj. endothermic) Ability to regulate the compared to the adjacent habitats; see ecotone body temperature higher than the surrounding envi- ronment elaiosome Food body forming an appendage on seeds One of the two suborders, including elytra (sing. elytron, adj. elytral) Hardened forewings of the longhorn grasshoppers (katydids), crickets, mole beetles which form a protective cover for the crickets, etc. membranous second pair of wings; the elytra extend over the meso- and metathorax and in most beetles entoderm See endoderm cover the abdomen as well Entognatha Class of with the orders Pro- Foot- and webspinners tura, Diplura and Collembola, in which the mouth- parts lie inside the head embryo In zoology, the structure produced from an egg (usually fertilised), by generations of mitotic cell entomology Study of insects and their allies divisions while still within the egg membranes, or entomoparasite (adj. entomoparasitic) Parasite of insects otherwise inside the maternal body; embryonic life is entomopathogen (adj. entomopathogenic) Pathogen that usually considered to be over when hatching from particularly attacks insects membranes occurs (or birth) entomophage (=insectivorous) (adj. entomophagous) emergence In entomology, the adult insect leaving the Eater of insects last nymphal skin or pupal case entomophily Pollination by insects emetic (adj. emetic) Chemical inducing vomiting eg. to entomophobia Fear of insects get rid of a poison in the stomach; a tablespoon of salt environmental resistance Total of limiting environ- in a glass of water can be used as an emetic mental factors, working against the biotic potential empodium (pl. empodia) Central pad or spine on the of reproduction in an optimum environment, thus pretarsus of Diptera restricting populations from growing indefinitely and emulsifiable liquid Liquid that will form an emulsion getting out of control when it is mixed with water enzyme Protein catalyst produced by a cell, responsible emulsifier Spray additive which permits formation of a for the high rate of one or more intracellular or extra- stable suspension of oil droplets in aqueous solutions cellular biochemical reactions or aqueous solution in oil Ephemeroptera Glossary 273 epicormic shoot Shoot growing from the trunk of a plant exclusion Control of pests or diseases achieved by epicuticle Inextensible and unsupportive outermost layer excluding them from an area or country, often as a of the cuticle (fig. 2-3), lying outside the procuticle result of phytosanitation or quarantine legislation epidemism (adj. epidemic) Referring to the spread of a excretion Elimination of metabolic wastes from the disease from its endemic area or from its normal host body, or their storage in an insoluble form epidermis The unicellular layer of ectodermally derived exocrine glands Glands producing and releasing trans- integument that secretes the cuticle (fig. 2-3) mitters like pheromones or allelochemicals to the epimeron (pl. epimera) Posterior division of the pleuron outside of the body of the thorax, separated from the episternum by the exocuticle Rigid, sclerotized outer layer of the pleural stuture procuticle; see endocuticle (fig. 2-3) epiphysis Usually movable lobe of the fore tibia, found exogenous rhythm Activity patterns governed by only in Lepidoptera variations in the external environment, eg. light, day epiphyte Plants of various species that live attached to length, temperature, etc. other plants exophily Out-of-doors loving, used of biting insects that epithelium Sheet or tube of firmly coherent cells of do not enter buildings; see endophilic ectodermal or endodermal origin, lining cavities and exoporian Having separate copulatory and oviposition tubes and covering exposed surfaces: one surface of apertures, with an external groove along which sperm epithelium is therefore free, the other usually resting passes from the bursa copulatrix to the vagina on a basement membrane over connective tissue; Exopterygota (adj. exopterygote) Group of insect orders epithelial cells are often secretory cells or part of with incomplete metamorphosis; wings develop secretory glands externally during the last larval instars eradicant Substance which eradicates a pathogen from exoskeleton Capsule-like skeleton covering the outside the tissues of a host of the body of insects and other arthropods; the eradication Complete removal or elimination; see control hardened cuticle of Arthropods is made from chitin erineum (pl. erinea) Abnormal development of epi- extant Still in existence; as opposed to extinct dermal plant cells or a deformation of the plant hairs extinct In conservation biology, the status of a species caused by gall, rust and blister mites; erinea appear as without records of existence in the past 50 years brightly coloured patches on the foliage and might be extracellular Referring to processes outside a cell mistaken for fungal growth extra-oral digestion Digestion that takes place outside eruciform larvae Larvae resembling a caterpillar or the organism, by secretion of salivary on or polypod larva in form or appearance, ie. having a into the food, with soluble digestive products being fleshy body, a thin skin and prolegs on the abdomen. sucked up Larvae of Symphyta (Hymenoptera) and of some exudate Liquid discharge from diseased or injured tissues Coleoptera are eruciform (figs. 5-33 A, 5-55 A) exuviae (used only in the plural) Cast off cuticle of the esophagus See oesophagus larva or pupa after a moult estivation See aestivation eye-spot Coloured, eye-like spot, usually ringed with one ethanol Spirit, ethyl alcohol or more contrasting colours ethology The study of animal behaviour facultative Not compulsory, optional behaviour such as ethyl acetate Acetic acid ethylester; common killing facultative parasitism, in which a free-living organism agent for insects adopts a parasitic mode of life; opposite of obligatory etiology See aetiology faecal mottling Spotting in timber caused by termites eukaryota (=eukaryote) (adj. eukaryotic) Organisms in applying faecal pellets to their gallery walls whose cell or cells chromosomal genetic material is faeces (=feces) (adj. faecal) Solid excretions of the ali- contained within one or several nuclei and so mentary channel separated from the cytoplasm by two nuclear false eye See eye spots membranes; for instance, insects and are false leg See proleg eukaryotic organisms fat body A more or less loose aggregation of cells sus- eusociality Social behaviour exhibiting cooperation in pended in the haemocoel, responsible for storage and reproduction and division of labour, with overlapping excretion and of major metabolic importance, com- generations parable to the liver evolution Theory of the development of more compli- fecundity Average number of eggs laid by an insect; see cated forms of life from earlier and simpler forms is natality referred to as macroevolution (speciation), whereas femur (pl. femora) Third segment of the leg, between the the changes in appearance of populations and species trochanter and tibia (fig. 2-19) over generations are called microevolution fermentation Breakdown of complex molecules by exarate pupa Refers to appendages like antennae, legs, microbes, such as carbohydrates by yeast wings, that are free from the body of a pupa (figs. 2- fertilisation Fusion of a haploid sperm and egg cell to 43, 5-51 A), see obtect form one diploid fertilised oocyte 274 Glossary fertility Ability to reproduce; reproductive rate of a fumigation Application of gases or vapour to infiltrate female; see fecundity and natality soil, or stored products to kill pests filament Term used to describe long thread-like struc- fungicide Any agent that kills or inhibits fungi tures or molecules fungivore (adj. fungivorous) Fungus-eater file Toothed or ridged structure used in sound production furcula Forked springing apparatus on the ventral side of by stridulation through contact with a scraper (figs. 3- the abdomen of springtails (Collembola) 2, 3-3) fusiform Spindle-shaped filiform Thread-like galea (pl. galeae) Lobe of the maxilla (figs. 2-6, 2-10); in filler In applied entomology, the inert component of most Lepidoptera modified to form the tubular pesticide dust or granule formulation proboscis (fig. 2-17) flabellate Fan-shaped gall Aberrant growth (tumor) of plant tissues eg. leaves, flagellum Third part of an antenna, distal to the scape stem, petiole, etc. (figs. 6-1 I, J, 6-2 A), caused by the and pedicel (fig. 2-5); more generally any whip or activity of another organism, often by oviposition or whip-like structure piercing-sucking action of some mites, Homoptera fluorescent tracer Fluorescent material added to a pesti- and gall wasps (Hymenoptera) cide to aid the assessment of spray deposits on plants galleries Enclosed tunnels and chambers made by insects food chain Chain of organisms, existing in any natural ganglion (pl. ganglia) Small mass of nervous tissue community, through which energy and matter are containing numerous cell bodies; the central nervous transferred; each link in the chain feeds on, and hence system of the idealised insect contains one ganglion obtains energy from, the one preceding it and is in per segment besides the brain (fig. 2-27) turn eaten by and provides energy for the one gas exchange System of oxygen uptake and carbon succeeding it; the number of links in the chain is dioxide elimination via the tracheal system or gills usually three or four and rarely exceeds six; at the gaster Swollen part of the abdomen of aculeate Hymeno- beginning of the chain on the producer level are the ptera, lying posterior to the petiole (fig. 5-59) plants (autotrophs); all other levels are consumer gena (pl. genae) Literally, a cheek; on each side of the levels: the herbivores or phytophages as primary head; area lying beneath the compound eye (fig. 2-4) consumers, the carnivorous predators and parasites gene (adj. genetic) Usually regarded as the smallest as secondary consumers and the decomposers. All physical unit of heredity encoding a molecular cell food chains in a community make up the ; product (protein). Commonly also considered to be a see materials triangle and trophic levels (fig. 4-1) unit of selection food web See food chain gene manipulation See genetic engineering forage To seek and gather food generation time Interval between the production of eggs fore Anterior, towards the head in one generation and the production of eggs in the foregut (=stomodeum) Part of the gut that lies between next generation (fig. 4-23) the mouth and the midgut, derived from the ecto- genetic engineering (=gene manipulation) Set of pro- derm (fig. 2-23) cedures by which selected pieces of a genome (genes) forensic entomology Study of insects in relation to legal are cut out and inserted into another organism; impor- matters tant tool in molecular biology and biotechnology formulation Components and proportions of additional genetic resources Any wild genetic material for experi- substances that accompany an insecticide when mentation or for incorporation by breeding or genetic prepared for application engineering into existing agricultural hybrid species Remains of an organism, or direct evidence of its in order to revitalise or improve the performance of presence, preserved in rock, ice, amber, tar, peat or species of economic value volcanic ash geniculate Elbowed fossorial Digging genitalia Ectodermally derived structures of both sexes frass Solid faecal material and discarded waste produced associated with reproduction (eg. mating, fertilisa- by insects, eg. sawdust of wood boring beetles tion, oviposition) frenulum One or more bristles, arising at the base of the genome Total genetic material within a cell or individual hindwing, which couple the wings together by genotype Genetic constitution of a cell or individual, as hooking behind the retinaculum beneath the fore- distinct from its phenotype wing (fig. 5-49) gill Gas exchange organ found in aquatic insects frons Anterior part of the head (figs. 2-4, 2-6) glossa (pl. glossae) ‘Tongue’, one pair of lobes on the frontoclypeus Fused frons and clypeus of larval head inner apex of the prementum (figs. 2-6, 2-10) fructivore (adj. fructivorous) Fruit-eater gnathos Single or paired structure beneath the uncus in fultura superior and inferior Upper and lower areas of male genitalia the diaphragm of the male genitalia gnathosoma (=capitulum) In ticks and mites the fused fumigant Any material that when in the form of gas or segments bearing chelicerae and pedipalpi forming a vapour destroys organisms minute tagma; see idiosoma Glossary 275 gonad Gland that produces reproductive cells, ie. sperm undergo meiosis. Diploid organisms generally pro- cells in male testes or egg cells in female ovaries duce haploid egg and sperm cells gonoduct In insects, a duct leading from the gonads harpe Sclerotized structure on inner surface of valva in (testes or ovaries) to the gonopore some male moths, associated with sacculus gonopore Genital opening haustellate Sucking, as of mouthparts gradual metamorphosis (=paurometabolous develop- haustellum Proboscis, coiled in Lepidoptera (fig. 2-17) ment) Simple metamorphosis of exopterygote insects hazard (adj. hazardous) In applied entomology, the in which the nymphs are terrestrial and resemble the chance that harm will come to beneficial forms of life adults in general form and mode of life except for the from the use of a pesticide absence of functional wings and reproductive organs; hemelytron (pl. hemelytra) Partly thickened forewing of see complete and incomplete metamorphosis Heteroptera granule Coarse particle of inert material such as pumice hemimetaboly (adj. hemimetabolous) Insect orders with or rice husks, that is impregnated or mixed with a incomplete or gradual metamorphosis pesticide mainly for soil application Hemiptera Hemipteran suborders Heteroptera, Stenor- granule applicator Device able to apply measured rhyncha and , comprising true bugs, quantities of granules cicadas, aphids, scale insects, mealy bugs, tree, plant granulose Having a granular surface and leaf hoppers, spittlebugs, lerps, psyllids, etc. grease band Adhesive material such as resin, applied as hematophage See haematophage a band around a tree to trap or repel ascending hemocoel See haemocoel wingless insects (fig. 8-19 K) hemocoelous viviparity See haemocoelous viviparity gregarious Forming aggregations; see phase poly- hemocyte See haemocyte morphism hemoglobin See haemoglobin gressorial Walking hemolymph See haemolymph grub Larva of a beetle herbicide Any agent or chemical used in the destruction Grylloblattodea Ice crawlers or control of weeds gyne Reproductive female Hymenoptera, queen (=phytophage) (adj. herbivorous) Eater on plants haematophage (adj. haematophagous) Feeder of blood hermaphroditism Having individuals that possess both haemocoel In insects, the body cavity which is filled with testes and ovaries, and being capable of self- haemolymph fertilisation haemocoelous viviparity Form of viviparity in which heterometabolous development (=paurometabolous de- embryos develop free in the female’s haemolymph velopment, gradual development) Development of with nutrients taken up by osmosis insects with external wing development (Exoptery- haemocyte Blood cell gota); see hemimetaboly haemoglobin Red pigment of blood in red blood cells of heteromorphosis (=hypermetamorphosis) (adj. hetero- vertebrates carrying oxygen morphic) Having two or more different forms; usually haemolymph Insect blood applied to the major change in morphology between habitat Place or environment (‘address of a species’) in larval instars of certain families of Lepidoptera which specified organisms live; see niche heteroneurous Having the venation of the hind wing habituation Learning, in which an animal’s response to a reduced, without R2 to R5 stimulus declines with repetition of the stimulus at Heteroptera Suborder of the order Hemiptera, compris- the same intensity ing the true bugs hair-pencil Tuft of long, parallel hairs in male moths heterotrophy Designation of heterotrophic organisms which are often expanded and displayed during (heterotrophs) depending on organic compounds as a courtship and which often disseminate pheromones source of food; all herbivores, carnivores, omni- halteres Clubbed, reduced second pair of Dipteran wings vores, saprophages, parasites and decomposers are (fig. 5-46 A) heterotrophs hamuli (adj. hamulate) Hooks along the anterior (costal) hexapod Six-legged margin of the hindwing of Hymenoptera which couple Hexopoda Superclass of animals with six legs, compris- the wing in flight by catching on a fold of the forewing ing the classes Insecta and Entognatha haplodiploidy (adj. haplodiploid) Sex determination hibernate To pass the winter in a dormant state system in which diploid eggs give rise to females, hind At or towards the posterior haploid ones to males hindgut (=proctodeum) Posterior section of the gut, ex- haploidy (adj. haploid) Condition of a nucleus or cell in tending from the end of the midgut to the anus (fig. 2-23) which chromosomes are represented singly and holometaboly (adj. holometabolous) Insect orders having unpaired. The haploid chromosome number n is thus complete metamorphosis with pupal stage half the diploid number 2n; haploid cells are holopneustic Referring to gas exchange with all the commonly the direct product of meiosis, but haploid spiracles open and functional mitosis is relatively common too.; no haploid cell can holoptic Round-view 276 Glossary homeostasis In physiology, various processes which help exclusive character descriptions, so chosen as to regulate and maintain constancy of the internal en- eliminate all but the specimen under observation; a vironment of a cell or organism at appropriate levels common format of identification keys is dichoto- homologues Series of organic compounds with similar mous. The disadvantages of dichotomous keys can be properties but differing from each other by some overcome by computer-supported interactive keys radical idiobiont Parasitoid that prevents its host from develop- homology (adj. homologous) Morphological identity or ing any further, by paralysis or death; see konobiont similarity of a structure of two or more organisms due idiosoma In mites and ticks, the much larger of the two to common evolutionary origin, eg. the wings of birds tagmata; see gnathosoma and bats; opposite to analogy ileum Second section of the hindgut (fig. 2-23), preceding homoneurous Having the full complement of veins in the colon both fore- and hindwings imaginal disk or bud Latent adult structures in an imma- Homoptera The two Hemipteran suborders Stenor- ture insect, visible as groups of undifferentiated cells rhyncha (aphids, plant lice, scale insects, psyllids, imago (pl. imagines, imagos) Adult insect mealy bugs, etc.) and Auchenorrhyncha (cicadas, immunity (adj. immune) Ability of animals or plants to spittle bugs, tree, leaf and plant hoppers) resist infection by parasites and effects of other honeydew Sweet secretions of water and carbohydrates harmful agents; essential requirement for survival, released by aphids and other Homoptera as liquid since most organisms are continuously menaced by faeces; honeydew dripping onto leaves is often viruses, bacteria, fungi or parasitic animals stained black by mould, called black sooty mould incompatible Not compatible; not able to live together; hormone Molecules that are secreted directly into the in applied entomology, incapable of forming a stable hemolymph (or blood of higher animals) by ductless mixture with another chemical glands and carried to specific target cells or organs by incomplete metamorphosis Development in which the whose response they bring about a specific and immature aquatic stages (naiads) differ significantly adaptive physiological response. Hormones are some- from the adults, and which lacks a pupal stage; see times incorrectly referred to as chemical messengers complete and gradual metamorphosis host Organism that harbours another, especially a para- indigenous Native, not foreign or exotic site or parasitoid, either internally or externally indirect flight muscles Muscles that power flight by host preference Host specifity, host selectivity, to prefer deforming the thorax rather than directly moving the one host over another wings; see direct flight muscles humeral vein Short vein arising near the base of the wing induced defence Chemical change, deleterious to herbi- and running towards the base of the costa (fig. 2-21) vores, induced in foliage as a result of feeding damage hyaline Transparent inhalation poison Insecticide with fumigant action hybrid In its widest sense, describes a progeny resulting inert Without active biological or chemical properties from a cross between two genetically non-identical infect To enter and establish a pathogenic relationship individuals; commonly used where the parents are with a host; to enter and persist in a carrier organism from different taxa infection (adj. infected) Process of, or state arising from, hydro- Referring to water, moisture or humidity being infected with a protozoan, fungal or bacterial hydrostatic skeleton Turgid structural support provided pathogen or parasite by fluid pressure maintained by muscle contractions infest To occupy and cause injury to either plants, animals, on a fixed volume of liquids within especially larval soils or products valuable to man insects infestation (adj. infested) Process of, or state arising from, hygro- See hydro- being infested with a metazoan pathogen or parasite Hymenoptera Sawflies, wasps, ants, bees, bumblebees infraspecific See intraspecific hypermetamorphosis See heteromorphosis injector Device for positioning a pesticide into soil or be- hyperparasitism (adj. hyperparasitic) Parasitization of low the surface or into the transport system of a plant another parasite innate behaviour Behaviour requiring no choice or hyperparasitoid Secondary parasitoid that develops learning upon another parasite or parasitoid inner margin Posterior or trailing edge of the wing, (pl. hyphae) Filament or thread of the simple, joining the base to the tornus (fig. 2-21) vegetative fungal body (thallus) inoculation In biocontrol, the periodic release of a hypognathous Having the mouthparts directed ventrally natural enemy, which breeds so that the progeny pro- hypopharynx Median lobe of the preoral cavity of the vide control mouthparts (figs. 2-6, 2-11, 2-12, 2-15) inoculum Part or quantity of a pathogenic organism identification Discovery of the name of a specimen which can infect a host usually by the use of identification keys that are inoculum potential Quantity of a pathogen required to commonly constructed so as to lead the investigator successfully infect a host, ie. to overcome the host’s through a sequence of choices between mutually resistance Glossary 277 inquiline Organism that lives in the home of another, juvenile Immature, not yet fully developed sharing food; in entomology, used particularly of Juvenile Hormone (JH) Insect hormone released by the residents in the nests of social insects, or in pitcher corpora allata involved in moulting process, sup- plants, or in plant galls induced by other organisms pressing the final moult (fig. 2-35) Insecta, insects Class of Arthropoda whose members juxta Sclerotized plate beneath the aedeagus of the male, have a body with distinct head, thorax and abdomen; to which the aedeagus may be hinged or fused; part of the head bears one pair of antennae and paired the fultura inferior mouthparts; the thorax bears three pairs of legs and kairomone Communication chemical that benefits the one or two pairs of wings in winged insects receiver and is disadvantageous to the producer; see () and none in primarily wingless insects allelochemicals (Apterygota); the abdomen bears no legs but other karyokinesis See mitosis appendages might be present; insects are the most kinesis (pl. kineses) Movement of an organism in re- diverse class of organisms sponse to a stimulus, either in direction of the insecticide Any agent effective against insects stimulus (positive kinesis) or away from it (negative (=entomophage) (adj. insectivorous) Eater kinesis) of insects king Male primary reproductive in termites and ants; insemination Conception or transfer of male sperm into see drone female during copulation klinokinesis ‘Random walk’ with course changes (turns) in situ In natural position, on site made when unfavourable stimuli are perceived and instar Period between the hatching of the egg and the with the frequency of turns depending on the intensity first larval ecdysis, and the period between two of the stimulus successive ecdyses; synonym for stadium klinotaxis Behaviour of an insect in which it moves integrated pest management (IPM) Integration of relative to a gradient of stimulus intensity such as the chemical means of pest control with other methods, concentration gradient of a pheromone (eg. fig. 3-5) notably biological control and habitat manipulation konobiont Parasitoid that allows its host to continue to integument Outer protective covering of an animal, such develop; see idiobiont as skin or cuticle kunai Neo-Melanesian Pidgin for the common tall grass intercropping Mixed planting of crops; see polyculture Imperata cylindrica interference colours Iridescent colours resulting from kurakum Neo-Melanesian Pidgin for the arboreal ant the reflection of light from a series of superimposed Oecophylla smaragdina surfaces separated by distances comparable to the labella (sing. labellum) In certain flies, paired lobes at wavelengths of light, as the scales of Lepidoptera the apex of the proboscis, derived from labial palps intersegmental membrane (=conjunctiva) Membrane (figs. 2-9, 2-12, 2-15) joining two segments of the insect body, particularly labial palp (pl. labial palpi) Paired appendages of the abdominal segments labium (figs. 2-6, 2-10, 2-12, 2-17) interspecific Between individuals of two or more labium (pl. labia, adj. labial) Fused sclerites forming the different species, eg. interspecific competition ventral part of the mouth (‘lower lip’) (figs. 2-6, 2-11, intracellular Referring to processes in a cell 2-12, 2-17) intraspecific (=infraspecific) Within individuals of the labrum (adj. labral) Upper, hinged sclerite of the insect same species, eg. intraspecific competition mouth (‘upper lip’) (figs. 2-6, 2-9, 2-10, 2-11, 2-12, intrinsic factors Factors or influences produced within 2-15, 2-17) an organism, eg. as a result of its inheritance lacinia Small lobe of the maxilla (fig. 2-6); also present inundative release In biocontrol, swamping a pest with in some primitive moths large numbers of control agents, with control deriving lamella antevaginalis and postvaginalis Sclerotized from the released organisms rather than any of their areas of the abdomen anterior and posterior of the progeny ostium bursae in the female in vitro ‘In glass’; biological process occurring, usually lamellate Leaf-like or fan-like under experimental conditions, outside the cell or larva (pl. larvae) The feeding, wingless, sexually organism, eg. in a test tube immature, developmental stage of an insect after in vivo ‘In live’; biological process occurring within a emerging from the egg, eg. caterpillar, maggot, grub; living situation, eg. in a cell or organism often restricted to holometabolous insects, but some- Isopoda Order of the class Crustacea; sowbugs, pillbugs times used for any immature insect that differs Isoptera Termites strongly from the adult; in mites, the first immature jet (of sprays) Liquid emitted from a nozzle instar followed by the protonymph (fig. 5-7); see jugum Small, usually expanded area of the forewing near nymph, naiad the base, found in primitive moths larvicide Any agent effective against insect larvae Geological epoch, 210 to 145 million years latent Present, but inactive, not apparent before the present lateral Relating to the side (fig. 2-2) 278 Glossary

LC50 value Lethal concentration of a poison in air or Mantodea Praying mantids (sing. praying ) liquid, causing the death of 50 % of a large group of masquerade (=mimesis) Form of crypsis in which an test animals of the same species by inhalation or organism resembles features of the environment such otherwise; measured in mg a.i. per kg body weight as a leaf or thorn that is of no interest to its predator LD50 value Lethal dose of a poison, orally or dermally, materials triangle (=pyramid of biomass) Diagram in causing the death of 50 % of a large group of test pyramidal form representing the trophic levels of a animals of the same species; measured in mg a.i. per community or food chain with producers at the top, kg body weight followed by primary and secondary consumers and leaf miner Feeder on the mesophyll layer between the the decomposers (fig. 4-1) upper and lower epidermis of a leaf mating See copulation Lepidoptera Moths and butterflies mating disruption Form of insect control in which lerp In nymphal (Hemiptera) a delicate and synthetic sex pheromones, usually of the female are complex shelter produced from a carbohydrate secre- maintained artificially at a higher level than the tion from the anus; see scale background, interfering with mate location; some- lesion Disruption and necrosis of host tissue caused by a times also referred to as male confusion pathogen, or the toxic saliva of certain Heteroptera maturation Becoming mature, past the juvenile stage lethal Fatal maxillae (sing. maxilla, adj. maxillary) Paired mouth- liberation In applied entomology, the release of organ- parts situated between the mandibles and labrum, isms for biological control (fig. 2-6) serving as accessory jaws, provided with life cycle (=life history) Time it takes for an insect to sensilla that assist in selection of food develop from egg to adult; during its life cycle an maxillary palp Paired, usually segmented, appendages of insect undergoes a progressive series of changes; the maxillae (figs. 2-6, 2-9, 2-10, 2-12, 2-15, 2-17) sometimes considered as lineal succession of organ- Scorpion flies, hanging flies isms from fertilisation to death; life cycles also take media Fourth main longitudinal vein (M) of the wing; its into account environmental factors, the method of stem may be branched within the discal cell, but is reproduction, polymorphism more often vestigial or absent (fig. 2-21) lipophilic Fat-soluble median (=medial) At or towards the middle or midline litter Layer of dead vegetative matter overlying the soil (fig. 2-2) locomotion Act or process of moving from place to place Dobson- and by means of walking, jumping, crawling, flying, meiosis (=reduction division) Process whereby a nucleus floating or swimming divides by two divisions into four nuclei, each longitudinal In the direction of the long axis of the body containing half the original number of chromosomes; looper ‘Earth measuring worm’; caterpillar of the moth a necessary aspect of eukaryotic sexual reproduc- family Geometridae with only one pair of abdominal tion, for without it fertilisation would usually double prolegs and which moves by looping its body the chromosome number every generation; also Macrolepidoptera see ‘macros’ ensures genetic variation between offspring macrophage Eater of large particles melanic Darkened, having a liberal deposition of the macropterous Large or long-winged insect black pigment melanin ‘macros’ (=Macrolepidoptera) Commonly used term melittophily Pollination by bees for large moths with broad, large hindwings and membranous Pertaining to wings, the usually trans- butterflies; ‘macros’ include for instance the families parent, flying wings, as in dragonflies Notodontidae, , Noctuidae, Arctiidae, Las- menotaxis Orientation with respect to a constant angle of ciocampidae, Geometridae, Sphingidae and all butter- light; also referred to as ‘light compass’ families; the term ‘macro’ is of no taxonomic mesal Nearer to the midline of the body, see medial relevance; see ‘micros’ mesoseries Arrangement of the crochets of the larval maggot Legless larval insect, usually with a reduced proleg in a single, inner or mesal, longitudinal band head, frequently the larva of a fly mesosoma Middle of the three major divisions (tagmata) male confusion See mating disruption of the insect body, equivalent to the thorax, but in malign Malicious, evil, spiteful, not benign Apocrita including the propodeum (fig. 5-59) Malpighian tubules Excretory organ of insects draining mesothorax Middle segment of the thorax bearing the between mid- and hindgut (fig. 2-23) mid legs and, in the adult, the forewings mandible (adj. mandibulate) Sclerotized, sometimes metabolic resistance Ability to avoid harm by bio- dentate jaw of mandibulate insects chemical detoxification of an insecticide Mandibulata Subphylum of the Arthropoda, comprising metabolism (adj. metabolic) Sum of chemical and physi- the classes Chilopoda, Crustacea, Diplopoda, Ento- cal processes occurring in a living organism, often gnatha, Insecta, etc. intended to refer only to its enzymatic reactions; may mandibulate Possessing mandibles be regarded as comprising anabolism (build-up of mantid Referring to praying mantids molecules) and catabolism (breakdown of molecules) Glossary 279 metamerism See segmentation model One of the three components of a mimicry system, metamorphosis Relatively abrupt change in body form the emitter of signal(s) received by the observer; the between the end of immature development and the organism resembled by the mimic, protected from onset of the adult phase; see incomplete, gradual and predation, for example by distastefulness complete metamorphosis mola, molar (adj. molar) Ridged or roughened grinding metasoma In apocritan Hymenoptera the petiole plus surface of the mandible (fig. 2-6) gaster (fig. 5-59) mold See mould metathorax Third or posterior segment of the thorax, molt See moult bearing the hind legs and, in the adult, the hind wings molluscicide Any agent effective against molluscs like metazoa Multicellular animals like insects and and snails Microlepidoptera See ‘micros’ moniliform Bead-like microphage Feeder on small particles, such as spores monitoring Observation for a particular purpose as to micropyle In zoology, one or more microscopic openings keep track of crop development and insect infestation in the chorion of the egg through which the sperm monoculture Extensive cultivation of only one crop enters to fertilise the egg species resulting in very low species diversity and microorganisms Microscopically small organisms in- high susceptibility of the crop to pest attack; see cluding unicellular plants (algae) and animals (pro- polyculture tozoa, protista), bacteria and many fungi monogyn Colony of eusocial insects dominated by one ‘micros’ (= Microlepidoptera) Common term used for queen smaller, slender moths with extremely narrow and monophage (adj. monophagous) Eater of only one kind pointed hindwings or with hindwings bearing a long of food, used particularly by specialised phytophages posterior fringe; ‘micros’ include for instance the monophyletic Of common ancestry families Aegeriidae, Psychidae, Gelechiidae, Oeco- monotrysian Having a single genital aperture serving phoridae, Tineidae, Yponomeutidae, Torticidae and both for copulation and oviposition Pyralidae; the term ‘micro’ is of no taxonomic monoxene (adj. monoxenous) Parasite restricted to one relevance; see ‘macros’ host microtrichium (pl. microtrichia) Minute outgrowths or morph Genetic form or variant spines of the cuticle; those of wings are called aculei morphology Study of forms and structures of organisms midgut Middle section of the gut (fig. 2-23) mortality Death rate migration Mass movement over a considerable distance, mould Microfungus, often visible as black or dark stains often in one general direction at any one time on surfaces mimesis Resemblance to an inedible object in the environ- moult In insects, the formation of a new cuticle followed ment; see masquerade by shedding of the old cuticle (ecdysis) mimic (adj. mimetic) One of the three components of a motile Mobile, being able to move; opposite to sessile mimicry system, the emitter of false signal(s) Müllerian mimicry Mimetic system in which two or more received by the observer; an individual, population or unpalatable species obtain protection from predation species that resembles a model, usually another by resembling each other; see Batesian mimicry species or part thereof; see automimic, Batesian multiordinal Of several sizes; refers to crochets of the mimicry, Müllerian mimicry larval prolegs mimicry Resemblance of a mimic to a model by which multiparasitism Parasitization of a host by two or more the mimic gains protection from being eaten provided parasites or parasitoids to the model by being either unpalatable, poisonous, multiple resistance Concurrent existence of two or more noxious, or being otherwise distasteful; mimicry is ‘defence’ mechanisms against an insecticide in a often associated with aposematic coloration single pest population mine Gallery or burrow, visible beneath the epidermis of multiporous Having several openings plant tissue made by a larva. A leaf mine for instance multiserial Arranged in several series; refers to crochets is a gallery in the mesophyll layer between the upper of the larval prolegs and lower epidermis of a leaf multivoltine Having more than one generation annually miscible Having the property to mix well mutagen (adj. mutagenic) Any influence capable of in- miscible liquid (m.l.) Formulation of pesticide in which creasing mutation rate, usually caused by chemicals, the technical product is dissolved in an organic sol- ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, beta and gamma radiation vent, which on dilution, is dissolved in the water carrier mutation Alteration in the arrangement or amount of the mist blower Spraying device that produces a fine air- genetic information in a cell or virus carried spray (fig. 8-19 H) mutualism (adj. mutual) Symbiotic relationship between miticide See acaricide two or more species, in which both species benefit, mitosis (=karyokinesis) Method of nuclear division eg. ants and antplants which produces two daughter nuclei, usually identical mycophage (=fungivore) (adj. mycophagous, fungivor- to each other and to the parent nucleus ous) Eater of fungi 280 Glossary myophily Pollination by flies nucleus (pl. nuclei, adj. nuclear) Organelle in eukaryotic myrmecochory Seed dispersal by ants cells making up about 10% of the cell volume and myrmecology Study of ants containing the cell’s chromosomes myrmecophily Pollination by ants nuptial flight Mating flight of winged queens and males myrmecophyte Plants housing ants; ‘ant plants’ of Hymenoptera and termites naiad Immature stage of aquatic hemimetabolous nymph Larval instar of hemimetabolous insects; see insects; see nymph, larva larva, naiad nasute With a pronounced snout; in termites, soldiers obligatory Compulsory, exclusive; opposite of facultative possessing a snout obligatory diapause Resting stage that occurs in every natality Birth rate, the reproductive rate of all females of individual of each generation of a univoltine insect a population; see fecundity observer One of the three components of a mimicry natatorial Swimming system, the receiver of the signal(s) emitted by the native Indigenous, originated locally, not exotic model and mimic (adj. necrophagous) Eater of dead and/or obtect pupa Pupa with body appendages fused to the decaying animals body, not free (figs. 2-43, 5-51 B); see exarate pupa necrosis Death of cells or tissues, especially through occipital foramen Posterior aperture of the insect head disease through which the alimentary canal, central nervous nectar Nutritious liquid produced in intra- or extrafloral system and other organs pass nectaries of mainly insect-pollinated plants, contain- occlusion Blocking, shutting or closing; eg. the closing ing sugars, amino acids, minerals, etc. of the bark around an injury nectaries Nectar-secreting glands of flowers, either in the ocellus (pl. ocelli) Simple organ of sight found above or flower (intrafloral) or outside (extrafloral) between compound eyes of many insects; usually Neem tree Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae), traditionally three, but can be reduced to two, one or none (fig. 2-4) used multipurpose tree having insecticidal properties ocular Referring to vision and eyes nematicide Any agent effective against nematodes such Dragon- and as eelworms oesophagus (=esophagus) Gullet or foregut that lies Nematodes Roundworms, eelworms or threadworms between the pharynx, and the crop (fig. 2-23) (adj. neopteran) Group of more advanced offspring (no plural) Descendant from an ancestor; sons, insect orders with foldable wings daughters, grandchildren, etc. neotenic Reproductive termite assisting the queen in olfaction (adj. olfactory) Sense of smell laying eggs oligophage (adj. oligophagous) Eater of few kinds of neoteny (adj. neotenous) Retention of juvenile features food, eg. several plant species within one or into the adult stage one family; used particularly of phytophages neurohormone (=neuropeptide) Largest class of insect oligopod larva Larva with legs on the thorax only and hormones, being small proteins secreted within dif- not on the abdomen (fig. 2-42) ferent parts of the nervous system oligoxene Parasite restricted to a few host species only neurone Nerve cell ommatidium (pl. ommatidia) Facet of the compound eye neuropeptide see neurohormone in insects (fig. 2-30) Lacewings and omnipresent See ubiquitous, cosmopolitan neurosecretory cells Modified neurones found through- (adj. omnivorous) Eater of any type of food out the nervous system, producing insect hormones ontogeny Development from egg to adult except ecdysteroids and Juvenile Hormone oocyte Immature egg cell formed in the oogonium within neurotransmitter Chemical transmitting nervous signals the ovariole (fig. 2-33 B) between nerve cells ootheca Egg pack of several eggs laid together in a niche Role within a community enacted equivalently by protective structure (eg. fig. 5-18 A) different species in different communities; for animals open cell Area of the wing membrane partially surrounded largely defined by feeding habits and size; modern by veins but including part of the wing margin niche theory is concerned particularly with resource operculum Lid-like cover of an opening, eg. of an egg competition between species; sometimes referred to ophistognathous With the head deflexed such that the as ‘profession of a species’; see habitat mouthparts are directed posteriorly as in many Hemi- nit Egg of lice or other parasitic insects ptera and some Orthoptera.; see hypo-, prognathous nocturnal Active during the night Opiliones (=Opilionida) Order of Arachnida, harvest men nodiform In the form of a knot or knob opistosoma One of the tagmata of chelicerate arthro- nomenclature Science of naming plants and animals pods (Merostoma and Arachnida); comprises the non-target organism See target organism trunk segments, devoid of walking limbs; often, eg. in notum Dorsal sclerites of the thorax (fig. 2-18) scorpions separable into an anterior mesosoma and a noxious Harmful; opposite of innocuous posterior metasoma Glossary 281 oral Referring to the mouth papillae anales Pair of lobes at the tip of the abdomen of organochlorines Class of insecticides containing chlorine female moths used in oviposition; usually clothed organophosphates Class of insecticides containing phos- with sensory setae, but sometimes fused, sclerotized phorous and dentate and used to pierce plant tissues orthognathous See hypognathous paraglossa (pl. paraglossae) One pair of lobes disto- Orthoptera Locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, katydids, etc. lateral on the prementum of the labium, lying out- osmeterium (pl. osmeteria) Eversible pair of stink glands side the glossae, mesal to the labial palp (eg. fig. 2-6) of some Papilionidae caterpillars, located dorsally parasite (adj. parasitic) Organism that lives at the expense between head and prothorax of another (host) which it does not necessarily kill; osmoregulation Regulation of water balance, maintaini- see parasitoid, ectoparasite, endoparasite ng the homeostasis of osmotic and ionic content of parasitism Symbiotic relationship between two species the body fluids in which one species, the parasite benefits to the ostium (pl. ostia) Paired, slit-like openings (fig. 2-24) in detriment of the other, the host but usually without the wall of the insect heart through which the haemo- causing its death; see multiparasitism, superpara- lymph enters from the body cavity (haemocoel) sitism, hyperparasitism ostium bursae Copulatory aperture of the female bursa parasitization Condition of being parasitized by either a copulatrix parasite or parasitoid outbreak (=calamity, plague) Temporary condition that parasitized State of a host that supports a parasite or is characterised by excessive insect numbers and - if it parasitoid is a pest species - injury to valuable materials or parasitoid Internal or external parasite that ultimately products; sporadic calamities occur suddenly in a small, causes the death of its host restricted area and vanish after a short period of time; parthenogenesis (adj. parthenogenetic) Non-sexual periodic outbreaks happen at more or less regular reproductive system in which the eggs undergo full intervals development without having been fertilised by a male ovarium, ovary (pl. ovaria, ovaries) Main reproductive parts per million (ppm) Measurement of concentration, organ in female animals, each comprised of several eg. the proportion of a toxicant present in relation to ovarioles, producing eggs (fig. 2-33 B) that of plant material on which it has been deposited; ovariole One of several ovarian tubes that form the usually used in connection with the edible proportion ovary (fig. 2-33 B) of a crop and its suitability for consumption ovicide Any factor or chemical that destroys eggs paurometabolous development See gradual metamor- oviduct Duct carrying the eggs from the ovary to the phosis genital opening (gonopore) patagium (pl. patagia) One of a pair of anterior sclerites oviparity (adj. oviparous) Reproduction in which eggs of the prothorax are laid pathogen Disease-causing parasite, often microorganisms oviposition Act of laying or depositing eggs pathogenesis Period during which a pathogen is actively ovipositor Modified hollow or sheath-like, paired ab- attacking the living tissue of its host dominal appendages of female insects for laying eggs pathogenic Disease-producing ovoviviparity (adj. ovoviviparous) Retention of the de- pathogenicity Ability to overcome the body defence of a veloping fertilised egg within the mother, considered host, to invade and injure the tissues of the host and to be a form of viviparity but in which there is no nu- to eventually produce diseases trition of the hatched young; see viviparity, oviparity pecten Comb-like series of setae or scales, sometimes ovulation Release of an ovum or oocyte from the female present either on the scape of the antenna or vein ovary CuA on the upper side of the hind wing ovum (pl. ova) Egg pectinate Comb-like paedogenesis Asexual reproductive system in which the pectinifer Comb of special setae or sensilla on the valva juvenile stages reproduce in males of some Nepticuloidea and Incurvarioidea palaeontology Study of and evolutionary relation- pedicel Second segment of the antenna (figs. 2-5, 2-6) ships and ecologies of organisms forming the fossils pedipalp Second pair of head appendages of spider-like Group of primitive insect orders of Odonata animals (Arachnida) and Ephemeroptera that are unable to fold their wings periodic release Regular release of biocontrol agents that palp, palpus (pl. palps, palpi) One of a pair of segmented are effective in control but unable to establish appendages, eg. of the maxillae or labium, provided permanently with sensilla (eg. figs. 2-6, 2-9, 2-10, 2-12) peripneustic System of gas exchange in many insect pan-tropical Species occurring widely throughout the larvae with 9 functional pairs of spiracles Tropics and Subtropics persistence Property of some pesticides that can remain pandemism (adj. pandemic) Referring to a universal, unaltered in the environment for a considerable long widely spread disease period of time 282 Glossary pest Organism that is judged by man to cause harm to phytochemical See secondary plant compound himself, his crops, livestock or his property phytophage (=herbivore) (phytophagous) Eater of plants pest resurgence Rapid increase in numbers of a pest or materials of plant origin following cessation of control measures or resulting phytosanitation Measures requiring the removal or from development of resistance and/or elimination of destruction of diseased or infested plant material natural enemies likely to form a source of re-infection or re-infestation pesticide Toxic or poisonous chemical used to control or phytotoxic Toxic to plants kill pest organisms; a term of wide application which pigment Colouring matter in tissues and cells includes all the more specific applications, eg. pilifer One of a pair of lateral lobes of the labrum, insecticide, molluscicide, nematicide, rodenticide, usually bearing setae acaricide, fungicide, herbicide, etc. pinaculum (pl. pinacula) Sclerotized plate bearing one or pesticide resistance Result of a selection of individuals more primary larval setae that are genetically predisposed to survive a pesticide; pin-hole Smaller hole in wood of a living or dead tree see multiple resistance, pesticide tolerance made by wood boring beetles; see shot-hole pesticide tolerance Ability of an individual to survive an plant resistance Range of inherited mechanisms by insecticide not necessarily due to genetic predisposition which plants resist insect and, in general, pest attack; petiole In entomology, the narrow ‘waist’ of symphytic see antibiosis, antixenosis, tolerance Hymenoptera as part of the abdomen (fig. 5-59) planta In entomology, flat terminal part of the ventral phalaenophily Pollination by moths proleg in larvae pharate adult Fully developed adult insect after apolysis plastron Layer of fine hair which holds a layer of air on but before it sheds the pupal cuticle the underside of some aquatic insects pharynx Anterior part of the foregut, anterior to the Stoneflies oesophagus (fig. 2-23) pleural membrane Lateral membrane connecting the phase polymorphism Occurrence of distinct morpho- sclerites of the tergum and sternum logical features of solitary individuals (occurring pleuron (pl. pleura, adj. pleural) Enlarged lateral plate of singly) and gregarious individuals (forming aggrega- an insect’s winged abdominal segment (fig. 2-18) tions) of a species; phase polymorphism can be found plumose Bearing whorls of setae in some Lepidoptera and Orthoptera poikilothermia (adj. poikilothermic) Inability to regulate Stick and leaf insects, walking sticks the body temperature relative to the surrounding phenotype Total appearance of an organism, determined environment; synonym to ectothermia by interaction during development between its genetic poison bait See bait constitution (genotype) and the environment poison glands Accessory glands that produce poison, as pheromone Volatile substance secreted by an individual, in the stingers of Hymenoptera that produces a certain response in other individuals pollination Transfer of pollen from male to female flower of the same species; pheromones can act as sex parts attractants, or can be engaged in communication, polyculture Cultivation of several crops in the same courtship, identification of individuals of the same area, resulting in higher species diversity and lower nest and warning of danger pest susceptibility; see monoculture, intercropping phoresy Transportation of small non-parasitic animals, polyembryony Asexual reproductive system in which such as mites, on the bodies of larger animals two or more, often very many embryos are produced The light-dependent manufacture of from a single egg organic molecules like sugars from inorganic mole- polygyny (adj. polygyn) Social insects that have several cules like carbon dioxide by photoautotrophic organ- female reproductives (queens) isms like plants, blue-green algae and cyanobacteria polymorphism (adj. polymorphic) Major category of Phthiraptera Lice discontinuous variation within species as genetic and phylogenetics Approach to biological classification non-genetic polymorphism; see dimorphism concerned with reconstructing phylogeny and re- polyphage (adj. polyphagous) Eater of several species of covering the history of speciation plants or of a variety of different foods phylogeny (adj. phylogenetic) Evolutionary history of a polypod larva Type of larva with jointed legs on the group of organisms, the family tree and relationship thorax and prolegs on the abdomen (fig. 2-42) of the species in a group population Group of conspecific individuals (of the physical poison Chemicals that are applied to suffocate same species), commonly forming a breeding unit and target insects by means of dust or to disrupt the cuticle sharing a particular habitat at a given time by using petroleum oil, detergents or organic solvents population biology See population ecology physiology Study of processes that occur within living population density (=abundance) Number of individuals organisms; in multicellular organisms, includes per area or volume interactions between cells, tissues, and organs and all population dynamics Changes in size and structure of a forms of intercellular communication population through time and space Glossary 283 population ecology (=population biology) Study of protectant In applied entomology, the preventive populations, their structures, functions and dynamics; application of a pesticide before a predicted infesta- population ecology is integrated by some authors in tion of a crop synecology, others consider it as equivalent to syn- prothoracic gland Thoracic or cephalic glands that ecology and autecology secrete ecdysteroids (figs. 2-28, 2-35) population size Number of individuals of a population prothoracic shield Sclerotized middorsal plate on the population system Total of factors or variables having prothorax of larvae an impact on the population dynamics prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) Neuropeptide posterior Situated behind, after, at the rear (fig. 2-2) hormone secreted by the brain that controls aspects powderpost beetles Beetles of the subfamily Lyctinae of moulting and metamorphosis via action on the () and the closely related furniture beetles corpora cardiaca (fig. 2-35) (Anobiidae) that bore seasoned and unseasoned prothorax First, anterior segment of the adult insect’s timber causing structural damage thorax, carrying the forelegs predation (adj. predacious, predatory) Preying on other protista Simple, unicellular eukaryotic organisms organisms; see predator, prey including protozoa, algae and certain fungi predator Animal that uses in its life two or more other protocerebrum Anterior part of the insect brain, the individual animals (prey) as food ganglia of the first segment, comprising the ocular predisposition Condition increasing the susceptibility of and associative centres a plant to a pest or disease, usually the result of en- protonymph Second instar of mites, the first nymphal vironmental or cultural defects instar after the larva (fig. 5-7) pregenital segments First seven abdominal segments protoplasm Cell contents within and including the plasma prehensile Grasping, clasping membrane prementum Free distal end of the labium usually bear- protozoa Unicellular and colonial animals ing labial palps, glossae and paraglossae (fig. 2-6, protraction Withdrawal, the converse of extension 2-12, 2-15) protrusible Capable of being extended or protruded prepupa Quiescent stage between the larval period and Protura Proturans, one of the three entognathous orders the pupa, found in some Diptera and Thysanoptera provenance Variety of defined geographic origin presoldier In termites, an intervening stage between proximal Part of an appendage being closer to or at the soldier and worker body (fig. 2-2); opposite to distal pretarsus (pl. pretarsi, adj. pretarsal) Terminalia of the pseudergate In ‘lower’ termites the equivalent of the last tarsal segment of an insect leg (fig. 2-19), eg. a worker caste, comprising immature nymphs or un- pair of claw-like appendages differentiated larvae that have the ability to change prevention (adj. preventive) In applied entomology, the into other castes protectant application of a pesticide before a pre- pseudocopulation Attempted copulation of an insect dicted infestation of a crop with a flower prey Food item for a predator pseudoplacental viviparity Viviparity (producing living primary reproductives In termites, the queen and king, offspring) in which an egg develops via nourishment founders of a colony from a presumed placenta proboscis Tubular organ of insects used to suck in liquid psocid See Psocoptera food; in Lepidoptera formed from the paired galeae Psocoptera Booklice, barklice, psocids (figs. 2-11, 2-17) psychophily Pollination by butterflies proctodeum See hindgut pterostigma Pigmented and denser spot near the anterior producers Autotrophic organisms like plants that pro- margin of the fore and sometimes hind wings duce carbohydrates during photosynthesis; see food pterothorax The enlarged second and third segments of chain, materials triangle, trophic levels (fig. 4-1) the thorax bearing the wings and the flight muscles progeny Offspring, descendants, young Pterygota Orders of winged insects prognathous With the mouthparts directed anteriorly pterygote Winged proleg Unsegmented, fleshy, leg-like, ventral, abdominal pubescent Covered with fine short hair; downy organ in larvae, used for walking; ‘false leg’ pulvillus (pl. pulvilli) Paired lobes at the tip of the tarsus pronotum Dorsal, sometimes greatly enlarged notum of associated with claws (fig. 2-19) the first thoracic segment (prothorax) (fig. 2-1) pupa (pl. pupae) Resting stage between the last larval propodeum In Apocrita, the first abdominal segment if instar and the adult in the life cycle of holometa- fused with the thorax to form a mesosoma (fig. 5-59) bolous insects; also termed chrysalis in Lepidoptera prophylactic In applied entomology, measures that are puparium Hardened skin of the final instar larva in continuously applied for the prevention of outbreaks which the pupa forms protandry Applied to the situation in many insects in pupation Becoming a pupa which adult males always shed the pupal cuticle some pylorus Anterior hindgut where the Malpighian tubules time before the females enter (fig. 2-23) 284 Glossary pyramid of biomass See materials triangle (fig. 4-1) residual poison Poison remaining in the pest’s body for pyrethrin One of the insecticidal chemicals of pyrethrum some time after the application and being still capable Taneacetum cinerariaefolium (Compositae) of harming the pest pyrethroids Class of insecticides with structural similar- residue In applied entomology, the amount of pesticide ity to pyrethrin remaining in or on plant tissue or in soil after a given quarantine Examination, observation, treatment and/or time, especially at harvest time isolation of organisms or particular products for a resistance (adj. resistant) Ability of an organism to with- certain period of time in order to prevent the spread stand, suppress or retard the injurious effects, eg. of of pests and diseases. Quarantine is one of the most pesticides or pathogens; see environmental resist- important pest management tools for islands nations ance, pesticide resistance, plant resistance, meta- quasisocial Social behaviour in which individuals of the bolic resistance, multiple resistance same generation cooperate and nest-share without respiration (adj. respiratory) Metabolic process in which division of labour substrates (food) are oxidised using molecular oxygen; queen Female belonging to the reproductive caste in also used inappropriately to mean breathing through eusocial or semisocial insects; see gyne spiracles or gas exchange across a thin cuticle quiescence (adj. quiescent) Temporary suspension of retinaculum Membranous hook, a series of hooks, or activity or development in response to a brief period groups of specialised scales beneath the forewing, of unfavourable conditions; see diapause behind which the frenulum hooks (fig. 5-49) race Category of infraspecific variation; a non-formal rhizosphere Zone surrounding the roots of plants, usually category used chiefly in zoological contexts; geo- richer in fungi and bacteria than elsewhere in the soil graphical races approximate to subspecies rigor mortis State of muscle rigidity that follows death in radius In wing venation, the third main longitudinal wing most organisms vein, usually with five branches, some of which may rodenticide Any agent suitable for the control of rodents be fused or lost (fig. 2-21) rostrum Mouth; the beak-like piercing-sucking mouth- rami Branches of a pectinate antenna parts of bugs; also applied to the ‘snout’ of weevils Raphidioptera Camelneck flies, snake flies rot Disease symptom in which plant tissues are destroyed raptorial Clasping, grasping rotenone Chemical derived eg. from Derris spp. (Legu- receptaculum seminis See spermatheca minosae) with insecticidal and other toxic effects receptor Sense cell responding to some variable features round dance Communication dance of honey bees (fig. of an animal’s internal or external environment by a 3-16 A) shift in its membrane voltage; receptors can be sensi- rust Type of disease characterised by the production of tive to the quality of temperature (thermo-), light pustules on the surface of the host caused eg. by fungi (photo-), smell and taste (chemo-), sound, touch, or mites gravity, currents of air, etc. (mechanoreceptor) sacculus Sclerotized basal area of the ventral margin in rectum (adj. rectal) Last part of the hindgut (fig. 2-23) the valva of the male genitalia reflex Simple response to a simple stimulus saccus Usually hollow apodeme directed forwards mid- reflex bleeding Faculty by which some insects like ventrally from the vinculum into the body cavity of ladybirds () can eject blood through the males of some species certain weak spots in the intersegmental membranes salivary gland Gland that produces saliva, sometimes as a defensive response modified to silk gland, eg. in some caterpillars refractory period Time taken for nerve and muscle saltatorial Jumping membranes to recover their resting ionic imbalance sanitation Removal and/or destruction of diseased mate- after passage of an impulse rial in order to reduce inoculum; phytosanitation remigium Anterior part of the wing, usually more rigid refers to plant material then the posterior clavus and with more veins (fig. 2-1) saprophage (adj. saprophagous) Eater of decaying organ- reniform Kidney-shaped isms, repellent Substance disliked by particular insects, driving scale (1). Flattened and modified hair or seta of them back Lepidoptera (2). in most scale insects (Hemiptera: reproduction Process of multiplication of living Coccoidea) a covering made of waxy substances for organisms whereby the species is perpetuated, either the protection of eggs, nymphs and adults; the scale is sexual or asexual reproduction called lerp in Psyllidae (Hemiptera) and test in Dia- reproductive potential Potential of reproduction limited spididae (Hemiptera) by environmental factors; the result of reduced biotic Member of the superfamily Coccoidea potential depending on fertility, length of the life (Hemiptera); see scale cycle and sex ratio; see environmental resistance scape Basal segment of the antenna (figs. 2-5, 2-6) reproductives, reproductive caste In social insects, scarabaeiform larva Oligopod larva, having a curved, individuals that are responsible for the production of fleshy abdomen and possessing limited mobility, eg. offspring; see queen, king, neotenic, alate, de-alate the grub of (Coleoptera) (fig. 5-33 B) Glossary 285 scavenger Animal feeding on carrion, dead plants, de- seta (pl. setae) Hair arising from a socket; the hairs caying matter and animal faeces present in first-instar larvae are primary setae; those sclerite Sclerotized plate forming part of the exoskeleton acquired later may be subprimary or secondary setae or body wall of an insect setaceous Tapering sclerotin Brown substance produced by tanning of protein; setal map Diagrammatic representation of the arrange- it is deposited in certain areas of the exoskeleton and ment of setae in larvae produces hard, often thickened plates or sclerites setose Bearing setae sclerotization (adj. sclerotized) Stiffening of the cuticle sexual dimorphism Distinct sets of phenotypic secon- by cross-linkage of protein chains dary sexual characteristics for females and males of a scolus (pl. scoli) Outgrowth of the body wall in larvae, species; in other words: a male looks different from a bearing branches or setae female; males and females might differ in body size, scraper Ridged surface drawn over a file to produce coloration of body or wings, patterns of songs, pres- stridulatory sounds ence and shape of wings and appendages like antlers, scutellum Posterior third of the alinotum (either meso- feelers, etc. (fig. 2-44); see dimorphism or metanotum), lying behind the scutum; in many sexual reproduction Form of reproduction involving Hemiptera, Homoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera, the two ‘parents’ in eukaryotic organisms; during fer- scutellum is a more or less triangular sclerite between tilisation a haploid sperm cell fuses with a haploid egg the base of the wings cell to form one diploid oocyte; see meiosis scutum Middle third of the alinotum (either meso- or shot-hole Larger hole in wood of a living or dead tree metanotum), lying in front of the scutellum; in hard- made by wood boring beetles; see pin-hole bodied ticks, the shield-like protective structure sibling Full brother or sister secondary pest Previously harmless insect or other signum (pl. signa) Sclerotized area or structure on the organism becoming a pest following a primary pest inner wall of the corpus bursae in the female genitalia attack or pesticide treatment against a primary pest sinus Space or recess between two lobes or organs secondary plant compounds Poisonous or noxious plant Siphonaptera chemicals assumed to be produced by plants for social insects All termite and all ant species as well as defensive purposes some bee and wasp species that form colonies and sedentary Sitting, seated or sessile, opposite of mobile have structurally and functionally specialised, distinct segment, segmentation (adj. segmented) In zoology com- groups of individuals; see caste, sociality mon synonym for metameric segment or metamer- social stomach Temporary holding pouch inside the ism, to indicate production of a body plan of repeat- gaster of ants for food to be shared with the rest of ing organisational units, variably distinguishable, the colony (fig. 3-21) along the antero-posterior body axis (eg. fig. 5-1) sociality Condition of living in an organised community; selective pesticide Pesticide that destroys certain species see quasi-, semi-, sub- and eusociality of pests and leaves others relatively unharmed socius (pl. socii) One of a pair of lobes clothed with semi-aquatic Living in saturated soils but not immersed setae, sometimes present beneath the uncus in the in free water male genitalia semi-looper Caterpillar from the Noctuidae subfamily soldier In social insects, an individual belonging to the Plusiinae with two or three pairs of prolegs, moves in soldier caste involved in colony defence a somewhat looping manner; see looper solitary Non-colonial, occurring singly or in pairs; see semen Sperm phase polymorphism seminal Referring to semen or sperm solvent In applied entomology, carrier solution in which seminal vesicle Male sperm storage organs the pesticide is dissolved to form the concentrate semiochemical Any chemical used in intra- and inter- soma (adj. somatic) Body of an animal excluding the specific communication, classified as pheromones germ cells and allelochemicals sonogram Graphic representation of the vocalisation of semisocial Social behaviour in which individuals of the an animal; a sound spectrogram recording the fre- same generation cooperate and nest-share with some quency as a function of time (eg. fig. 3-1) divisions of reproductive labour speciation Origin of species sense organ Group of sensory receptors and associated species Group of individuals sharing the same features non-sensory tissues specialised for detection of one and forming a reproductive community, producing sensory quality such as light, sound, scent, taste, etc. fertile offspring; abbreviated sp. (singular) and spp. sensillum (pl. sensilla) See sense organ (plural) serpentine Winding like a snake specifity (adj. specific) Preference, eg. of host serpentine mine Mine that is curved or coiled, becoming spermatheca Small sac with an opening to the vagina, gradually larger to a head-like end used for storing sperm (fig. 2-33 B) serrate Saw-like spermatophore Sac containing sperm introduced into the sessile Immobile, not capable of moving freely female bursa copulatrix by male during mating 286 Glossary sphecomophily Pollination by wasps stomatogastric (=stomodeal or sympathetic) nervous spine Multicellular, unjointed, cuticular extension, often system Nerves associated with the for- and midgut thorn-like stomodeal nervous system See stomatogastric nervous spinneret Organ through which silk is extruded from the system silk glands; in insects, beneath the larval head or on stomodeum (adj. stomodeal) See foregut legs; in true spiders, on tip of abdomen stratification (=layering) Existence of horizontal strata spinule Minute, thorn-like projections from the cuticle of within undisturbed vegetation assemblages larvae stratum (pl. strata) Layer; see stratification spinulose Covered with spinules Stylops spiracle Lateral opening of the body wall through which stridulation (adj. stridulatory) Production of sounds by air passes to the tracheal system (figs. 2-25, 2-26) rubbing a structure with a series of hard projections sprayer Device for the application of pesticide sprays against a ribbed or file-like surface; common in spreader (=wetter, surfactant) In applied entomology, Orthoptera and other insect orders any material added to a spray to lower the surface style In Apterygota, small appendages on abdominal tension and to improve spread over a given area segments, homologous to abdominal legs spur Movable, spine-like structure on the insect leg (fig. stylet One of the elongate parts of piercing-sucking 2-19) mouthparts (fig. 2-14), a needle-like structure stability In applied entomology, the ability of a pesticide subcosta Second main longitudinal vein of the wing (fig. formulation to resist chemical degradation over a 2-21) period of time, either in storage or after application subcuticular Occurring or found under the integument stadium Period between moults, instar duration or inter- subdermal Occurring or found under the skin or cuticle moult period subimago In Palaeoptera, the last nymphal instar which stemma (pl. stemmata) Simple visual organ usually has functional wings but is not yet sexually mature present on each side of the larval head of holometa- suboesophageal ganglion Fused ganglia of the mandi- bolous insects bular, maxillary and labial segments, forming a stenogastrous Having a shortened or narrow abdomen ganglionic centre beneath the oesophagus (fig. 2-27 A) sterigma (pl. sterigmata) Sclerotized plate or plates sur- subsociality Social system in which adults look after rounding the ostium bursae of the female immature stages for a certain period sterilant Any substance suitable for sterilisation subspecies Geographical race; one or more taxonomical- sterile Devoid of living organisms, infertile ly distinct populations within a species, occupying sterile male technique Means of controlling insects by only part of its whole geographical range swamping populations with large numbers of artifi- subterranean Under the surface of the earth, underground cially sterilised males, competing with the lower sulcus See suture number of fertile males superfamily Group of families more closely related to sterilisation To make sterile by killing any micro- one another than to other families organisms present; to render infertile superparasitism Occurrence of more parasitoids within sternite Ventral plate of abdominal segments (fig. 2-22) a host than can complete their development within the sternum (pl. sterna, adj. sternal) Ventral surface of the host body (fig. 2-22) supplement See adjuvant, additive sticker In applied entomology, material of high viscosity supplementary reproductive In termites, a potential re- used to stick powdered seed dressings on to seeds placement reproductive within a nest which does not stigma Darkened area in the upper margin near the end become alate; also called neotenic of the wings of Odonata and some Hymenoptera surfactant See spreader stimulus (pl. stimuli) Any change in the internal or susceptibility (adj. susceptible) Capability of being external environment of an organism intense enough infected or infested, easily becoming diseased, not to evoke a response from it without providing the resistant energy for that response suspension In physics, a liquid containing very small sting, stinger Piercing organ at the end of the abdomen particles of solid material that will not dissolve of ants, bees and wasps which ejects poisons or suture (=sulcus) Groove or furrow venoms to kill, injure or disable enemies or prey syconium Any fleshy fruit developed from an enlarged stipes Distal part of the maxilla, bearing galea, lacinia succulent receptacle, such as a fig and maxillary palp (figs. 2-6, 2-9, 2-17) symbiont Organism that lives in with another Stobbe’s gland Pheromone-producing gland on sternum organism 2 in the males of some Noctuidae, which discharges symbiosis (adj. symbiotic) Dependent relationship of its aphrodisiac secretion on to a special expendable members of one species with those of another, brush of hairs for dissemination regardless of whether it benefits or harms either stomach poison Insecticidal poison that acts after in- species; the three main forms of symbiosis are gestion into the gut commensalism in which one species profits from the Glossary 287

association without harming or benefiting the other, target organism In applied entomology, the species of a mutualism in which both species benefit and pest organism intended to be controlled by means of parasitism, in which one species benefits to the chemical methods detriment of the other, but usually without killing it tarsal formula Number of tarsi of the fore leg (x), sympathetic nervous system See stomatogastric mesothoracic leg (y) and hind leg (z) indicated in nervous system some identification keys as (x-y-z) sympatric Having the same or overlapping areas of tarsomere Tarsal segments, subdivision of the tarsus distribution tarsus (pl. tarsi, adj. tarsal) Most distal part of the leg, symptom Evidence of a disease, expressed by the usually containing five segments (fig. 2-19) reaction of the plant or animal to the presence of the taxis (pl. taxes) Orientated movement of an organism irritating factor or organism; see syndrome which varies according to stimulus intensity Symphyta One of the two hymenopteran suborders taxon (pl. taxa) Any taxonomic unit, eg. species, genus, synapse Gap-like site of approximation of two nerve family, phylum, etc. cells or a nerve cell and its effector at which they may taxonomy (adj. taxonomic) Classification of organisms communicate including the reconstruction of evolutionary history synchronous muscle Muscle that contracts once per technical product In applied entomology, the usual form nerve impulse in which a pesticide is prepared and handled prior to syndrome Group of concomitant symptoms, often cha- formulation; usually at a high level of purity of 95 to racteristic of a particular disease or pest attack 98% but not completely pure synecology Ecology of communities as opposed to tegmen (pl. tegmina) Leathery, hardened forewing ecology of individual species (autecology) tegula (pl. tegulae) Sclerotized lobe, clothed with scales synergism Enhancement of the effects of two substances and hinged at the base of the forewing that is greater than the sum of their individual effects; tegumen Modified ninth tergum of the male abdomen, in applied entomology, the increased toxic effect of a forming the upper basal half of the genitalia pest-control chemical telotaxis Visual fixation of an object such as prey and the synergist (adj. synergistic) Chemical which when added movement towards it to a pesticide improves its performance; very often tenancity In applied entomology, the property of a the synergist on its own is not a pesticide pesticide deposit or residue which enables it to resist synomone Communication chemical that benefits both removal by weathering receiver and producer; see kairomone, allomone teratogen (adj. teratogenic) Factor or agent such as X-rays synonym In taxonomy, one of two or more names that or certain chemicals causing malformation in embryos have been applied to the one species; the older, valid terebrant Parasitic families of Hymenoptera name is the senior synonym, and the more recent, tergite Dorsal plate of abdominal segments (fig. 2-22) invalid name is a junior synonym tergum (pl. terga, adj. tergal) Upper surface of the body, synthetic Compounded in the laboratory, as opposed to connected laterally by the pleural membrane to the occurring naturally sternum systematics Study of diversity of life including its termen Outer margin of the wing, joining the apex and organisms and evolutionary relationships; sometimes tornus (fig. 2-21) used as synonym to taxonomy terminal filament Impaired and usually long hair-like systemic insecticide Referring to insecticides incorpo- appendage on the abdomen of larval Odonata and rated by the body of a host (plant or animal) that kills Ephemeroptera (figs. 5-13, 5-14) insects feeding on the host; eg. an insecticide is terminalia Terminal abdominal segments involved in the absorbed through leaves, then spread via the vascular formation of the genitalia system to all parts; insects acquire the poison by termitarium (pl. termitaria) Termite nest (figs. 3-11 to 3- eating any part of the plant 14) tagma (pl. tagmata) Group of segments that form a major test See scale body unit, eg. head, thorax and abdomen testis (pl. testes) Main reproductive organ in male tagmosis Organisation of the body into major units; see animals, produces sperm cells (fig. 2-33 A) tagma thallus (pl. thalli) Simple, vegetative body of a fungus tannins Group of complex astringent substances occur- thantosis Feigning, pretending or shamming death upon ring widely in plants, dissolved in cell sap; disturbance particularly common in tree bark, unripe fruits, leaves therapeutants Chemicals which have a curative action and galls; also found in some animals like in insects on diseases and other arthropods, where it is employed in the therapeutic Curative, capable of eradicating or reducing enzymatic tanning process of the cuticle; tannins the effects of a disease include phenols, hydroxy acids or glycosides and are thermoregulation (=temperature regulation) Regulation used by plants to deter herbivores or by some animals of the body temperature, either poikilothermic (cold for defence, eg. by millipedes blooded) or endothermic (warm blooded) 288 Glossary thorax The middle of the three major divisions (tagma) Exchange of food between members of of the adult insect body bearing the legs and the wings Hymenoptera or termite colonies, either through (fig. 2-1); made up of three segments, the prothorax, regurgitation from the crop or through defecation mesothorax and metathorax trophic Relating to food; of an egg of a social insect, threshold Minimum level of a stimulus required to degenerate and used in feeding other members of the initiate a response; see economic threshold level colony (ETL) and economic injury level (EIL) trophic level Theoretical term in ecology; one of a Thysanoptera Thrips succession of steps in the transfer of matter and Thysanura Silverfish energy through a community, as may be brought tibia (pl. tibiae, adj. tibial) Fourth segment of the leg (fig. about by such events as by herbivores, pre- 2-19) dation and parasitism by carnivores and decompo- tissue Mass of cells which make up organs of organisms sition; see food chain, food web, autotrophy, hetero- tolerance Ability of a plant to withstand pest attack and trophy, materials triangle, producers and consum- recover from it; also used for the amount of toxic ers (fig. 4-1) residue allowable on or in edible substances under the trophogenesis (adj. trophogenic) In social insects, the law determination of caste type by differential feeding of tornus Outer angle of the wing, between the termen and the immature stages in contrast to the genetic deter- the inner margin (fig. 2-21) mination of caste type toxicant See toxin tumor (=tumour) Swelling caused by uncontrolled toxicity Ability to poison or to interfere adversely with growth of cells the vital processes of organisms tymbal Stretched, elastic membrane capable of sound toxicology Science dealing with the nature and effects of production when flexed (fig. 3-4) poisons and venoms tympanal organ See tympanum toxin (adj. toxic) Poisonous or venomous substance tympanum (=tympanal organ) (pl. tympana) Auditory produced by an organism; see venom organ sensitive to sound waves (often ultrasound), trachea (pl. tracheae, adj. tracheal) System of ducts comprising a tympanal membrane (thin cuticle), an air carrying oxygen from the spiracles to the internal sac and a sensory organ attached to the tympanal organs of the insect body (figs. 2-22, 2-25, 2-26) membrane (fig. 2-29) tracheal system Gas exchange system of insects, com- ubiquitous (=cosmopolitan) Occurring world-wide, prising tracheae and tracheoles (fig. 2-25) omnipresent tracheole Finely branched subdivision of a trachea ultra-low-volume (ULV) spraying Application method which directly supplies insect tissues with oxygen of sprays using very low volumes of a pesticide transgenic Describing an organism whose normal genome ultrasound (adj. ultrasonic) Sound waves beyond the has been altered by introduction of a gene by a range of normal human audibility with frequencies manipulative technique; such organisms are potential- above 20,000 Hertz (= 20 kHz) ly valuable in plant and animal husbandry as well as ultraviolet light (UV) The for human beings invisible in genetic and medical research wavelengths of the spectrum beyond violet, between transtilla Sclerotized transverse band forming the upper 400 manometers (400 nm) and 150 Angstroms (150Å margin of the diaphragm and the fultura superior of = 0.15 nm) the male genitalia uncus Upper, usually lobed part of the male genitalia transverse At right angles to the longitudinal axis unguis (pl. ungues) Claw (fig. 2-19) trap crop Crop, sometimes of wild plants, grown espe- uniordinal Of one more or less uniform size; refers to cially to attract pests or diseases and, when infested or crochets of the larval prolegs infected, either sprayed or collected and destroyed; uniporous Having a single opening trap plants are usually grown between the rows of the univoltine Having a single generation per year crop plants or around the edges of the field urea Minor component of insect nitrogenous excretions tribe Group of similar genera with common evolutionary uric acid Main component of insect nitrogenous excretions origin; taxonomic category between subfamily and urticaria Itchy and sometimes purulent type of skin rash genus caused by contact with hair of some caterpillars trichoid Hair-like vagina Pouch-like or tubular genital chamber of the Trichoptera Caddis flies female genitalia triordinal Of three, usually alternating sizes; refers to valva (pl. valvae) One of the paired lateral claspers of the crochets of the larval prolegs male genitalia triungulin larva Active, first larval instar of Melioidae valvula Ventral part of the valva, the dorsal apical part (Coleoptera) and Strepsiptera of which is differentiated to form a cucullus trochanter Small second segment of the leg, between the vannus Fan-like expansion of the clavus of the hind coxa and the femur (fig. 2-19) wing, separated from the remigium by the claval trochantin Small sclerite anterior to the coxa (fig. 2-19) furrow; also referred to as anal fan or lobe (fig. 2-1) Glossary 289 variable In population biology, the total of factors waggle dance Communication dance of the honey bee having an impact on population dynamics (figs. 3-16, 3-17) variety Formal taxonomic category in botany below the Wasmanian mimicry Form of mimicry which allows an level of subspecies; often used loosely to mean a insect of another species to be accepted into a social variation of any kind within a species insect colony vector Literally a bearer; specifically a host of a disease wax Complex lipid mixture, giving water-proofing to the transmissible to another species cuticle providing covering or building material vein In entomology, a structural strut of the insect wing wax canals Fine tubules that transport lipids from the (fig. 2-21); in Lepidoptera, usually tubular and con- pore canals to the surface of the epicuticle taining a trachea and haemolymph wax layer Lipid or waxy layer outside the epicuticle venation In entomology, system of wing veins (fig. 2-21) weed Any plant in the ‘wrong place’, particularly used of venom (adj. venomous) Poisonous substance produced plants away from their natural range, or invading by an organism and injected into another organism human monocultural crops venter Lower surface of the body, ‘belly’ weedicide Any agent suitable for the control of weeds ventilate To pass air or oxygenated water over a gas wettable powder (w.p.) Powder that is easily wetted by exchange surface water and will go into suspension ventral Belonging to the belly, underside; opposite of wetter See spreader dorsal (fig. 2-2) withholding period Recommended period of time that ventral diaphragm Membrane lying horizontally above has to be allowed between the application of an the nerve cord in the body cavity, separating the insecticide and the harvest of a crop, so that residues perineural sinus from the perivisceral sinus of the insecticide can be degraded and eliminated; the ventral nerve cord Chain of ventral ganglia (fig. 2-27) withholding period depends on the crop species, the ventriculus Tubular part of the midgut, the main di- insecticide used, the temperature and the intensity of gestive section of the gut sunlight and varies between several days and weeks vermicular, vermiform Worm-like, worm-shaped wireworm Long and slender larvae of click beetles verruca Slightly convex plate bearing divergent (Elateridae: Coleoptera) secondary setae, usually occupying the position of a worker In social insects, a member of the sterile caste primary larval seta that assists the reproductives vertex Top of the head (fig. 2-4) xylophage (adj. xylophagous) Eater of wood vesica Penis, a membranous organ normally contained in zoocecidia Plant galls induced by animals such as the tubular aedeagus but everted during copulation insects, mites and nematodes, as opposed to those vestigial Occurring as a rudimentary, non-functioning formed by the plant response to microorganisms structure sometimes persisting from an earlier evo- Insect order (no common name) lutionary form viable Alive, even if in a dormant state Further reading: vinculum Modified ninth sternum of the male abdomen, forming the ventral, basal part of the genitalia Abercrombie, M. et al. (19928): Dictionary of Biology; virion Virus particle Penguin Books; London; UK virulence (adj. virulent) Ability to overcome the body Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research defence of a host, to invade and injure the tissues of Organisation (CSIRO) (1991²): The Insects of the host and to eventually produce diseases Australia - A Textbook for Students and Research virus Minute intercellular disease agent Workers; Volume 1 & 2; Melbourne University Press; visceral (=sympathetic) nervous system Nerve system Carlton; Australia that innervates the gut, reproductive organs and Eylenbosch, E. (1995) Elsevier’s Dictionary of Pests and tracheal system Diseases in useful Plants; Elsevier; Amsterdam; vitamin Organic substance usually not synthesised by an Netherlands organism which it must obtain from its environment in Gullan, P.J. and Cranston, P.S. (1994): Insects - An Out- minute amounts (micronutrient) line of Entomology; Chapman & Hall; London; UK Jones, G. et al. (1990): Dictionary of Environmental viviparity (adj. viviparous) Bearing of life young (ie. Science; Collins; London; UK post egg hatching) by the female; see ovoviviparity Lapedes, D.N. (ed.) (19782): Dictionary of Scientific and and adenotrophic viviparity Technical Terms; McGraw-Hill; New York; USA volatile Able to form a gas from a liquid or solid at room Roberts, M. B. V. (19854): Biology - A Functional temperature Approach; ELBS; Walton-o.-T.; UK voltinism Number of generations per year de la Torre-Bueno, J.R. (1989²): The Torre-Bueno vulva External opening of the copulatory pouch (bursa Glossary of Entomology; New York Entomological copulatorix) or vagina of the female genitalia Society in cooperation with the American Museum of waiting period See withholding period Natural History; New York; USA 290 Addresses

Addresses Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) P.O. Box 6601 Boroko/N.C.D. AGROMISA P.O. Box 41 fax 301 1689, 301 1691, 301 1694 6700 AA Wageningen Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) The Netherlands Viale delle Terme di Caracella 00100 Rome Australian Entomological Supplies Pty. Ltd. Italy Coorabell Via fax (+39) 6 522531 152, 6 522551 155, 6 55782610 Bangalow N.S.W. 2479 E-mail: [email protected] Australia ph./fax (+61) 66 847 188 Highlands Agricultural Experiment Station Ayura E-mail: [email protected] (HAES) homepage: http://www.nor.com.au/business/austento P.O. Box 384 Kainantu/Eastern Highlands Province Bubia Agricultural Research Centre ph. 737 3516 P.O. Box 1639 fax 737 3516 Lae/Morobe Province ph. 475 1033 Insect Farming and Trading Agency (IFTA) fax 475 1034 P.O. Box 129 Bulolo/Morobe Province Bulolo University College (BUC) ph. 474 5285 P.O. Box 92 fax 474 5454 Bulolo/Morobe Province International Union for the Conservation of Nature ph. 474 5226, 474 5236 and Natural Resources (IUCN) fax 474 5311 Publications Services Unit E-mail: [email protected] 219c Huntingdon Rd Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Cambridge CB3 0DL Organisation (CSIRO) United Kingdom Division of Entomology ph. (+44) 1 223 277894 Black Mountain Laboratories fax (+44) 1 233 277175 GPO Box 1700 E-mail: [email protected] or Canberra ACT 2601 [email protected] Australia International Organisation of Consumers Unions ph. (+61) 6 246 4001 (IOCU), Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific fax (+61) 6 246 4000 P.O. Box 1045 homepage: http://www.ento.csiro.au 10830 Penang Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Malaysia Organisation (CSIRO) ph. (+60) 4 20391 or 371396 Information Services fax (+60) 4 366506 PO Box 89, East Melbourne Lowlands Agricultural Experiment Station Kerevat Victoria 3002 (LAES) Australia P.O. Box 204 ph. (+61) 613 418 7217 Kokopo/East Province fax (+61) 613 419 0459 ph. 983 9145 E-mail: [email protected] fax 983 9129 homepage: http://www.cis.csiro.au/cis/cspubs.html National Agricultural Research Institute Centre for Pest Information Technology and Transfer P.O. Box 1828 (formerly CRC for Tropical Pest Management) Port Moresby/N.C.D. University of Queensland ph. 310 2141 Brisbane 4072 fax 320 2149 Australia E-mail: [email protected] ph. (+61) 7 3365 1854/51 homepage: http://www.online.net.pg/~nariddg fax (+61) 7 3365 1853/55 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Asia and the Pacific homepage: http://www.cpitt.uq.edu.au P.O. Box 1170 Department of Agriculture and Livestock (DAL) 10850 Penang P.O. Box 417 Malaysia Konedobu/N.C.D. ph. (+60) 4 870271 ph. 325 8191 fax (+60) 4 877445 Abbreviations 291

PNG Forest Authority (PNGFA) Abbreviations P.O. Box 5055 Boroko/N.C.D. A.I. or a.i. active ingredient ph. 327 7800 BPU Benzoylphenyl Urea fax 325 4433 Bt Bacillus thuringiensis PNG Forest Research Institute (FRI) CITES Convention on the International Trade in P.O. Box 314 Endangered Species Lae/Morobe Province CRC TPM Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical ph. 472 4188 Pest Management fax 472 4357 CRI Christensen Research Institute CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial PNG University of Technology (UoT, Unitech) Research Organisation Private Mail Bag DAL Department of Agriculture and Livestock Lae/Morobe Province DEC Department of Environment and ph. 473 4999 Conservation fax 475 7667 DPI Division of Primary Industries homepage: http://www.unitech.ac.pg EC, EEC European (Economic) Community South Pacific Commission (SPC) EIL Economic Injury Level B.P. D5 ETL Economic Threshold Level Noumea Cedex FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation New Caledonia FRI PNG Forest Research Institute IFTA Insect Farming and Trading Agency South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) IGR Insect Growth Regulator P.O. Box 240 INC Intergovernmental Negotiation Committee Apia IOCU International Organisation of Consumers W. Samoa Unions IPM Integrated Pest Management Unitech Development and Consultancy (UDC) IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Private Mail Bag Nature and Natural Resources Lae/Morobe Province JH Juvenile Hormone ph. 475 7436, 473 4202 JHA Juvenile Hormone Analogue fax 475 7467 LAES Lowlands Agricultural Experiment Station United Nations (UN) Kerevat One United Nations Plaza NAQIA National Agriculture Quarantine and New York Inspection Authority N.Y. 10017 NARI National Agricultural Research Centre USA NGO Non-Governmental Organisation PAN Pesticide Action Network United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) PIC Prior Informed Consent P.O. Box 1041 PNG Papua New Guinea Port Moresby/N.C.D. QABB Queen Alexandra Birdwing Butterfly ph. 321 2877 QABW Queen Alexandra Birdwing University of Papua New Guinea (UPNG) sp. species (singular) P.O. Box 320 sp. nov. species nova, new species University/N.C.D. sp. nr. species near. ph. 326 0900, 326 7200 SPC South Pacific Commission fax 326 7187 spp. species (plural) SPREP South Pacific Regional Environment Vudal University Programme Private Mail Bag UDC University Development and Consultancy Rabaul/East New Britain Province ph. 986 4863 or 986 4817 und. underside fax 986 4843 UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme Wau Ecology Institute (WEI) upp. upperside P.O. Box 77 WEI Wau Ecology Institute Wau/Morobe Province WHO World Health Organisation ph. 474 6300 w/v weight per volume fax 474 6381 w/w weight per weight 292 Questions for Self Control

Questions for Self Assessment Do spiders have compound eyes? How many body regions do insects have and how many A. Insects and Biodiversity do spiders have? Which four insect orders have the highest species Which insects are social insects? diversity in the tropical rain forest? How is eusociality defined? Define the term caste system and state the three castes of B. Structure and Function a termite colony. What are the three major body parts (tagmata) of insects What is the function of ‘alates’ and which caste do they and what are their main functions? belong to? v Which important organs/structures does the insect head What are the distinguishing features between beetles and bear? heteropteran bugs? What type of mouthparts do the following insects have: What are the differences between butterflies and moths? adult grasshopper, larval bug, beetle grub, adult butter- What is the most conspicuous feature of most ants, bees fly, caterpillar? and wasps? Which statements are right? o insects generally have three pairs of legs and two E. Insects and Ecology pairs of wings o the wings are part of the 2nd and 3rd abdominal How are the terms mutualism, parasitism and commen- segment salism defined? Which categories do herbivory and o all insects have wings pollination belong to? o insects are close relatives of spider-like animals Insect pollination is the major type of pollination in and crustaceans Angiosperms. Both, insects and Angiosperms, owe What are the five parts of an insect leg? their evolutionary success to the fact that they have Which type of activity are the following insect legs closely coevolved. What is the reward for insects adapted to: praying mantis foreleg, grasshopper hind- doing all the hard work of pollinating plants? leg, cockroach legs? Another type of interaction between insects and plants is What is the scientific term for the forewings of a beetle? herbivory. Which mechanisms did plants evolve in What are the major functions of the abdomen? order to be protected from being eaten by insects? How does the gas exchange system of a terrestrial insect Explain the term predator-prey relationship. Draw a work? graph and indicate the alterations to the predator and Where can spiracles be found? prey populations during the course of time. o there is one pair laterally on each thoracic Name five different predacious insects and another five segment examples of non-insects feeding on insects. o on the abdomen State five possibilities of insect defence and give named insects as examples. C. Insect Development What is the meaning of the term osmeterium? What are the differences between holo- and hemimeta- bolous development? F. Population Biology o there is a striking resemblance between State five factors that contribute towards the regulation of holometabolous larvae and adults o insect populations. Which factor is the most important the wings of hemimetabolous larvae develop one? externally How is the term population defined? o the wings of holometabolous larvae develop during the pupal stage Which factors favour unstable pest populations? o o holometabolous insects always have a pupal stage large body size of the pest o and this never occurs in hemimetabolous insects large number of pest’s offspring o What is a nymph? constant, predictable climate o slow development of the pest Why do insects have to undergo moults? o short life cycle of the pest State four holo- and hemimetabolous insect orders. o early reproduction of the pest o variable population size of the pest D. Evolution and Classification o low competition How is the term species defined? o the pest’s predator develops slowly What are the differences between insects and spider-like animals? G. Insect Signs and Damage Categories How many legs do spiders have? Why is it important for foresters and agriculturalists to be How many legs do insects have? familiar with insect signs and damage categories? Which body part are the legs attached to? State three examples of insect signs. Questions for Self Control 293

Which type of damage is caused by an insect with How should silvicultural methods be applied in tree piercing-sucking mouthparts and which type is caused plantations in order to create conditions less by chewing mouthparts? favourable for insect pests like termites? Which layers of a leaf are affected by mines and by Keeping trees in a healthy condition is the best way to window feeding? avoid insect attack. Improper nursery techniques and What does the term shelter feeding mean and what is the silvicultural treatments put trees under stress and thus advantage of it? promote insect attack. Describe possible damage to seedlings and trees that might contribute towards What is a gall and how are galls induced? insect attack. What can be done in order to minimise this damage and thus reduce the risk of insect attack? H. Forest Insect Pests of PNG Pest control measures can be either curative (usually Which conditions encourage termite attack and why? meaning to spray a chemical control agent once there What are the differences between Coptotermes elisae and is a problem with ‘bugs’) or prophylactic (to prevent Nasutitermes novarumhebridarium in terms of their infestation). We should always aim at prophylactic soldiers, their nest and their respective host species? measures since they are more sustainable, feasible, What are the symptoms of termite attack on Hoop pine? appropriate and often cheaper. Which steps can be taken for the prevention of insect infestation in tree or By looking at the leaves and the crown of a young Hoop crop plantations? pine, how can you tell whether it is infested by Which control measures are included in mechanical and termites or Hylurdrectonus? physical methods? What are signs of damage caused by Hylurdrectonus What do the terms plant resistance and resistance to araucariae? insecticides mean? When are trees or logs particularly vulnerable to pin- and What does the term biomagnification mean? shot-hole borer attack? Why can biological control sometimes become a disaster? Which measure would you apply as an effective remedy State organisms suitable for biological control from the to minimise pin- and shot-hole borer attack in the log following groups: plants, bacteria, fungi, viruses, yard? insects and spider-like animals Imagine you are supervising thinning operations in a Imagine you were repeatedly applying a chemical Hoop pine compartment. How would you carry out insecticide against cutworms in a nursery. After the the operations in order to minimise the risk of pest sixth spraying the insecticide fails to fulfil its task and attack? it does not kill the cutworms any more. What has What are the symptoms of Lymantria ninayi attack of probably happened? Pinus patula? What are the disadvantages of chemical control? Which statements are right? I. Collection and Preservation of Insect Specimens o some insecticides accumulate in the food chain What information has to be provided on the label of an and can be found as residues in food o insect specimen? more and more powerful insecticides have to be developed since insects become resistant How many specimens of a particular species have to be o collected and why? some insecticides like DDT are very persistent o chemical control is always very specific and there Which trap is commonly used to catch nocturnal insects are hardly any side-effects on non-target like moths? organisms Describe a pheromone trap. o chemical control might affect beneficial insects Explain the terms ‘mating disruption’ and ‘male con- like predators fusion’ technique. State the only control strategy that insects cannot become Which insects are not suitable for drying? Why is it not resistant to? possible to dry these specimens? State guide-lines for the safe use of insecticides. What does the term ‘withholding period’ mean? J. Insect Pest Management Which techniques and methods are used in Integrated Pest Management? How is the term pest defined. What is the basic concept of Integrated Pest Manage- Apart from insects, which other pests attack crops? ment? Draw a graph (pest population versus time). Contrast monoculture with polyculture in terms of Explain the terms ‘Economic Threshold Level’ and susceptibility to insect attack. Which one is more ‘Economic Injury Level’ and indicate these levels on vulnerable and why? the graph. Which cultural methods can be applied in order to create What has to be taken into account in order to calculate less favourable conditions for pests? the ‘Economic Threshold Level’? 294 Index

Index Aeolochroma viridicata pl. 4 L Allarthrum 122 aerial photography 205 allelochemicals 39, 48, 53, 122, 186 aerial spraying 249, 251 Allethrin 240 Page numbers in bold refer to the aerosol-generators 249 Allomachillis sp. 93 main entry. Consecutive pages, eg. Aeshnidae 94 allomones, 39 page 224 to 227 are indicated as Aesiotes sp. 121, 170, 175 Alsystin 240 224-7, colour plates as pl. A. notabilis 190 alternate host 226 African locust 40 alternative host 186, 193, 224 abdomen 10, 18 Aganaidae 63, 136, 143 Alticinae 121 abiotic factors 32, 71 Aganoidae 55, 149, 150 aluminium phosphide 217, 239 absolute assessment methods 203, Agape chloropyga 143 109 207, 210 Agarista 144 Amanthusiinae 146 abundance 2, 7-8, 68, 204 Agaristidae 139 Amata spp. 142, pl. 6 L Acacia spp. 105, 109, 142, 143, 152, Agaristinae 144 Amata marella pl. 6 K 169, 178, 186 Agathia parasinaspis pl. 4 M amber 79 A. auriculiformis 169, 171, 174 Agathis spp. 164, 170, 177, 190 Amblycera 102 A. mangium 105, 169, 171, 174, 179, A. macrophylla 198 Amblypygi 84, 87 180, 181, 183 A. vitiensis 198 ambrosia beetles, see Platypodidae A. sphaerocephala, 49, 56 age classes 221-2 and Scolytidae, 65, 121-2, 162, Acalolepta sp. 171 age-grading 70 186-9, 198, 227 Acanthaceae 136 aggregation pheromone 39, 136 ambrosia fungus 65, 122, 186 Acari 59, 65, 82-6, 110-1, 119, 159- Aglaia spp. 136 Ambulyx spp. 142 60, 180, 220, 233-3, 236 Aglossata 138 Ambulyx dohertyi 141 Acaridae (=Thyroglyphidae) 86 Agonischius 116 American Cockroach 96 Acarina, see Acari Agrianome 120 American Samoa 8, 198 Acarus siro 86 Agrilus spp. 117, 184-6, 224-5 ametaboly 28, 88, 89 acceptable daily input 243 A. opulentus 117, 165, 171-2, 175, Amitermes spp. 96 accessory pulsatile organs 20 184-6 Amitermes meridionalis 44 acephate 186 A. viridissimus 117, 169, 171-2, 175, ammonium nitrate 223 acetylcholine esterase 240 184-6 Amoebae 232 acetylcholine 21 Agrioglypta sp. 139, pl. 4 E Amorbus alternatus 28 Achantina fulica 230 Agrius 142 97 Acherontia spp. 37, 142 agrochemicals 73 Amphicorisae 106 A. lachesis 141, pl. 6 H Agromycidae 53, 125, 129 Amphipoda 87 Achias spp. 32, 129, 131 Agrotis spp. 144 Anacardium occidentale 198 A. rothschildi 129 Agrotis ipsilon Hufnagel 171, 177 Analaches 115 Acraeinae 146 aibika 241 analogy 79 Acrida 99 air blast sprayer 249, 251 Anatrichus 130 Acrididae 26, 40, 98-9, 170-1, 174, alarm indicators 39 Ancistria 118 182, 231-2 alates 42, 96 anemophily 54 Acridoidea 100 Alaus sp. 115-6, pl. 3 R angelwings, see Acrocerops sp. 171 Albizia spp. 136, 193, 198 Angiosperms 53, 79, 135 Acrotelsella sp. 93 A. falcataria 136, 146, 168, 171, Angonyx spp. 142 Actellic 240 177, 198 A. testacea papuana pl. 6 E active ingredient (a.i.) 248 Alcaeus 109 Anisocyga spp. 140 Aculeata 30, 147, 149 Alcides agathrysus 64, 135, 140, Anisolabididae 98 acute toxicity 243 146, pl. 2 G, H Anisolema 119 additives 230, 248 Alcis spp. 140 Anisoptera spp. 94, 171, 175 104, 165, 170, 172, 174, A. papuensis 170, 173, 176, 196-7, Anisozygoptera 94 182, 183, 234 pl. 4 K Annelida 78, 81 adenotrophic viviparity 26 aldehydes 63 136 114 alderflies 110 Anobiidae 117-8, 190-1 adhesive setae 113 Aldicarb 240, 246 Anobium punctatum 118 adipokinetic hormone 22 Aldrin 240, 246 Anomis sp. pl. 7 T adjuvants 248 Aleyrodidae 152, 169, 171, 182, Anonychomyrma scrutator 48-9 admirals, see Nymphalidae 183, 233 Anopheles spp. 126, 230, 234 adrenaline 64 Aleyrodoidea 104 Anophelinae 126 Aedes 126 alimentary channel 20 Anoplognathus sp. 113 Aegeriidae 139 Alium sativa 236 Anoplolepis longipes 154, 194, 230, Aegus 115 alkaloids 53, 62-4, 236, 240 234-5 Index 295

Anoplura 102 apolysis 27 Asclepiadaceae 63, 136, 142-3, 146 anoxia 21 aposematic coloration 38, 60, 64, Ascomeryx 142 ant caterpillar, see Liphyra sp. 117, 135, 139, 142-3, 145-6, Ascomycota 65 ant lions, see Neuroptera 148-9, 152, 232 Aseki 6 ant trap 235 Appias 146 Asian Corn Stem Borer, see Ostrinia Antarctoperlaria 94 apple moths 151 Asian Papaya fruit fly, see Bactrocera antennae 12, 23, 24, 32 application of insecticides 248-52 Asilidae 64, 66, 128, 131 Antennata 87 Apterygota 18, 28, 88-9, 92 caricae 143 Anthaxia 117 Arachnida 58, 82, 85, 234 A. heliconia dama 143, pl. 6 I Anthela spp. 170 Arachnocampa spp. 128 A. heliconia doryca 143 A. ekeikei 142, 170, 173, 177, 196-7, Arachnopus 121 A. orbona queenslandica 143 pl. 5 P, Q 108 A. versicolor 143 Anthelidae 135, 140, 170, 173, 177, 108 Aspidiotus destructor 198 196-7, pl. 2 C Araneae 26, 57, 58, 63, 72, 82-4, aspirator 207 Anthomyiidae 125, 130 135, 152, 180, 194, 215, 234-5 assassin bugs, see Anthophoridae 148, 154, 162, 173, Araucaria spp. 120-1, 137, 140, Asterolecanium sp. 198 177, 197 190-1 asynchronous flight muscles 25 Anthrenus 118, 217 A. columans 198 Atabron 240, 241 antibiosis 225 A. cookii 198 Atalophlebia sp. 93 anti-coagulants 15 A. cunninghamii 120, 163-4, 170, Atractomorpha similis 99 antifeedants 62, 63, 225, 237 174-6, 178-9, 181-2, 186, 189, Atrichobrunnettia sp. 131 Antipodoecia sp. 132 191, 193-4, 198, 221, 236 Atrophaneura 145 antixenosis 225 A. hunsteinii 120, 163-4, 170, 175-6, A. polydorus 136, 146, pl. 10 A antlered flies 32, 131 186, 190, 191 atropine sulphate 245 antlions 59, 111, 234, 236 Araucaria looper, see Milionia Atta 153 antplants 49-50, 56, 153 Araucariaceae 122, 164, 170 Attagenus 118 ants (see Formicidae) 18, 26, 32, 39, arboreal nest 44, 166, 169, 178-9 Attalus 118 41, 47, 55, 63, 79, 103, 115, 147-9, arboreal red ant, see Oecophylla attractants 204, 206-7, 210 152-3, 180, 194, 211, 215-6, 234-5 smaragdina Atyphella 117 ants, animal tending 48 Archaeognatha 66, 92-3 Auchenorrhyncha 103-5 ants, fungus farming 48 Archichauliodes sp. 110 auditory communication 36 ants, guest ants 48 Archimantis latistylus 33, 97 auditory organs 36, 105 ants, slavery 49 Archostemata 114 auger beetles 118 ants, soldiers 62 Arctiidae 38, 60, 63, 135-6, 142-3 augmentation 229, 232 ants, worker 48, 66, 153 Arctoperlaria 94 Aulacocyclus 115, 117 Aonidiella aurantii 233 Arecaeae 136 Aulacophora pallidefasciata 120 Aopcrita 147 Argasidae 86 Australia 4, 8, 41, 149, 225, 232 Apachyidae 98 Argentine ants 153 Austromalaya sp. 171, 174, 183 Apanteles melanoscelus 29 Argyreus hyperbius pl. 10 S Austroperlidae 94 Apanteles priscus 230 Aristolochia spp. 26, 63, 145-6 Austrosimulium bancrofti 128 Apaturina 146 A. crassinervia 136, 146 Austrosimulium pestilens 128 146 A. elegans 145 autecology 52 apex 18 A. goliathiana 136 autotomy 62 Aphelinidae 151, 233, 235 A. schlechteri 73 availability of food 72, 221 Aphididae 15, 32, 39, 47-8, 62, 72, A. tagala136, 145 availability of space 73 75, 103-4, 111, 119, 129, 153, Aristolochiaceae 63, 136, 145 Azadirachta indica 236-8 162, 182, 198, 231-5 aristolochic acid 63, 146 azadirachtin A 237 Aphidoidea 104 Arixyleborus canaliculatus 186 Bacillus spp. 230 aphids, see Aphididae armoured scales 104 B. popilliae 230 army worms 193 B. sphaericus 230 aphrodisiac 136 arolium 147 B. thuringiensis (Bt) 230 Aphytis sp. 152, 233 arsenic 239 B. thuringiensis israeliensis 231 Apicomplexa 232 Arthocarpus 119 back-swimmers 106 Apidae 14, 154 Arthopala 147 bacteria 43, 65, 230-1 Apina 144 Arthropoda 79-83, 129-30, 210, 234 Bactrocera papayae 129 Apis mellifera 4, 14, 45, 74, 154 Articulata 81 Baculoviridae 194, 231 Apocrita 16, 147-9 111 baculoviruses 196, 197, 231 Apocynaceae 63, 136, 142, 143, 146 Aschiza 129 Baetidae 93 Apocyrtus 121 Asclepiadaceae 63, 136 bag worms, see Psychidae Apoidea 147, 154 Asclepias spp. 63 bait 206, 210, 248 296 Index bait barrier 227, 251 biological control 4, 53-4, 60, 86, breadfruit 119 Baitabag 145 104, 114, 116, 119, 121, 125, Brentidae 121 Balantiucha sp. pl. 5 J 129, 149-1, 154, 180, 196, 212, bristletail 28, 59, 66, 92-3 Baliomorpha sp. 132 224, 227-38, 240-2, 252 brood care 26, 82 Banksia 152 biological diversity, see biodiversity brown lacewings 236 Barber traps 210 biological indicators 4, 75, 95, 132 Brown River 176, 193 Baridinae 121 bioluminescence 38, 114, 116, 117, browns, see Satyrinae bark beetle damage 161 124, 128 buai, see betelnut bark beetles 39, 121-2, 161-2, 184, biomagnification 242, 252 Bubia Agricultural Research Centre 206, 211, 227 biomass, pyramid of 52 151, 235 bark bugs 108 BioPath 231 Bufo marinus 229-30, 234 bark scoring 161 biotic factors 32, 71 Bufonidae 229, 234 bark weevils 190 biotic potential 75 bugs, see Heteroptera barklice 101 Biprorulus 109 bulldog ants 153-4 Barringtonia 198 bird eating spiders 83-4 bull-horn acacia 56 basket lerp 166, 183 bird’s eye 192 Bulolo 76, 174-6, 182-3, 189, 193-4, Batesian mimicry 64, 135 Birdwing hybrid 6, pl. 9 P 238 Bathyergidae 41 Birdwings, see Ornithoptera bumblebees 63, 154 spp. 120 biting midges 128 4, 6, 54, 113, 116-7, Batocera kibleri 3, 119 Bittacidae 31 161, 165, 169, 17-2, 175, 184, Batocera laena pl. 3 S Blaberidae 95 198 bats 23, 38, 60, 62, 135, 142 black field cricket 37 burnets, see Zygaenidae beaks, see Libytheinae black flies 104 bush crickets 37, 99 beating substrate 38 black fly, see Simuliidae butterflies 234 Beauman funnel 207 black house ant 153 butterflies (see Lepidoptera) 32, 55, Beauveria spp. 231 black sooty mould 104, 162, 182-3 61-2, 133, 144, 159, 192, 193, B. bassiana 194, 231 black widows 83 196, 203-4, 206, 212-4, 216-7, B. brongniartii 231 Blatellidae 95 226, 234 bed bugs 3, 108 Blatta germanica 95-6 butyric acid 49 bee flies 129 Blattidae 28, 95 Byrsax 119 bee hives 45 13, 65, 95, 152 cabbage 241 blister beetles 119 bees (see Apidae) 14, 24, 26-7, 32, cabbage moths 151 blister mite 86 38, 41, 44-5, 55, 63, 129-30, 147-9, cacao army worm 230 blood-worms 128 154, 197 caddis flies 61, 132 blowflies 125, 130 beetles, see Coleoptera Caedicia spp. 99, pl. 3 B blue mountain butterfly 146 behavioural defence 62 Caelifera 99 blue stain 161-2 64 Caenidae 93 bluebottles 130 Belionota 117 Caesalpinia bondoc 136 body louse 102 bell moths 139 Caliagrion sp. 94 Bombacaceae 170 106 Calliphoridae 30, 31, 67, 125, 130 bombardier beetle 63, 113-4 Beltian bodies 56 Calliteara spp. 144 Bombus 154 Benzene 240 Calliteara queenslandica Butler 170, Bombycidae 62, 64, 142 benzene hexachloride 180 173, 177, 196-7, pl. 7 A Bombycoidea 140 benzoylphenyl ureas (BPU) 240 Callopistus 117 Bombyliidae 129, 131 Berlese funnels 203, 207, 209 callus formation 185 Bombyx mori 4, 137, 142 Calochromus 118 Bessa remota 229 book lice 65, 101, 217 Calodema spp. 6, 117 betel pepper 154 Boopiidae 102 Calodema ribbei pl. 3 N betelnut 112, 154, 244 Bostrichidae 118, 167, 171-2, 175, Calogramma spp. 144, pl. 7 L Bibionidae 66 190-1, 198 Calophyllum spp. 186, 198 Bibionomorpha 128 Bostrichiformia 118 Calophyllum inophyllum 198 binary chemical weapons 240 Bostrychopsis 118 Calthrop puncture vine 230 binomial distribution 71 bot flies 125, 130 Calyptra 144 Bioallethrin, 240 Bougainville 6 camelneck-flies 111 Biobit 231 Bovicola spp. 102 camouflage 58, 61, 97, 100, 113, BioBlast 231 Brachycera 125, 128 140, 145, pl. 1A biodiversity 2, 7-8, 203, 221 Brachyderinae 121 Campodeiae 66 biogenic amines 64 Braconidae 29, 150, 194, 230, 235 Camponotus inflatus 49 biogeography 7 Bradymerus 119 cancer 239 BioGreen 231 brain 21 cane toad, see Bufo marinus Index 297 canopy fogging 79, 210 Cerambycidae 31, 54, 64, 112, 117, chromium 239 Cantharidae 55, 117-8 119-21, 161-2, 164, 170-2, 175, chrysalis 29 cantharophily 54 190-1 Chrysantemum, see Tanacetum nigripes pl. 3 E 120 Chrysididae 152, pl. 3 V Canthesancus sp. 37 Ceratopogonidae 125, 128 Chrysidoidea 152 capitulum 84 cerci 18, 23 Chrysobothris 198 Capsicum frutescens 236 105-6, 162 Chrysodeixis 151 capture-recapture-method 203-4 Cercopoidea 106 Chrysomelidae 53, 66, 113, 120-1, Carabidae 30, 58, 63, 66, 113-4, Ceresium 120 167, 171, 175, 184 230, 234 Ceroplastes rubens Maskell 105, 121 Carausius morosus 100 165, 170, 174, 183 111, 233, 236 carbamates 240 Ceryx spp. 143 Chrysopogon spp. 64 Carbaryl 240-1 Cethosia spp. 136, 146 cicadas, see Cicadidae Carbofuran 240 Cethosia cydippe pl. 10 Y Cicadellidae 105-6 cardenolides 62 Cetoniinae 4, 113, 116 Cicadelloidea 106 cardiac glycosides 146 chafers, see Cetoniinae Cicadidae 32-3, 36-8, 58, 66, 105-6, Cardiaspina spp. 104, 166, 171-2, chalcid wasps, see Chalcidae 161-2, 182, 236 174, 183 Chalcidae 150 Cicadoidea 105-6 carding of insect specimens 214 Chalcidoidea 150, 233, 235 105 Caribbean pine 165 latona 136, 146 Cicindela 114 carnivores 52 Charaxinae 146 Cicindelinae 114, 118 carpenter ants 162 Charles Darwin 8 Cimex lectularius 107-8 carpenter bees 154, 197 Chauliognathus 117 108 Carphurus 118 chelicerae 82 108 Carpophilus 118 Chelicerata 81, 82 108 carrion beetles 115 Chelisoches spp. 98 Cinnamomum spp. 136 Carthaea sp. 134 Chelisochidae 98 circadian rhythm 73 Carthaeidae 134 chemical communication 38, 59, 136 circulatory system 20 case moths, see Psychidae chemical defence 60, 62-4, 97, 103, Cirrhochrista sp. 139, pl. 4 D Cassidinae 121 113 Cisseis 117 caste system 31, 39, 41-2, 96 chemical control 224, 227, 239-43, citronella 127, 236 Casuarina spp. 140, 152, 171, 175, 252 152, 233 177, 195-6, 220 chemoreception 24 citrus rust mite 86 Casuarina equisetifolia 198 chewing mouthparts 11-2, 32, 121, Citrus spp 104, 129, 136, 144, 152, Casuarinaceae 171, 196 159, 182, 192 183 Catacanthus nigripes 109 chewing-lapping mouthparts 14, 32 106 Cataphracta 121 chigger mites 85 cladogram 80 Catascopus 114 chilli 236, 238 Cladophorus 115, 118 Catopsilia spp. 146 spp. 119 classification 80 C. pomona pl. 10 B, C Chilocorus circumdatus 233 sp. pl. 4 F Cecidomyiidae 125, 128 Chilophora 232 Cleora repetita pl. 4 P cedar 193 Chilopoda 82, 87 cleptoparasites 148 cedar shoot borer, see Hypsipyla Chinaberry tree 238 Cleridae 67, 118, 120 Cedrela spp. 198 chinch bugs 108 click beetles, see Elateridae Celastrina 147 Chironomidae 128 Clivina 114 43 chitin 11 clothes moths, see Tineola cellulose 43, 65, 177 chitin synthesis inhibitors 240 Coccidae 15, 47-49, 62, 103-5, 107, Celyphidae 129 65 119, 152-3, 162, 165, 170, 174, census 202 Chlopopyrifos 240 182-3, 198, 231, 234-5 centipedes 87 Chlordane 240, 246 coccids, see Coccidae central nervous system 21 chlorinated hydrocarbons 180, 239 Coccinella sp. 117, 119, 120 Central Province 67 Chlorocoma spp. 140, pl. 4 O Coccinellidae 31, 58, 117-20, 230, Centroptilum sp. 93 chlorocresol 217 233-4 cephalothorax 82, 87 chloroform 210-3, 217 Coccoidea 103-4 Cephidae 148, 149 Chlorophos 240 Cochliomyia hominivorax 227 Cephoidea 149 Chloropidae 125, 130 116, 235 Cephonodes spp. 142 chloroquine 127 cockroaches 8, 26, 28, 32, 61, 63, Cephonodes hylas pl. 5 R Chorista sp. 123 65, 95-6 Cephrenes sp. 134 Chortoicetes terminifera 99 cocoa 154 Cepora 146 Christmas beetles 116, 218 coconut moth 229 298 Index cocoon 82, 134, 137, 148, 150, 159, Corcyra cephalonica 235 Ctenocephalides felix 124 162, 196, 204 Cordia subcordata 198 cubitus 18 Cocos nucifera 136 Corduliidae 94 cuckoo wasps 152 Cocytiidae pl. 4 A 28, 32, 108-9, 169-72, 174, Cucubitaceae 108 coddling moths 139, 151 183 Cucujidae 117, 118, 120 Coenagrion sp. 94 108, 109 Cucujiformia 118 94 Coriophagus spp. 123 Culicidae 125-6 coevolution 58, 60 106 Culicomorpha 125 coffee 193 cornicles 104 cultural diversification 221, 224 Coleolepidorthoptera 112 corpora allata 22 cultural methods 225-6 Coleoptera 2, 13, 16-8, 23, 30-1, 33, cortex mining 189 cuneus 108 54, 61-2, 64-7, 80, 82, 110, 112- 3, 8, 136-7, cup moths, see Limacodidae 22, 130, 142, 149, 151-2, 159, 140, pl. 5 L Curculionidae 13, 53, 62, 66, 113, 175-6, 184, 192, 203-4, 206-7, Cosmodes 144 120, 121-2, 162, 164, 170-2, 210, 212, 214-7, 224, 231-2, 234, Cossidae 31, 138-9, 141, 171, 176, 175-6, 184, 190-2, 198, 234 237 192 Curetinae 147 Coleorrhyncha 106 Cossids, see Cossidae cursorial legs 17 collection of insects 211 Cossoidea 138 Cuspicona 109 Collembola 38, 65-66, 79, 88 costa 18 cutaneous myiasis 130 Colobopsis truncata 62 cotton 139 cuticle 11, 24 colonising flight 42 cotton harlequin bug 109 cutting-sponging mouthparts 14, 16 colony 41, 204 Coumaphos 240 cutworms, see Noctuidae Colpodes habilis 114 courtship behaviour 25, 36, 38-9, cyanogenic glycosides 62-3 Columbicola columbae 102 114 Cyclodes sp. 144, pl. 7 S Combretaceae 169, 171 coxa 17 Cyclommatus spp. 115 commensalism 52, 57 crab spiders 83 C. imperator pl. 3 F communication 36, 41, 148 crabs 87 C. sumptuosus 115 communities 52 crane flies 66, 125 Cyclorhapha 129 Comostola spp. 140 crayfish 87 Cydia 151 competition 72 crazy ant, see Anoplolepis Cylindrus 118 compound eyes 23 Creatitis capitata 129, 131 Cymbopogon citratus 127, 236 Comptosia lateralis 131 Creatonotus 143 Cynipidae 53 cone scoring 160 Creiis 105. Cynipoidea 150 conidiophores 230-1 Creophilus 115 Cyphogastra spp. 115, 117, 171, pl. Conogethes spp. 139 crickets, see Gryllidae 3 P, Q conservation 5-7, 225, 229 crinkled leaf 160 Cypovirus 231 conservation techniques 234 crochets 134 Cyprus spp. 240 constitutive defence 53 crop 19 Cyrestis acilia pl. 10 R consumer 52 crop rotation 226 Cyrestis spp. 136, 146 contact poisons 239-40 Crossotarsus spp. 122, 170, 172, Cyrtobagous salviniae 53-4, 121, contagious distribution 70 176, 186-9 227-8, 230 controlled droplet applicators 249, C. externedentatus 198 Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis Viruses 251 C. porcatus 188 231 Convention on the International cross-veins 18 Dacnonypha 138 Trade in Endangered Species Crotalaria spp. 236 coccus 4, 104 (CITES) 5-7, 145 Crozetia sp. 14 daddy longlegs 84, 86 conventional boom sprayers 249 crusader bug, see Mictis profana Dalbergia spp. 136 cooty 102 Crustacea 82, 87, 94, 240 damage assessment 205 copper 239 Crustecdysone 240 damsel flies, see Odonata coppers and blues 146 Cryptarcha 118 Danainae 63, 146 coprohages 67, 116 cryptic coloration 61, 97, 113, 140 Danaus spp. 136, 146 Coptocorynus 190 Cryptocercidae 95 D. chrysippus pl. 8 G, 11 B Coptopterus 120 Cryptocercus punctulatus 95 D. plexippus 63, 146, pl. 2 K-M Coptotermes spp. 44, 96, 170, 198 Cryptolaemus spp. 119 Danima sp. 134 C. elisae (Desneux) 96, 161, 163, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri 233-4 Daphnis spp. 142 170, 172, 174, 177-82, 235 Cryptophlebia 151 D. dohertyi pl. 6 A C. elisae, damage pl. 11 H domesticus 198 D. hypothous pallescens pl. 6 F copulation 25 Cryptothelia sp. 193, 196-7 D. protrudens 141 copulatory organs 18 CSIRO 180, 193, 204, 228 darkling beetles 119 Coraebus 117 Ctenocephalides canis 124 darters, see Hesperiidae Index 299

Dasychira spp. 144 Diapause Hormone 22, 33 Drilidae 230 D. mendosa (Hübner) 171, 173, 177, Diapus spp. 122, 170, 176, 186-9, drone flies 129 196, pl. 6 O 198 drones 27, 45 D. wandammena Bethune-Baker 104, 198, 233 Drosera sp. 56 170-1, 177 Diazinon 240 Drosophila melanogaster 4, 16, 130 day moths, see Agaristinae 1,2-Dibromethane 246 Drosophilidae 16, 130 DDT 127, 240-1, 243, 246 Dichlorvos 240 Drummer cicada 37 de-alates 42, 96 dichotomous keys 81 Dunbaria fasciipennis 79 death’s clock 118 Dicofol 240 dung beetles 3, 67, 116 death’s head moth 37, 141-2 fasciata 29 dust flies 111 debarking 224, 227 Dieldrin 180, 240, 246 dusters 249 Decis 240 digestion 19 dusts 248 decomposer 3, 52 digger wasps 154 Dyar’s law 27 defence 38, 52, 60-4, 135, 145 Dihammus spp. 120, 170-2, 175, 191 116 defensive glands 22 Dihammus australis 191 Dysphania spp. 140 defoliators 192-4, 196, 205 Dihammus tincturatus 191 Dysphania fenestrata pl. 5 G deforestation 5 dimorphism 31, 33 Dysoxylum spp. 136, 194 Delacampius sp. 107 Dindymus sp. 107 earth measurers, see Geometridae Deladenus siricidicola 232 109 earth worm 78 Delfin 231 Dinoaea muscipula 57 earwigs, see Dermaptera Delia platura 130 Dinoderus spp. 118 East New Britain 67, 229 spp. 134, 136, 146 Dinoderus minutus (Fabricius) 171, East Sepik Province 67 Delias abnormis pl. 10 I 191 Eastern Highlands Province 176, 194 Delias aruna pl. 10 N Dinoseb 246 ecdysis 27 Delias clathrata pl. 10 P Diotimana undulata (Pascoe) 170, 191 Ecdysone 22, 28 Delias hallstromi pl. 10 F dip diffusion 188 echidna 153, 234 Delias iltis pl. 10 H Dipel 231 echolocation system 38 Delias ladas pl. 10 G diploidy 25, 26, 45 eclosion 31 Delias leucias pl. 10 M Diplopoda 82, 87-8 Eclosion Hormone 28 Delias meeki pl. 10 L Diplura 66, 88 Ecnomidae 132 Delias mira pl. 10 D dipping 249 ecology 52 Delias niepelti pl. 10 O Diprionidae 30 economic injury level 253 Delias nocharis pl. 10 E 106 economic threshold level 253 Delias perimale pl. 10 J, K Diptera 13-5, 18, 23, 26, 30-2, 38, economic threshold program 248 106 53, 55, 58-60, 64-7, 80, 82, 124- ecotone 203, 221 demecology 52 32, 148, 151, 159, 175, 184, 206- ectoparasites 58-9, 85, 123, 130, 235 114 7, 214, 229, 231-2, 234-5, 237 eelworms 232 Demodex folliculorum 85 Dipterocarpaceae 171 egg parasites 26 Demonax 120 direct flight muscles 25 Elacomia 120 Demostis 117 directional felling 223 elaiosomes 56 dendrites 21 ‘dirty dozen’ 246 Elater 116 dengue fever 59, 125, 126 dispersal 72, 196 Elateridae 38, 62, 66, 113, 116-7, Department of Environment and Disulfoton 240 119, 192 Conservation 7, 245 diversity, see biological diversity Elateriformia 116 106 dobson flies 58, 110 Eleusis 115 Dermaptera 18, 58, 66, 98 Doleschallia spp. 136, 146 Elodina 146 dermatitis 85, 86 D. dascylus pl. 10 U elytra 18, 61, 113 Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus 85 D. hexophtalmos pl. 10 V Embiidna, see Embioptera Dermestidae 31, 67, 118, 217 153 Embioptera 101 Derris spp. 236, 238 49, 50 emerald moths 140 Derris elliptica 236 Dolichopodidae 129, 131 emergence traps 203, 210 Desert locust, see Schistocerca domatia 49, 85 emetic 62, 245 Desmoptera 99 dopamine 64 Emperor gum moth 140 Desmothrips sp. 109 Doratifera quadriguttata 139 emperor moths 140 detection survey 202 Doratifera vulnerans 62 empodium 124 deterrents 62, 225, 236 dormancy 32 empusal vein 18 Deudorix 147 dorsal vessel 20 emulsifiable concentrates 248 deutonymph 85 dragon flies, see Odonata emulsifiers 248 Diantennata 87 Drepanidae 140-1 Encarsia formosa 152, 233 diapause 33 Drepanoidea 140 encephalitides 125 300 Index

Encyrtidae 151, 233, 235 E. pinaculata 198 fertiliser application 226 Endelis 117 E. torelliana 166, 171, 175-6, 191 fertility 71 endemism 2, 8 Euchromia 143 spp. 143, 150 endocrine glands 22 Eucocytia meeki pl. 4 A fig wasps 55, 149, 150 endoparasites 59, 130, 149, 235 Eucyclodes spp. 140 figs 55, 149, 150 Endopterygota 28, 89, 92, 231 Eudalia sp. 113 Fiji 8, 198, 246 endospores 230 Eumeta spp. 138, 171, 176, 193 filariasis 125, 128 Endosulfan 240 Eumolpinae 121 filtering type of mouthparts 14 Endoxyla cinerea 139 Euodia allata 136 fire ants 153 Endrine 240 Euodia elleryana 136 fire flies 38, 113, 117 engravers 161 Eupatorus beccarii 115-6, pl. 3 H firebrats 93 Enicocephalomorpha 106 Eupholus spp. 121, pl. 3 U fixed time collection 204, 206 Ensifera 99 Eupholus geoffroyi 120 flat bugs 108 enteric diseases 125 Euphyia spp. 140 flat-headed wood borers 117 Entognatha 87, 88 Euploea spp. 134, 136, 146 106, 171-2, 174 entomological forceps 211 Euploea callithoe pl. 11 E fleas, see Siphonaptera entomological pins 211, 214 Euploea wallacei pl. 11 D flesh flies 130 entomoparasites 32, 59, 122, 194 Eurema blanda (Boisduval) 136, flies, see Diptera entomopathogens 65, 73, 227, 230-2 146, 171, 173, 177, 193, 238 flight muscles 25, 216 entomophages 58, 123 Eurycantha horrida 62, 100 flour beetles 119 entomophily 54 Eurymelidae 106 flower caterpillars 151 Entomophthora muscae 231 eusociality 40-1, 96, 152 flower chafers 116, 218 Entomopoxvirinae 232 94, 95 flower flies 129 Entomopoxviruses (EPV) 232 evolution 7 flower scarabs 116 environmental manipulation 229 excretion 19 Fluoroacetamide 246 environmental resistance 75 exocrine glands 22, 39 Fodina sp. pl. 7 H Epepeotes rarus 120 exoparasites 102 foggers 249 Ephemeroptera 93 Exoporia 138 Food and Agriculture Organisation epicormic shoots 185 Exopterygota 28, 89 (FAO) 246 Epiphyas 151 exoskeleton 11, 81 food chain 52 epiphytes 49 explosives 222-3 food web 52 Erebus spp. 144, pl. 2 A, 7 O exponential growth 68 foot-spinners 101 Eribotes 109 export permit 7 foregut 19 Erima 221 Extatosoma papoi horridus 100 Forest Research Institute 159, 182, erineum 86 extrafloral nectaries 54 193, 217, 222 104, 170, 198, 236 exuviae 27, 162 foresters, see Zygaenidae Eriococcus spp. 105, 170, 236 49 Forficulidae 98 Eriococcus araucariae 198 facultative diapause 33 formalin 213 Eriophyes sp. 86 fairy flies 151 formic acid 63, 153, 154 Eriophyidae 86, 171 false abdominal legs 17, 18, 30 Formicidae 63, 66, 149, 152-4, 234 Erirhininae 121 false eye spots 61, 142, 144-6 Formicinae 153 Eristalis sp. 131 Fansidar â 127 formulation 231, 248 Eroschema spp. 64 fat body 19 fossils 79 Erycinidia 146 Fayantina 176, 177 fossorial legs 17, 99 esophagus 19, 21 fecundity 71 four-spotted cup moth 139 essential oils 63, 66, 138 feeding puncture 161 fowl tick 86 ethanol 211-2 feelers, see antennae frass 118, 161-2, 189-91 ether 212 feigning death 113 spp. 175 ethyl acetate 211, 212 Felicola subrostratus 102 free feeding 159, 160 Euander sp. 107 felted scales, see Eriococcidae French Polynesia 8, 198 Eubrachyidae 106 femur 17 frenulum 18, 111, 132-3, 137, 139, eucalypt 167, 184 Fenitrothion 240 144 Eucalyptus spp. 63, 66, 101, 104-5, Fenoxycarb â 124, 240 frictional rubbing 37 108-9, 125, 130, 138-40, 142, Fenthion 240 frog hoppers 106 148-9, 152, 166-7, 171, 174-5, Fergusobia 184 Froggattoides sp. 105 177-8, 183-5, 191, 193, 197 Fergusonina spp. 130, 171-2, 175, fruit flies 125, 129 E. deglupta 117, 165-6, 171, 174-7, 184, 197 fruit moths 139, 151 179-80, 182, 184-6, 193-4, 197, Fergusoninidae 125, 130, 171-2, fruit stem borers 151 221, 224-5 175, 184, 197 Fulgoroidea 15, 38, 105-6 E. medullosum 198 fertilisation 25 Fulgoromorpha 105-6 Index 301 fumigants 239-40, 248 G. erotus eras 141, pl. 6 C halofantrine 127 Fumitoxin â 217, 239 G. heliodes 141 halteres 18, 124 fungi 65, 115, 153, 230-1 gnats 124 hamuli 147 fungivores 65, 85, 148, 153 120 hanging flies 123 fungus gnats 128 goat moths 138 haplodiploidy 27, 41, 45, 148 furcula 88 Gogol 174 haploidy 25, 45 furniture beetles 118 Goliath beetle 116 Haptonchus 118 Gabensis 176, 193 Goliath Birdwing, see Ornithoptera hardwoods 188, 205 Galerucinae 120, 121 goliath harlequin bug, see gall formers, see galls Goliathus goliathus 116 harvest men , see Opiliones gall gnats 128 Gomphidae 94 haustellum 133 gall midges 26, 128 gonads 25 hawk moths 142 gall mites 86 Gonatas 115 head 10, 11 gall wasps 53 Goniocotes gallinae 102 head louse 102 galls 53, 86, 104, 125, 129-30, 148, Goniophila sp. pl. 8 A heart rot 161-2, 178 150-2, 160-2, 184, 197 Gonostylus 198 Helferella 117 Gambusia affinis 230, 234 Goroka 175-6 Helicoverpa 144, 151, 231 ganglia 21, 22 Gracillariidae 138, 171 Heliota sp. 118, 120 garlic 236, 238 gradual metamorphosis 28 heliothis, see Helicoverpa gas exchange 20 Gramineae 106, 108-9 Hellerhinus 121 Gastrimargus 99 granules 248 Helminthes 125 106 granulosis viruses (GV) 231 hemelytron 106, 108 Gelechiidae 138 spp. 136, 145 236 gene banks 225 Graphium eurypylus 146, pl. 8 H hemimetaboly 28, 32, 89 generation time 70 Graphium weiskei 3, 146, pl. 8 I Hemiptera 15, 27, 58-9, 62, 65-6, 82, genetic engineering 225 Grapholita molesta 227 103-9, 130, 151-2, 160, 174, Geocorisae 108 grass moths 139 182-3, 234, 236-7 Geometridae 30, 133-5, 137, 139-40, grasshoppers, see Orthoptera hemo-, see haemo 164, 170-1, 173, 176, 193, 196 grave digger 67 Hepialidae 133, 138 140 greasy traps 210 Hepialoidea 138 Geotrupidae 116 green fly 104 Heptachlor 240, 246 German Cockroach 96 green lacewing 111, 233, 236 herbivores 3, 52, 85, 114 106 green muscardine 231 herbivory 53 Gerris spp. 106 green vegetable bug 109 Hercules moth, see Coscinocera Gerromorhpa 103, 106 gregarious phase 99 Hermachus morosus 3, 100 ghost moths 138 gressorial legs 17 hermaphroditism 27 giant African snail 230 Gripopterygidae 94, 95 Hesperiidae 133, 134, 144 giant sensitive plant 104, 230, 236 Gromphadorina potentosa 95 Hesperioidea 144 giant tropical cockroach 95 ground beetles, see Carabidae Hesperus abnormis 115 giant waterbug 106 growth inhibitors 225 Heterobathmiina 138 gills 21, 110, 132 Gryllidae 32, 36, 58, 98-9, 182, 198 Heterobostrychus 118 girdle pupa 145 Grylloblatta spp. 98 Heterocephalus glaber 41 glacial acetic acid 213 Grylloblattodea 97, 98 heterochromosomes 27 Glaucias 109 Gryllotalpa spp. 37, 99, 170, 182 Heteroneura 138 Glenea 120 Gryllotalpidae 99, 170, 182 Heteropsilopus sp. 131 Glenoleo pulchellus 111 guava 101 Heteropsylla spinulosa 104, 230, 236 Glossata 138 gum tree, see Eucalyptus spp. Heteroptera 15, 28, 59, 65, 104, 106- Glossina morsitans 125 gumtree scales 105 9, 114, 159, 182-3, 234 Glossinidae 125 Gymnopholus 121 Heterorhabditidae 232 glow-worms 38, 113, 117 gypsy moths 143, 227 heterotrophic level 3 glucosinolates 53 habitat 72, 203, 221, 225-7 heterotrophy 20, 52 Glycaspis spp. 104, 166, 171-2, 174, habitat destruction 5, 73, 206 Hexachloride 240 183 habitat modification 226-9, 234, 252 Hexachlorocyclohexane 246 glycerol 213 Hacatesia 144 Hexapoda 88, 89 glycosides 53 Haematopinidae 102 hindgut 19 Glycyphagus domesticus 85 Haematopinus spp. 102 Hippoboscidae 125, 130 Glyphodes spp. 139 haemoglobin 128 Hippotion spp. 142 Gmelina moluccana 198 haemocytes 20 H. celerio 229-30, 234, pl. 6 B gnathosoma 84 haemolymph 19, 20, 22, 26 H. velox pl. 6 G Gnathothlibus spp. 142 Halfan â 127 Hirsutella thompsonii 231 302 Index

Hispinae 120-1 H. araucariae (Schedl) 122, 158, integrated pest management 224, histamine 64 163, 170, 172, 189-90, 221 234, 252-3 Histeridae 67, 115, 230 H. araucariae damage pl. 11 G, I integument 11 hole feeding 159, 160, 193 H. piniarius (Schedl) 122, 170, 186 interactive keys 81 Holochlora spp. 99 97 intercastes 41, 96 holometaboly 28, 32 Hymenoptera 13-4, 23, 30-2, 38, 41, intercropping 226 homology 78 58-60, 63, 65-6, 79-80, 82, 119, internal bark feeding 161 Homoptera 59, 104-6, 182-3, 234 129, 147-54, 160, 177, 197, 207, International Union for the Conser- honey 45, 149 234 vation of Nature and Natural Re- honey bee, see Apis mellifera hyperparasitism 58-9, 148-50, 229 sources (IUCN) 5 honey combs 45 Hyplocerambyx severus Pascoe 120, interplanting 236 honey dew 48, 104, 162, 182 171-2, 175, 190-1 interspecific communication 36, 72 honey glands 147 Hypochrysops 147 intrafloral nectaries 54 honeycomb-type boring 162 hypognathous mouthparts 95 intraspecific communication 36, 72 honeypot ants 49, 153 spp. 136, 146 introduction of organisms 227 hook-tipped moths 140 Hypolimnas alimena pl. 10 X inundation 229 Hoop pine, see Araucaria cunning- Hypolimnas bolina pl. 8 G, 10 W Ips grandicollis 122 hamii hypopharynx 13 Iridomyrmex spp. 97, 234 Hoop pine bark beetle 122 Hyposidera spp. 140 Iridomyrmex humilis 153 Hoop pine branch pruner 120 Hyposidera talcata Guenée 171, 176 Iridomyrmex purpureus 153 Hoop pine weevil 164, 191-2 Hypsidae 143 Iridotaenia spp. 117 hormone system 22 Hypsipyla spp. 137, 139, 167, 176, Ischiosopha spp. 116, pl. 3 J, K Ischnocera 102 hormone analogues 227 193 hormones 20, 22, 240 H. puera 139 Isopoda 87 hornets 152 H. robusta (Moore) 167, 170, 173, Isoptera 3, 32-3, 39, 41-4, 65-6, 82, horse flies, see Tabanidae 176, 193, 198, pl. 4 C 96, 153, 161-3, 169-71, 174, hospital ants 153 ice crawlers 97, 98 177-82, 198, 204-5, 213, 220, host preference 59 Icerya seychellarum 198 222-24, 231, 235 Isotomidae 66 host-specifity 53, 230 Ichneumonidae 149-50, 194, 235 itch mites 85 host-switching 220 Ichneumonoidea 149, 235 111 house dust mites 85 identification keys 81 Ixodidae 85, 86 house fly, see Musca domestica idiosoma 84 Jamides reverdini 143, 147 hover flies 64, 129 Illacuris laticollis (Pascoe) 121, 170, Japygidae 66 Hulodes spp. 144, pl. 7 R 175, 190 jassids, see Cicadellidae human crab 102 Illiseoperla sp. 95 jewel beetle, see Buprestidae Imidan 240 humeral vein 18 jewel bugs 109 immunity of insects 20 humidity 73 jumping hindleg 24 Imperata cylindrica 222 Hyalarcta spp. 138, 166, 171, 176, jumping plant lice 104 incomplete metamorphosis 28 193 jumping spider 84 indirect assessment methods 204-5 hyaluronidases 64 June beetles 116 indirect flight muscles 25 Hyblaea puera 139, 168, 170, 173, Junonia spp. 136, 146 induced defence 53 176, 193, 198, pl. 4 B Jurassic Park 79 innocuous phase 75 Hyblaeidae 139, 168, 170, 173, 193 Juvenile Hormone 22, 28 Hyblaeoidea 139 inoculation 229 Juvenile Hormone Analogues 124, hydraulic sprayers 249, 251 inquilines 57, 152, 197 240 Hydrobiosidae 132 insect farming and ranching 4-6, 137 Kainantu 175-6 Hydrocorisae 106 Insect Farming and Trading Agency kairomones 39, 178 hydrogen cyanide 113 (IFTA) 5, 7 Kalotermes repandus 198 hydrogen peroxide 63, 113 insect growth regulators 240 96, 198 Hydrometra 106 insect signs 159-62 Kamarere, see Eucalyptus deglupta 106 insect superlatives 3 Karate 240, 241 Hydrophilidae 112, 114 insect trade 6, 7 katydids 98, 99 Hydrophilus picicornis 115 insecticide label 246 Kau Wildlife Area 145 hydroqinones 63, 113 insecticides 21, 188, 190, 193, 205, Kauri pine, see Agathis Hylaeora sp. 141 210, 224-6, 230, 236-52 keds 130 Hyles 142 58 Kerevat 229 Hylesinus 122 insects, as source of food 4 Kerria lacca 4, 104 Hylobiinae 121 insects, ecological importance 3 ketones 63 Hylurdrectonus spp. 122, 176, 227 insemination 25 Kibara sp. 48, 49 Index 303 killing agent 211-2 leishmaniasis 125 long-horned grasshoppers, see Tetti- killing jar 210-2 lemon grass 127, 236 goniidae killing methods 212 Lentilburgeroptera 112 longicorn beetles, see Cerambycidae Kimbe 176, 221 Lepdopodomorpha 106 loopers, see Geometridae kinesis 36 Lepidoptera 13, 16, 18, 23, 26, 30, Lophocoronina 138 kingfishers 97 31-2, 38, 53, 55, 63, 79, 80, 82, Lophoptera 144 Klinkii pine, see Araucaria hun- 129-30, 132-47, 148-52, 159, Loranthaceae 136 steinii 165, 176-77, 192-7, 198, 206-7, louse flies 125, 130 klinotaxis 36 212-4, 216-7, 231-2, 234-5, 237-8 Louverensia 119 knapsack sprayer 249, 251 Lepidoptera, foodplants 136 Lucanidae 31, 112, 115, 218 kunai, see Imperata cylindrica Lepisma saccharina 93 lucerne 139 kurakum, see Oecophylla Lepismatidae 93 luciferase 38 labella 16 Luciola 117 Leptoceridae 132 labelling of specimens 213 134, 146-7 Leptogaster sp. 131 Labiduridae 66, 98 64, 117-8 Leptoglossus sp. 107, 109, 172 labium 13 Lyctus spp. 118, 198 L. australis (Fabricius) 171, 174, 183 labrum 12 108 Leptomastix dactylopii 152, 233 lac insect, see Kerria lacca Lymantria spp. 143-4, 170-1, 177, Leptophlebiidae 93 Laccotrephes spp. 106-7 194-7 lace lerp 166 Leptopiinae 120, 121 L. dispar 144, 227 lace wings, see Neuroptera Leptotarsus imperatorius 131 L. flavoneura Joicey 196 Lacon 116 Leptotrichalus 118 L. ninayi Bethune-Baker 32, 75, lady birds, see Coccinellidae Lepturinae 120 143-4, 165, 170-1, 173, 177, Lae 237 lerps 104, 162, 182, 183 194-7, 220, 231, 234, pl. 7 D-G Laglaizia biroi 129 Lestidae 94 L. novaguinensis 173, 196, pl. 7 C 120 Lethocerus insulanus 106-7 L. rosa 173, 196, pl. 7 B Lampyridae 38, 113, 117 Leuciacria 146 Lymantriidae 72, 75, 134-6, 143-4, Lampyris 117 Leucitus 115 165, 170-1, 173, 177, 194-7 Landrin 240 Levuana iridescens 229 Lyphia 119 lantern bug 38 Libelluidae 94 Lyprops spp. 119 Lapegu 176-7, 194 Libytheinae 146 Lyprops atronitens 120 lappet moths 140 lice, see Phthiraptera Lyssa patroclus 140-1, pl. 5 K 108 life cycle 28, 70 Machilidae 66, 92 Lariam â 127 life history, see life cycle Macroglossum 142 larvae 30 light traps IV, 207, 209-10, 227 Macrolepidoptera 137 Lasciocampidae 140 lignin 225 macros 137 Lasiodactylus sp. 117-8 Liliaceae 136 Macrosteles spp 15 lateral membrane 18 Limacodidae 62, 134-5, 139, 171 giant hissing cockroach 95 lau-lau 185, 224 Limburger cheese 206 Madang Province 145, 175 Lauraceae 136 Limnogonus spp. 106-7 Madeira ants 153 Lauxaniidae 129 Lindane 240, 246 Magicicada septemdecim 33, 106

LD50-value 243 Linognathidae 102 Malachiidae 118 leaf beetles, see Chrysomelidae Linognathus spp. 102 Malacolycus 118 leaf blister 160 Liparidae 143 Malaise trap 204, 207, 209 leaf blisters 159-60 Liphyra brassolis 147 Malamoeba locustae 232 leaf bugs 108 Liposcelis divinatorius 101 malaria 3, 59, 125, 126, 220 leaf damage 159 liquid formulations 248 Malathion 240, 247 leaf folding 160 Litsea spp. 136 male confusion 227 leaf insects, see Phasmatodea Lixinae 121 Mallada signata 111, 233 leaf miners 125, 138, 138, 149 Lixus 121 Mallophaga 102 leaf mines 148, 160 lobsters 87 Malpighian tubules 19, 128 leaf rollers 138, 139, 160 locomotion 24 136 leaf tying 138, 160 Locusta migratoria 40-1, 99 mandibles 12 leaf-counts 203 locusts, see Acrididae Mandibulata 81, 87 leaf-cutter ants 48, 65, 153 logging 5, 73 mandibulate mouthparts, see leafhoppers 103, 106 logistic growth 69 chewing mouthparts learning 36 Lomaptera spp. 116 Manduca spp. 142 legs 17, 78 Lomaptera annae pl. 3 M mange 85 Leguminosae 135, 144, 168-9, 171, Lomaptera lutea 115 mangoes 129, 154 193 long term toxicity 243 manna 104 304 Index

Mantidae 33, 97 Membracidae 105-6, 161 mist blower 249, 251 111 meningitis 86 mites, see Acari Mantodea 17, 26, 32-3, 58, 62, 97, Menopon gallinae 102 Mitrastethus australiae 170, 190 194, 215, 217, 236, pl. 3 A Menoponidae 102 Miyana meyeri pl. 10 Q march flies 66, 128 Menyamya 45 Mnesamplea sp. 134 198 Mercury vapour lamp 207 Mocis trifasciata (Stephen) 164, Markham Valley 151, 235, 237 Merimna spp. 117 170, 173, 177 marking of insects 203 Meringosiphon sp. 105 mole cricket, see Orthoptera Maroga melanostigma 151 Mermithidae 232 molluscs 236 marsh treaders 106 Meroscalcis selecta 120 Monarch, see Danaus plexippus Marx, Karl 47 Merostomata 82 Monimiacaea 48, 49 masquerade 61 mesoscutellum 112 monitoring 202, 222, 252 mass rearing 151, 229, 234-5 mesothorax 16, 18 monoculture 220-3 mass release 232 metallic wood borers 116 monogenic resistance 242 Mastigaphoides sp. pl. 3 C metameric segmentation 78 Monomorium destructor 153 Mastotermitidae 96 metamorphosis 28-30, 88, 89, 237 monophages 53, 220, 234 materials triangle 52 Metarhizium spp. 180, 231 55, 136-7, 142, 149-50 mating disruption 227, 241 Metarhizium anisopliae 231 Morobe Province 238 Mavrik 240 Metarhizium flavoviridae 231 Morphinae 146 maxillae 12 Meta-Systox R 240 morphological defence 61 May beetles 116 metathorax 16, 18 morphology 78 mayflies 93 Metaxymorpha spp. 6, 117 Morphopsis meeki pl. 10 Z, Z1 McAdam National Park 191 M. nigrosuturalis pl. 3 O mortality 71 mealy bugs, see Pseudococcidae Methana marginalis 28 Mortein 240 meat ants 97, 153, 234 methanol 213 mosquito fish 230, 234 mechanical control 226, 241 methylated ethanol 213 mosquitoes 3, 15, 32, 57, 94, 124-7, mechanoreception 23 Methylparathion 240 206, 220, 227, 230-1, 234 Mecoptera 14, 30-1, 123 Metiorrhynchus spp. 64, 118 moth balls 217 Mecopus 121 Mexican coccineal insect 104 moth flies 128 Medastina trixaria pl. 5 I Microcerotermes spp. 96-7, 171, moths, see Lepidoptera Mediterranean fruit fly, see Creatitis 177-82 mould 211, 215 capitata Microcerotermes biroi (Desneux) moult, moulting 11, 27-8 mefloquine 127 96-7, 171-2, 174, 177-82 mound nest 43-4 Megacaphala 114 Microlarinus lypritornus 230 mouthparts 12-6, 24, 78, 114 frontalis (Fabricius) 171, Microlepidoptera 137 mud daubers 154 177, 197 Micronia spp. 140 mud packs 44, 178, 181 171, 177, 197 microorganisms 113, 230, 234 mud wasps 152 Megaloblatta blaberoides 95 micros 137 mulberries 137, 142 Megaloptera 31, 58, 110 Microspora 232 mulching 236 79 Microsporidia 232 Müllerian mimicry 64, 135, 140, 146 Megapodagrionidae 94 Mictis profana (Fabricius) 32, 109, multiparasitism 59 Megarhyssa nortoni 150 169, 171-2, 174, 183 multivoltinism 79 midges 57, 94, 124, 128 murine typhus 124 Megastigmus spp. 148, 152, 171, midgut 19, 231 Musa spp. 136 173, 177, 184, 197 migrating locusts 40-1, 75, 100 Musca domestica 16, 67, 125, 130 Megauchenia 118 migration 72 Muscidae 16, 66-7, 125, 129, 130-1 Megymenum sp. 107 Milionia spp. 137, 140, 170, 173, museum beetles 118, 217 Meinertellidae 92 176, 193-4, pl. 5 A-F musical apparatus 38, 105 meiosis 26 M. isodoxa Prout 164, 170, 173, mutualism 43, 47, 49, 52, 57, 85, Melanitis 146 176, 193-4, pl. 5 A 103, 147, 149 Melia azedarach 236-8 milk glands 26 Mycalesis spp. 146 Melia composita 236-8 Millionaire moth, see Milionia Mycalesis phidon 143 Meliaceae 167, 168, 170, 193, 236-8 millipedes 87 124, 128, 131 melianone 238 mimesis 61, 140 mycophages 65 meliantriol 238 mimicry 48, 64, 103, 117 Mymaridae 151, 235 melittophily 55 Mimosa invisa 104, 230, 236 Mynes 146 Melobasis spp. 117 Mindanao 186 Myoglossata 138 Meloidae 64, 119-20 mining tailings 73 myophily 55 Melolonthinae 116 Miridae 108 Myopsocidae 101 118, 120 Miroidea 108 Myopsocus sp. 101 Index 305

Myriapoda 87 nervous system 21 Ogyris sp. 134 Myristica spp. 198 nest-blocking 62 oil palm plantations 5, 145 Myrmecia spp. 153, 154 neuropeptides 22 Old Testament 100 myrmecochory 56 Neuroptera 30, 58-9, 110, 111, 129, Olethreutinae 139 Myrmecodia spp. 50 151, 234, 236 Olethrius 120 Myrmecodinae 49 neurotoxins 129 olfaction 24 myrmecophily 55 neurotransmitter 21 Omadius 118, 120 myrmecophytes 48-50, 56, 153 New Britain 6, 174, 175 ommatidium 23-4 Myrmeleontidae 111 New Caledonia 198 Oncomeris spp. 107, 109 Myrmicinae 153 New World screw worm 227 Oncomeris flavicornis 109 Myrtaceae 165-7, 171, 185 Nezara viridula 107, 109 Onitis spp. 67 Mythimna 144 niches 72 ontogeny 27 Myxophaga 114 Nicoletiidae 93, 95 Ontophagus spp. 67 Myzolecanium kibarae 48, 49 Nicotiana tabacum 236 oocytes 25 Nagia episcopalis 40, 141 nicotine 237 ootheca 26, 95, 97, 162 naiads 28, 93 Niditinea 138 open feeding 193 naked mole rat 41 Nitidulidae 117, 118, 120 operculum 38, 100 naphthalene 217 nits 102 ophistosoma 82 Nasutitermes spp. 43, 44, 96 Nivaquine â 127 Ophiusa spp. 144, pl. 7 N, P N. novarumhebridarium (Holmgren) Noctuidae 23, 40, 61-2, 134-6, 141, Opiliones 84, 86, 234 96, 166, 169-72, 174, 177-82 144, 164, 167, 170-1, 173, 177, Opilionida, see Opiliones N. olidus 198 193, 198, 232 Opodiphtera spp. 134 natality 71 142 Opodiphtera eucalypti 140 natatorial legs 17 Nomadacris guttulosa 41, 99 Orcopagia 119 National Agriculture Quarantine and Nomolt 240 Oreta sp. 141 Inspection Authority 225 Nomuraea 231 Orfelia sp. 131 National Animals 4, 137 non-target organisms 230, 240-2 organochlorines 239, 241, 243, 246 Naturalis-L 231 noradrenaline 64 organophosphates 21, 124, 240, 243, Necrophorus spp. 67 Nosema spp. 231 245 necrosis 183 Notodontidae 134, 136, 141-2 Oribius spp. 121, 171, 184 nectar 16, 45, 54, 135, 154, 194 Notoligotoma sp. 101 O. cruciatus Faust 170, 175 Neda 119 Notoligotomidae 101 O. destructor Marshall 121, 171-2, 175 Neem, see Azadirachta indica 106 oriental fruit moth 227 NeemAzal T/S 237 Notonemouridae 94 Ornithoptera spp. 3, 5-6, 8, 26, 32, negative taxis 36 nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV) 63-4, 80, 137, 145-6 Nemapogon 138 194, 196, 231 O. alexandrae 3, 5-6, 8, 73, 136-7, Nematocera 125, 128 nursery 223 145, pl. 9 A, H nematodes 184, 220, 230, 232, 236 Nyctalemon toxopensi 140-1, pl. 5 K O. chimaera 5, 136, 145, pl. 9 B, I 111 Nyctemera 143 O. goliath 3, 136, 145, pl. 9 C, J Neocarphurus 118 Nymphalidae 61, 63, 111, 133, 143 O. meridionalis 5, 6, 136, 145, pl. 9 Neochetina spp. 121, 228 146 D, K Neochryopus savagei 230 146 O. paradisea 3, 5, 136, 145, pl. 9 E, L Neogregarines 232 nymphs 28 O. priamus 3, 5, 8, 80, 136, 145 Neogresitta 117 Nymphs, see Nymphalidae O. priamus poseidon 80, pl. 9 F, M Neola spp. 141-2 obligatory diapause 33 O. priamus urvillanus pl. 9 N Neola semiaurata 143 occlusion 223 O. victoriae 136, 145, pl. 9 G, O Neolamprima 115 ocelli 23-4 Oro Conservation Project 145 Neopseustina 138 Ochroma pyramidale 170 Oro Province 5, 8, 67, 73, 145 Neoptera 89, 92 106 Orthene 186, 241 Neostauropus sp. pl. 6 N Octaspidiotus 198 Orthodera ministralis 97 neotenics 42, 96 Odonata 18, 21, 23, 25, 28, 58, 79, Orthoptera 13, 16-8, 24, 28, 32, 36- Neotermes spp. 198 94, 111, 129, 151, 203-4, 234, 8, 58, 61, 82, 98-100, 130, 152, Neotheca 119 236 167, 174, 182, 212, 215, 217, Neotylenchidae 232 Oecetis sp., 132 230, 232, 236, 237 Nepenthes 57 Oechalia 107, 109 Orthorhinus patruelis (Fabricius) Nephila maculata 83, 84 Oecophoridae 63, 66, 138 170, 176, 190 106 Oecophylla smaragdina 47, 63, 154, Orthorrhapha 128 106 194 Oryctes centaurus 116 nerve cell 21, 240 Oeonistis 143 Oryctes rhiconeros 116, 230 nerve cords 21 Oestridae 125, 130 Oscinidae 130 306 Index osmeterium 64, 135, 145 paradichlorobenzene 217 Persian Lilac, see Melia 30, 111 Paradise Birdwing, see Ornithoptera persistence 127, 239, 241 Osorius 115 paradisea pesticide hazard classes 243 Osphryon 120 Paradromulia spp. 140 pesticide legislation 245 ostia 20 P. nigrocellata 170, 173, 176, 196, pesticide accumulation in food chain, Ostrinia furnacalis 139, 151, 230, pl. 4 J see biomagnification 235 Paranda 120 pesticides, safe use 244 Othreis spp. 144, pl. 2 B, 8 D Parandrinae 120 pestilence 59 Othreis fullonia 198 Paranticia spp. 136, 146 Peterson-Lincoln-Index 203 Otiorhynchinae 121 Paranthica weiskei pl. 11 F petiole 147 outbreak 75-6, 189-91, 193-4, 197, Pararistolochia spp. 26, 63, 145 Phaeostigma sp. 111 204, 224, 231 P. alexandriana 136 phalaenophily 55 ovaries 25 P. kepara 136 Phalaneoides sp. 134 oviduct 25 P. meridionaliana meridionaliana 136 Phaneroptera 99 oviparity 25, 85 P. meridionaliana milnensis 136 pharaoh ants 153 oviposition 25, 161 P. meridionaliana popondettensis 136 pharate adult 31 oviposition damage 161 P. paradisiana 136 pharynx 19 ovipositor 18, 25 P. schlechteri 136 phase polymorphism 31, 40, 99 ovoviviparity 26, 85, 95 Parasaissetia sp. 105 Phasma gigas 100 ovulation 25 Parasinocyma spp. 140 Phasmatidae 62, 100 owl moths 144 parasites 3, 58-60, 71, 119, 123, 125, Phasmatodea 32, 60-2, 100, 215 Oxyambulyx spp. 142 148, 151-2, 227, 232, 234 Phasmodes spp. 99 O. dohertyi 141 parasitism 47, 52, 56-60 Phediole spp. 153-4, 234, 235 Oxystethus 116 parasitoids 58-60, 151, 232, 234-5 Phellinus 178 Oxystigma sp. 170 Paratella errudita Melichar 171, 174 pheromone glands 22 Oxytelus 115 Parathion 240 pheromone traps 209, 210-1, 227 Pachliopta, see Atrophaneura parental care 26, 41, 82, 103 pheromones 24, 32, 39, 41-2, 204, Pachylister chinensis 230 Parmelia spp. pl. 1B 206, 210-1, 227, 241 Pachypelmopus 115 Paropsis spp. 167, 184 Pheropsophus verticalis 113-5 Pacific wood roach 95 Paropsis albae 171, 175 Philiris 147 paedogenesis 27 Paropsis andersonae 171, 175 Philonthus 115 painted weevils, see Eupholus Paropsisterna sp. 113 Philopteridae 102 79 Parotis spp. 139 phloem boring 161 palaeontology 78, 79 parthenogenesis 26-7, 45, 95, 100, Phoracantha sp. 117 Palaeoptera 18, 89, 92 104, 148 phosphoesterases 64 palm beetles 121 Parthenos spp. 146 phospholipases 64 Palpigradi 84 Parthenos sylvia pl. 10 T Photinus 117 Paludrine â 127 Passalidae 115, 117 photoautotrophs 52 Panacra 142 Passandrinae 118 photosynthesis 52 Pandanus spp. 136 136 Phthiraptera 3, 8, 15, 18, 59, 102-3, Pantorythes spp. 121, 154, 230, 234 pathogens 65, 71, 227, 230-32 130 Pantorhytes lichenifer pl. 1B pawpaw 129 Phthiridae 102 paper wasps 152 Pectinophora gossypiella 227 Phthirus pubis 102 Papileptura 120 Pediculidae 103 Phylacteophaga sp. 160 Papilio spp. 134, 145-6 Pediculus capitus 102 Phyllidae 100 P. aegeus 60, 136, 146, pl. 1E, 8 M, Pediculus humanus 102-3 Phyllium spp. 100, pl. 1D N Pedipalpi 84, 87 Phyllocoptruta oleivora 86 P. ambrax 136, 146 pedipalps 82, 86-7 imperialis 144, 312, pl. P. euchenor 136, 146, pl. 8 L Pelopides schraderi 115 1F, 8 B P. fuscus 136 pentachlorophenole 246 Phyllophaga sp. 29 P. laglaizei 64, 135, 140, 146, pl. 2 107, 109, 171, 174, Phyllophorinae 98 E, F 183 phylogeny 78 P. ulyssis 136, 146 109 physical colours 11, 241 P. ulyssis telemachus pl. 8 J, K Pentatomorpha 108 physical defence 53 P. woodfordi 29, 146, pl. 8 O Perga 149 physical methods 226 Papilionidae 29, 31, 61, 63-4, 80, Pergagrapta 149 physical poisons 239 134-6, 145-6 Pergidae 63, 149, 160 Phytalmia sp. 129 Papilionoidea 133, 145 Pericapritermes spp. 96, 172, 174, phytochemicals 53 Papuana spp. 116 179 phytophages 52-3, 116, 136 Paracupata 117 americanus 95, 96 Phytoseiidae 86, 233-4 Index 307

Phytoseiulus spp. 86 Platymerus laevicollis 230 predators 3, 58, 71, 85, 110-1, 114- Phytoseiulus persimilis 233 Platypodidae 121-2, 162-3, 170, 5, 119, 125, 128, 135, 140, 148, picric acid 210 172, 176, 186-91, 198, 224 152-4, 194, 196, 221, 227, 232, pie-dish beetles 119 Platypus spp. 122, 170, 172, 176, 234 piercing-sucking mouthparts 11-2, 186-91, 198 pregnancy testing 229 15, 32, 123, 159, 161, 182 Platypus externedentatus 198 prehensile legs 17 134, 136, 146, 171, 173, Platypus gerstaeckeri 198 prepupa 109 177, 193, 238 Platypus jansoni 188 preservatives 210-1, 216-7 Pieris rapae 146 Platystomatidae 32, 129, 131 presociality 40 pigment cells 24 Plecoptera 74, 94-5 pressure impregnation 188 pigmentary colours 11 Plectotarsus sp. 132 pretarsus 17 pillbugs 87 plical vein 18 prey 3, 58, 71, 147 Pinaceae 165, 170 plumed moths 139 primaquine 127 pine woolly , see Pineus Plutella xylostella 151 Priochirus 115 Pineus laevis 183 Podocarpus spp. 240 Prioninae 120 Pineus pini (Macquart) 104, 165, Prior Informed Consent (PIC)- Podocarpus vitiensis 198 Convention 246 170, 172, 174, 183, 234 Poecilips 122, 186 Pristhesancus sp. 107 Pingasa spp. 140 poikilothermia 24, 32, 73 proboscis 15-6, 103, 192 Pingasa cinera pl. 4 Q pointing of specimens 214 producers 52 pin-hole borers, see Scolytidae, poison glands 83 prognosis models 252 Platypododae poisonous foodplants 53, 63-4, 135- pin-holes 161-2, 186-191 Progoneata 87 6 proguanil 127 pink bollworm 138, 227 Poisson distribution 71 prolegs 134 Pinnaspis 198 polarised light 24, 46 Prominents, see Notodontidae pinning of insect specimens 214 pollen 45, 54-5, 110, 147, 154 pronotum 16 Pinus spp. 75, 122, 136, 140, 142-3, pollen basket 154 165, 170, 174, 176-7, 183, 190, proportionality method 203 pollination 3, 53-5, 114 193-8, 231, 234 Propoxur 189, 240 pollinators 125, 135, 137, 149 P. caribaea 104-5, 165, 170, 174 propupa 109 P. patula 144, 165, 170, 175, 177, Polycesta 117 Prosopocoelus spp. 115 194, 196, 220, 234 polyculture 220-1, pl. 11 J Prosopocoelus cinctus pl. 3 G P. radiata 149, 150, 232 polyembryony 27 protected species 5 P. strobus 196 polymorphism 31, 96 protective colour patterns 61 pipe 162-3, 178, 181, 222 polypeptide enzymes 64 prothoracic glands 22 Piper betle 154 114 Prothoracicotropic Hormone 28 pipercide 237 Polyphagidae 95 prothorax 16 piperine 237 polypod larvae 30 Protista 65, 220 pitcher plants 56, 58 Polyrhachis spp. 154 protonymph 85 pitfall traps 204, 210 Polyura jupiter 136, 146 protoplasm 225 plague 124 Pometia pinnata 198 Protozoa 43, 125, 127, 232 plague locust 4, 40-1, 99-100, 209, population 68-76 Protura 66, 88 237 population biology 52, 68 pruning 179, 181, 223-4 Planchonella samoensis 198 population density 68, 73, 203-4 Psednura 99 Planococcus citri 233 population dynamics 68 Pselaphidae 115 plant breeding 225 population ecology 52, 68-76 Pseudabispa spp. 64 plant bugs 108 population size 68, 202 Pseudochlus 121 plant genetic resources 225-6 population system 68 Pseudococcidae 104-5, 111, 169, plant growth analysis 205 populations, stability 74-5 171, 182-3, 233, 235 plant hopper, see Fulgoroidea Port Moresby 175, 229, 237-8 pseudo-copulation 54 plant lice, see Aphididae positive taxis 36 Pseudomyrmex spp 56 plant resistance 53, 224-6 Potemnemus spp. 120, 170, 172, Pseudoperga 149 plant-derived insecticides 236-40 175, 191 Pseudoscorpions 84, 87 planting 223 potter wasps 152 spp. 134, 142 Plasmodium spp. 126-7, 220 powder post beetles 118, 162, 167, 61 Plateros 118 175, 190-1, 198 Psittacidae 234 Platisus sp. 117 Poxviridae 232 psocids, see Psocoptera Platolenes 119 prawns 87 Psocoptera 65, 101, 217 Platydema 119 praying mantids, see Mantodea Psoroptidae 85-6 Platygasteridae 150, 235 precipitation 73 Psychidae 138, 166, 170-1, 176, Platygasteroidea 150, 235 predation 58 193, 196-7 308 Index

Psychodidae 128, 131 receptaculum seminis 25 roundworms 232 Psychodomorpha 128 receptors 12 rove beetles, see Staphylinidae psychophily 55 red bugs 108 royal jelly 45 111 red cedar 139, 167-8 49, 136 Psyllidae 104-5, 162, 166, 171, 172, red coffee borer 176, 193 rust mites 86 174, 182-3, 230, 236 Red List of Threatened Animals 5 136 psyllids, see Psyllidae red scale 152, 233 Ruteline 116 104 red spider mite 85 sago beetles 4, 121 Pternistria spp. 109, 183 red wax scale 165, 174, 183 Sagra spp. 121 Pternistria levipes Horvath 170, 174 Reduviidae 37, 58, 103, 107-8, 180, Sagrinae 121 Pternistria macromera Guerin 170, 230, 236 salivary glands 22 174 Reduvioidea 108 saltatorial legs 17, 121 Pterocarpus spp. 136 reflex 36 Salvinia molesta 53-4, 121, 227-8, Pterolophis sp. 191 reflex bleeding 119 230 Pteroma plagiophleps Hampson refractory period 25 Salvinia weevil, see Cyrtobagous 170, 176, 196 relative assessment methods 204, Salviniaceae 53 Pterophanes 117 206-7, 210 sample counts 202 Pterophoridae 139 relaxing of specimens 216 sampling of insect populations 202-3 Pterophoroidea 139 release phase 75 sand flies 3, 124-5, 128 Pteroptyx 117 release techniques 232 pterostigma 94 repellents 225, 226, 236 sand wasps 154 Pterygota 16, 18, 89, 92 reproduction 25 Santalacaea 136 pubic louse 102 reproductive potential 3, 75 Sapromycidae 129 Pulex irritans 124 reshuffling of genes 25 saprophages 67 pulvillus 124 residues of insecticides 241-3, 247, 252 sapwood 188, 191 punkies 124 resistance 127, 226, 236, 239, 242, Sarcomastigophora 232 puparium 30 252 Sarcophagidae 125, 130-1 Pycnogonida 82 resource, sustainable use 6 Sarcoptes scabiei 85 Pygidicranidae 98 respiration 19, 20 Sarcoptidae 85 Pyralidae 136-7, 139, 141, 151, 167, restricted species 5 Sarcorohdendorfia sp. 131 170, 173, 176, 193, 198, 235 Retroviridae 231 satellite images 205, pl. 11 K Pyraloidea 139 rhinoceros beetles 33, 37-8, 116, Saturniidae 31, 134, 140, 170-1, pyrethrin 236-7, 240 168, 230 173, 177, 196-7 pyrethroids 240 Rhinotermes 96 Satyrinae 146 pyrethrum 236, 238, 240 Rhinotermitidae 96, 163, 170, 172, saw flies 147-8, 149-50, 161, 234 Pyrethrum, see Tanacetum 174, 179, 198 scabies 85 99 Rhinotia spp. 64 scabies mites 3, 85 Pyrgotidae 129 Rhodogastria crokeri 63, 142-3, pl. scale insects, see Coccidae pyrimethamine 127 2 J, 6 J scales of Lepidoptera 18, 62, 111, Pyrrocoridae 108 Rhyncophorinae 120-1 133, 135 quarantine 8, 186, 224-5, 229 Rhyncophorus spp. 4, 121 Scapanes australis 33, 116 quasisociality 40 Rhyncophthirina 102 Scarabaeidae 29-31, 33, 54, 66-7, quassin 237 Rhyparida coriacea Jacoby 171, 113, 116, 168, 170, 172, 175, 230 Queen Alexandra Birdwing, see 175, 184 Scarabaeiformia 115-6 Ornithoptera alexandrae Rhyzobius 119 scarabs, see Scarabaeidae queen pheromone 42 rice 130, 144, 235 scare tactics 61, 97, 135 Queensland 8, 120, 122, 140, 183, rice moth 235 scavengers 3, 52, 67, 114, 119, 148 228 Ricinulei 84 Scelionidae 150, 235 quick traps 207 right mechanism 116 Sceliphron spp. 64 quiescence 33 Riodininae 147 Scelotrichus 115 quinine 127 robber flies, see Asilidae scent glands 22, 95, 103, 113 quinones 63 roosting aggregation 40 scent traces 153 radiography 206 root worms 120 Schedorhinotermes spp. 96, 172, radius 18 rootmaggot flies 130 174, 179 rainbow lorikeets 196, 234 rose chafers, see Cetoniinae Schistocerca gregaria 41, 100 Ranatra spp. 106 spp. 120 Schizophora 129 Raphidia sp. 111 rostrum 121, 192 Scolia rufucornus 230 Raphidioptera 58, 110-1 rotary net 203, 209-10 Scoliidae 230 raptorial legs 17 rotenoids 236 Scolopendra 87 rearing of insects 212 round dance 46 Scolypopa sp. 105 Index 309

Scolytidae 30, 121-2, 162-3, 170, silica 225 Sphecidae 64, 154, 234 172, 176, 186-91, 198, 224 Siliquofera grandis 3, 98-9 Sphecomyrma freyi 79 scolytids , see Scolytidae silk 137, 142 sphecophily 55 Scolytus 122 silk galleries 101 Sphenomorpha 121 Scopelodes venosa Walker 171 silk glands 147 Sphingidae 21, 30, 6-2, 134-5, 141- Scopodes 114 silk moth 4, 62, 142 2, 207, 229 scorpion flies 123 silk worm 137 Sphingnotus spp. 99, 120 Scorpiones, Scorpionida, scorpions Silphidae 67, 115 Sphingnotus insignis pl. 3 T 63, 84, 86, 123 Silvanotelus 117 Sphingoidea 142 scrub typhus 85 silverfish 28, 93 Sphinx, see Sphingidae Scutelleridae 26-7, 107, 109, pl. 3 D Simbu Province 220 spider mites, see Tetranychidae scutellum 103, 109 Simuliidae 14, 125, 128, 131 spider web 62, 83, 135 Scutiphora sp. 107 Simulium sp. 14, 131 spider-like animals, see Arachnida scutum 86 Sinentomidae 66 spiders, see Araneae Scymnus 119 sinister faces 61, 135, 142 Spilosoma spp. 143 secondary consumers 52 gigas 198 Spilosoma curvata pl. 6 M secondary plant compounds 53, 62- Siphonaptera 3, 15, 18, 23, 30, 59, spinneret 83, 134, 147 4, 227, 237 61, 123-4 spiny ant eaters, see echidna sector 18 Siphonellopsidae 130 spiracles 18-9, 20-1, 230-1 seed boring 160 siphoning-tube type mouthparts 16 Spirama revolvens 144, pl. 7 M seed bugs 108 Sipyloidea spp. 100 spitfires 149 seed dispersal 55 Sirex noctilio 149, 150, 232 spittle bugs 105-6, 162 Selasius unicolor 230 Siricidae 148-50 Spodoptera 144 selectivity of insecticides 239, 241 Siricoidea 149 Spondyliaspis spp. 104-5 Selencosmis crassipes 84 Sisyphus spinipes 67 sponge flies 111 self-pollination 54 111 sponging mouthparts 32 semen 25 site preparation 222 Spongiphoridae 98 semiochemicals 39, 241 skeletonizing 159-60 spores 231-2 semisociality 40 skippers, see Hesperiidae springtails, see Collembola sense organs 23 sleeping sickness 125 sprinkling of logs 224, 227 sensilla 12, 23 snake bean 241 squash bugs, see Coreidae Sepik River 53, 121, 227-8 snake flies, see Raphidioptera stabilisers 230, 248 serotonine 64 snap beetles, see Elateridae Serrodes spp. 144, pl. 7 I social insects, sociality 40-1, 148-9, stable flies 125, 130 Serrognathus 115 152, 154 stag beetles, see Lucanidae Sertorius sp. 105 social stomach 49 stalk-eyed flies, see Platystomatidae Sesiidae 139 sodium cyanide 212 Staphylinidae 58, 66-7, 113, 115, Sesioidea 139 soft scales, see Coccidae 118, 234 setae 23 soft-bodied ticks 86 114 sex attractants 39, 59 soil applicators 249, 251 Stegobium spp. 117-8 sex pheromones 136, 206, 210, 241 soldier beetles, see Cantharidae Steinernematidae 232 sexual dimorphism 31-3, 122, 143, soldier fly, see Stratiomyiidae stem borers 125, 129 145-6, 195 Solenopsis spp. 153 stem sawflies 149 sexual reproduction 25 Solifugae 84 stem weevil 230 shaking and beating 204, 210 solitary 40-1, 99, 152, 154 Stenocotis sp. 105 sheep scab mite 86 8, 198, 246 Stenoperla sp. 95 shellac 4, 104 sonograms 37 Stenopsychodes sp. 132 shelter feeding 160 souring beetles, see Nitidulidae Stenorrhyncha 103-6 shelter tubes 178 154 Stenosialis sp. 110 shepherd ants 48 South Pacific 7, 8, 198 Stephantis sp. 107 shield bugs, see Pentatomoidea sowbugs, see Isopoda sterile male technique 227 shifting cultivation 5 Spathidicerus 122 sternites 18 shoot boring 162 spatial distribution 70-1 Stettin Bay Company 221 short term toxicity 243 species diversity, see biodiversity Stichostigma 115 shot-hole borers 121, 162-3, 186-90 species extinction 5, 8 stick insects, see Phasmatodea shot-holes 161-2, 186-90 species richness, see biodiversity sticky trap 204, 209-10, 227 shrimps 87 species, geographic distribution 2, stigma 147 shrivelled cones 160 7-8 Stigmaeidae 86, 234 Sialidae 31 sperm 25 Stigmatium 118 side effects of insecticides 227 spermatheca 25 Stigmodera 117 310 Index sting, stinger 63, 86, 147-9, 152-3, Syzygium spp. 118, 185, 198, 224 Terminalia spp. 168, 175, 184-5, 212 Tabanidae 14, 32, 94, 125, 128-9 221, 224 stinging hairs 135 Tabanoidea 131 T. brassii 117, 169, 171, 175-6, 184- stink bug 63, 108-9 Tabarus 119 6, 193 stink glands 22, 63, 103, 135, 145 tachina flies, see Tachinidae T. catappa 198 stippling damage 159 Tachinidae 125, 130, 229, 235 termitarium 43-4, 162, 177-9 Stobbe’s gland 136 Tachyglossus aculeatus 153, 234 termite king 42-3, 96 stomach poisons 239-40 tactile communication 39 termite life cycle 42 stomatogastric nervous system 21 Taenaris spp. 136, 146 termite nests, see termitarium stomodeal nervous system 21 Taenaris catops pl. 10 Z2 termite queen 25, 42-3, 96, 182 stoneflies, see Plecoptera Taenaris onolaus pl. 11 A termite reproductives 41-3, 96 storage of insect specimens 216 tagmata 10, 89 termite soldiers 38, 41-3, 96, 177-9 strata, stratification 203 talis, see Terminalia termite workers 41-3, 45, 96, 177-9 Stratiomyiidae 66 Tanacetum cinerariaefolium 236, 240 termites, see Isoptera Strepsiptera 30, 32, 59, 122-23 tandem position 94 Termitidae 96, 166, 169-72, 174, stridulation 37 tannins 53, 88 178-9, 198 stridulatory file 37, 98 tapeworms 124, 153 Termopsidae 96 Striglina floccosa Guenée 171, 176 tarantulas 83 terpenes 63 Strongylium 119-20 taro beetle, see Papuana terpenoids 53 stylet 15, 92 tarsal formula 17, 113-14 Terramycin â 127 stylops, see Strepsiptera tarsal pads 113 territorial behaviour 36, 61, 72 subcosta 18 tarsomeres 17, 112 109 subimago 93 tarsus 17, 23, 24 testes 25 subsocial aggregations 40-1 Tascuna sp. 132 tests 162, 183 subsociality 40-1, 154 Tethionea 120 Tasimia sp. 132 subterranean nest 44 tetracycline 127 taste, see olfaction sucking lice 102 taxa, taxon 80 Tetranychidae 85-6, 233-4 suction traps 203, 207, 210 taxis 36 Tetranychus cinnabarinus 85-6 sugar lerp, see Spondyliapsis taxonomic categories 80 Tetranychus urticae 233 sun dew 58 taxonomy 79-80 Tetrigus 116 superparasitism 58 , see Tettigonia sp. 37 Supershield 240 Tettigoniidae 23, 37, 98-9, pl. 3 A surfactants 248 teak moth, see Hyblaea Teuchothrips sp. 109 swallowtails, see Papilionidae Technomyrmex spp. 153 thantosis 62 swamp talis, see Terminalia Tectocoris diophthalmus 27 Therates labiatus 114-5 sweeping net 204, 206, 209 Tectomeris spp. 107, 109 Theretra sp. 21, 142 Tectona spp. 105, 109, 139, 168, sweet moth, see Hippotion Theretra melops pl. 6 D 175, 193 celerio thermoreception 24 T. grandis 139, 168, 170, 174-6, Swietenia macrophylla 198 thermoregulation 24 182-3, 186, 193, 198 swift moths, see Hepialidae thinning 179, 181, 188, 223-4 syconium 55, 150 Tefflus planifrons 230 thiols 53 Sylepta sabinusalis 198 Teflubenzuron 240 Thopa sp. 37 symbionts 52, 65 tegmen 18, 37, 95, 97-8 thoracic glands 142 symbiosis 52, 57 Teleogryllus spp. 37, 99 thorax 10, 16 Symphyta 30, 147-9, 234 Telicota sp. 143 thousand-legged worms 88 Sympiezoscelus sp. 121, 170, 175, Tellervinae 146 threadworms 232 190 Temik 246 threshold 205, 248, 252-3 synchronous flight muscles 25 temperature 73 thrips, see Thysanoptera synecology 52 tending 179, 223 Thuricide HP 231 Synia 119 Tenebrio molitur 119 171, 176 synomones 39, 60, 150 Tenebrionidae 66, 117, 119-20 Thyroglyphidae 86 Syntherata sp. 140, 170-1, 173, 177, Tenerus 118 Thysanoptera 65, 109, 151 196-7, pl. 5 M-O Tenthredinidae 148, 149 Thysanura 13, 93 Syntherata janetta White 171, 173, Tenthredinoidea 149 tibia 17 pl. 5 N Tephritidae 125, 129, 131 ticks 23, 59, 82-6, 130 Syrphidae 29, 64, 125, 129, 131 Tepp 240 tiger beetles 114 system injector 252 terebrant 149 tiger moths, see Arctiidae systematics 80 terga 18 Tigridoptera sp. pl. 5 H systemic insecticides 186, 239-40 tergites 18 Tillus 118 Systropus spp. 64 termen 18 Tineidae 138 Index 311

Tineoidea 138 Trogium pulsatorium 101 vinegar fly, see Drosophila Tineola 136, 138 Troides spp. 64, 137, 145 virulence 231-2 108 T. oblongomaculatus 5, 135-6, 145, virus 125, 192, 196, 230-1 Tingoidea 108 pl. 2 I, 9 Q-S vision 23 Tipulidae 66, 125, 131 Trombiculidae 85 visual communication 38 Tipulomorpha 125 trophic levels 52 visual mimicry 38 Tiracola priscus 230 tropical rain forest 5, 7, 8, 236 visual searches 204, 206 Tirumala 146 true bugs, see Hemiptera Vitellus 109 Tirumala hamata pl. 11 C true flies, see Diptera viviparity 26, 85, 95 Tmesidera spp. 64 true legs 17 waggle dance 45-6, 154 Tmesisternus 120 trypanosomiasis 125 waist 147, 149, 152 tobacco 142, 236, 238 Tsetse flies 125 walking sticks, see Phasmatodea tolerance 225 tularemia 124 wallaby flies 130 tomato 142, 241 Tullgren funnel 207 warning coloration, see aposematic Tonga 8, 246 tussock moths, see Lymantriidae coloration Toona spp. 137, 139, 170 twospotted mite, see Tetranychus Wasab 182 T. australis 167-8, 170, 175-6, 198 tymbal cover 38 wasps, see Hymenoptera 14, 26, 32, T. sureni 176 tympanal organ 23, 98, 139 38, 41, 55, 59-60, 63-4, 72, 129, tornus 18 tympanum 23, 99 148-52, 159, 194, 196-97, 214, Torticoidea 139 Typhlodromus 86 232-5 Tortricidae 139 typhus 102 water fern, see Salvinia Torymidae 152, 171, 173, 177, 184, Tyroglyphus farinae 86 water hyacinth 121, 227-28 197 Uliocnemis spp. 140 water measurers 106 total counts 202-3 Uliocnemis partita pl. 4 N water scavengers 114 toxicity 127, 239, 243 ultra low volume applicators water scorpions 106 trace indicators 39 (ULVA) 189, 248-9, 251 water storage of logs 227 tracheal system 18, 20-1, 23, 27 ultra sound 23, 60, 62, 135, 142 water-boatmen 106 Tracheata 87 ultraviolet light (UV) 24, 207, 230, wattle, see Acacia tracheoles 20 232, 241, 244, 248 Wau 45, 174, 175, 176, 189, 194, transgenic plants 225 Umbelliferae 114 221, 238 transport of specimens 216 Unaspis citri 233 Wau Ecology Institute (WEI) 5 trap crops, trap tree 226-7 under-bark borers, see Agrilus wax 45, 62, 149, 225 trapping methods 206-11, 227 underwings 61, 144 wax scales 104 tree hoppers, see Membracidae Upolu Island 198 Webbia pabo 186 Tribulus cistoides 230 64, 135, 140-1 web-spinners, see Embioptera Trichaulax spp. 116 Uranoidea 140 weed control 236 Trichaulax rayneri pl. 3 I Uropygi 84, 87 weeds 53 Tricho cards 235 136 weevils, see Curculionidae Trichodectes cani 102 Usnea spp. pl. 1B West New Britain Province 221 Trichodectidae 102 Utethesia 143 Western Samoa 8, 198, 246 Trichoglossus haematodus 234 UV, see ultraviolet light wettable powders 248 Trichogramma spp. 149, 151-2, 230, vacuum trap 204, 207 wetters 248 235 vagina 25 whiptail scorpions 84, 87 T. plasseyensis 235 Vairimorpha necatrix 232 whistling moth 144 Trichogrammatidae 60, 149, 151-2, Valanga irregularis (Walker) 99, white ants, see Isoptera 235 171, 174, 182 white flies 62, 104-5, 111, 152, 169, trichoid sensilla 23 Vanapa oberthuri (Pouillaude) 121, 182, 233, 235 Trichophthalma spp. 131 164, 170, 172, 175, 190, 191-2 white louse scales 233 Trichoptera 61, 132 8, 246 white muscardine 231 Tricondyla aptera 114 Venus fly trap 56-8 whites and yellows, see Pieridae Trigonopus 121 Verania 119 wild host 186, 226 Trigonotarsus spp. 113 Verbenaceae 139, 168, 170 wild silk moths, see Saturniidae Trigonotarsus rugosus 120, 121 Vertalec 231 wild types 225 Trilaccus sp. 107 vertebrates 79, 234 window feeding 159-60, 193 Trilobita 81 Verticillium lecanii 231 window pane traps 204, 209-10 Tris(2,3Dibromoprophy)phosphate Vespidae 30, 31, 64, 152, 234 wing coupling, see frenulum 246 Vespoidea 152 wing venation 18 triterpenoids 237-8 Vespula germanica 152 wings 16, 18, 78-9, 89 tritonnymph 85 vibrating membrane 38 wire worms, see Elateridae trochanter 17 Vindula spp. 136, 146 withholding period 236, 241, 245 312 Index wood borers, see Platypodidae, Xyleborus torquatus 198 yellow jackets, see Vespidae Scolytidae 119-22, 161-2, 186- Xylobanomorphus spp. 118 yield loss assessment 205 92, 206, 224, 227, 239-40 Xylobanus spp. 118 Yoma spp. 146 wood moths, see Cossidae Xylocopa spp. 154 Yoma algina pl. 8 F wood wasps 65 Xylocopa aruana 173, 177, 197 Zaglossus bruijni 153, 234 woolly bears 140, 143 Xylopsocus gibbicollis Macleay 171, Zeugloptera 138 World Health Organisation 243 191 Zeuzera coffeae Nietner 139, 171, wound healing 20 Xyloryctinae 138 176, 193 Xanthorhoe spp. 140 Xylosandrus abruptoides 198 Zonitis lutea 120 Xenopsylla cheopis 124 Xylothrips religiosus Boisduval 118, Zoraptera 102-3 Xestobium rufovillum 118 167, 172, 175, 191 Zorotypus sp. 103 Xiphotheata sp. 171 Xylotrechus 120 Zygaenidae 139, 229 Xixuthrus 120 Xylotrupes gideon (Linnaeus) 33, 37, Zygaenoidea 139 Xyleborus spp. 122, 170, 172, 176, 116, 168, 170, 172, 175 Zygopinae 121 186-89, 198 yar, see Casuarina Zygoptera 94 Xyleborus destruens 188 yeast 122 Xyleborus perforans 198 yellow fever 125

The moth in the centre is the Giant Fruit-Sucking Moth Phyllodes imperialis (Noctuidae), the bigger light coloured moths are rare ghost moths (Hepialidae) (reproduced from Monteith, G., 1991) Units figure prefix unit figure prefix unit 10 101 deca- d 1:10 10-1 deci- d 100 102 hecto- h 1:100 10-2 centi- c 1,000 103 kilo- k 1:1,000 10-3 milli- m 1,000,000 106 mega- M 1:1,000,000 10-6 micro- m 1,000,000,000 109 giga- G 1:1,000,000,000 10-9 nano- n 1,000,000,000,000 1012 tera- T 1:1,000,000,000,000 10-12 pico- p

SI-Measures Metric Linear Measures: Metric Area Measures: 1 cm = 10 mm = 1,000 mm 1 cm2 = 100 mm2 = 106 mm2 1 m = 100 cm = 1,000 mm 1 m2 = 10,000 cm2 = 106 mm2 1 km = 1,000 m = 10,000 cm 1 hectare (ha.) = 100 m x 100 m = 10,000 m2 1 km2 = 100 ha. = 106 m2

Metric Cubic and Fluid Measures: Metric Weight Measures: 1 cm3 = 1 ml = 1,000 mm3 = 1,000 ml 1 gram (g) = 1,000 mg = 106 mg 1 litre (l) = 1,000 cm3 = 1,000 ml 1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 g = 106 mg 1 m3 = 1,000 l = 106 cm3 1 ton (t) = 1,000 kg = 106 g

Conversion of Imperial Measures Imperial Linear Measures: Imperial Area Measures: 1 inch (in.) = 2.54 cm 1 square inch (sq. in.) = 6.45 cm2 1 foot (ft.) = 12 inches = 30.48 cm 1 square foot (sq. ft.) = 929.03 cm2 1 yard (yd.) = 3 feet = 91.44 cm 1 square yard (sq. yd.) = 0.836 m2 1 land mile (mi.) = 1609.34 m 1 acre (a.) = 4046.4 m2 = 0.40 ha. 1 nautical mile (n. m.) = 1852 m 1 square mile (sq. mi.) = 640 acres = 2.59 km2

Imperial Cubic and Fluid Measures: Imperial Weight Measures: 1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 33.3 ml 1 weight ounce (oz.) = 28.57 g 1 pint (pt.) = 0.568 l 1 pound (lb.) = 545.45 g 1 quart (qt.) = 2 pt. = 1,136 l 1 gallon (gal. Imp.) = 4 qt. = 8 pt. = 4.546 l 1 gallon (gal. U.S.) = 3.846 l

Temperature Measures: · to convert °C (Celsius) to °F (Fahrenheit), multiply by 1.8 and add 32 · to convert °F to °C, subtract 32 and divide by 1.8 About this Book:

“... my impression is ‘excellent’. You put a lot of effort into this and it shows. Very, very few lecturers in the last 20 years have produced anything this good, in forestry or other life science subjects, particularly the degree to which you have incorporated PNG topics and issues. The thoroughness of your approach should be a model for others in PNG. It’s hard for me to convey how impressed I was with your product. It is really exceptional!” Dr. Larry Orsak, Director, Christensen Research Institute, Madang

“... the book on entomology will prove to be excellent source material for forestry students in both the degree and diploma streams ...” Dr. Bryant Richards, Teamleader Forestry Human Resource Development Project, Lae

“There are definitely not only students of forestry interested in the book. I can see a potential use for the students of biology as well as agriculture, for courses run by DPI and FPDC officers, for inservice in the DAL and Forest Authority, ... . A book like this is urgently required in PNG.” Dr. Adrian Schuhbeck, Senior Entomologist, LAES, Kerevat

Features of this Book:

þ the first Entomology book produced for PNG þ addresses students as well as professionals of science, agriculture and forestry þ most examples taken from PNG’s insect fauna þ more than 60 pages on insect orders þ includes eleven colour plates þ more than 220 figures illustrating the text þ further reading suggestions for each chapter þ includes about 350 references available at the libraries of University of Papua New Guinea, University of Technology, Forest Research Institute and Bulolo University College þ more than 1,200 terms explained in the glossary þ cross-references and index included for the convenience of the reader þ comprehensive list of forest insect pests of PNG þ includes appropriate, low-ecological impact control measures for forest pests

ISBN 9980-85-259-3